 of proletarians necessary to this system. Today, however, such methods are no longer necessary. The economic power of the system has become sufficient to accomplish the desired result without breaking the law of private property. In fact, it is by the operation of this law that every year a sufficient number of farmers and independent craftsmen are given the choice between starvation and work in the factories.

That the number of the proletariat is steadily on the increase is such a palpable fact that no one attempts to deny it, not even those who would make us believe that society today rests on the same basis as it did a hundred years ago, and who try to paint the picture of the small producer in rosy colors. Indeed a change has taken place in the make-up of society, just as it has in the system of production. The capitalist form of production has overthrown all others, and become the dominant one in the field of industry; similarly wage-labor is today the dominant form
of labor. A hundred years ago the farming peasantry took the first place; later, the small city industrialists; today it is the wage-earner.

In all civilized countries the proletarians are today the largest class; it is their condition and modes of thought that tend to control those of all the other divisions of labor. This implies a complete revolution in the condition and thought of the bulk of the population. The conditions of the proletariat differ radically from those of all former categories of labor. The small farmer, the artisan, the small producers generally, were the owners of the product of their labor by reason of their ownership of the means of production. The product of the labor of the proletarian does not belong to him, it belongs to the capitalist, to the owner of the requisite instruments of production. True enough, the proletarian is paid by the capitalist, but the value of his wages is far below that of his product.

When the capitalist in industry purchases the only commodity which the proletarian can offer for sale, that is, his labor-power, he does so for the sole purpose of utilizing it in a profitable way. The more the working-man produces, the larger the value of his product. If the capitalist were to work his employes only long enough to produce the worth of the wages he pays them, he would clear no profits. But his capital cries for profits and finds in him a willing listener. The longer the time is extended during which the workmen labor in the service of the capitalists, over and above the time needed to cover their wages, the larger is the value of their product, the
larger is the surplus over and above the capitalist outlay in wages, and the larger is the per cent of exploitation to which these workmen are subject-ed. This exploitation of labor finds a limit only in the powers of endurance of the working people and in the resistance they may be able to offer to their exploiters.

In capitalist production, the capitalist and the wage-earner are not fellow-workers, as were the employer and employed in previous industrial epochs. The capitalist soon develops into, and re-mains, essentially a merchant. His activity, in so far as he is at all active, limits itself, like that of the merchant, to the operations of the market. His labors consist in purchasing as cheaply as possible the raw material, labor power and other essentials, and selling the finished products as dearly as possible. Upon the field of produc-tion itself he does nothing except to secure the largest quantity of labor from the workmen for the least possible amount of wages, and thereby to squeeze out of them the largest possible quantity of surplus values. In his relation to his employes he is not a fellow-worker, he is only a driver and exploiter. The longer they work, the better off he is; he is not tired out if the hours of labor are unduly extended; he does not perish if the meth-od of production becomes a murderous one. The capitalist is vastly more reckless of the life and safety of his operatives than the master-workman of former times. Extension of the hours of la-bor, abolition of holidays, introduction of night labor, damp and overheated factories filled with poisonous gases, such are the "improvements"
which the capitalist mode of production has introduced for the benefit of the working-class.

The introduction of machinery increases still further the danger to life and limb for the working-man. The machine system fetters him to a monster that moves perpetually with a gigantic power and with insane speed. Only the closest, never-flagging attention can protect the working-man attached to such a machine from being seized and broken by it. Protective devices cost money; the capitalist does not introduce them unless he is forced to do it. Economy being the much vaunted virtue of the capitalist, he is constrained by it to save room and to squeeze as much machinery as possible into the workshop. What cares he that the limbs of his working-men are thereby endangered? Working-men are cheap, but large, airy workshops are dear.

There is still another respect in which the capitalist employment of machinery lowers the condition of the working-class. It is this: the tool of the mechanic of former times was cheap and it was subject to few changes that would render it useless. It is otherwise with the machine; in the first place, it costs money, much money; in the second place, if through improvements in the system it becomes useless, or if it is not used to its full capacity, it will bring loss instead of profit to the capitalist. Again, the machine is worn out, not only through use, but through idleness. Furthermore, the introduction of science into production constantly causes new discoveries and inventions to take the place of the old ones. So, because they cannot compete with the improved
machinery, now this machine, now that, and whole factories at once, are rendered useless before they have been used to their full extent. Therefore, every machine is in danger of being made useless before it is used up; this is sufficient ground for the capitalist to utilize his machine as quickly as possible from the moment he puts it in operation. In other words, the capitalist application of the system of machinery is a spur that drives the capitalist to extend the hours of labor as much as possible, to carry on production without interruption, to introduce the system of night and day shifts, and, accordingly, to make of the unwholesome night work a permanent system.

At the time the system of machinery began to develop, some idealists declared the golden age was at hand; the machine was to release the working-man and render him free. In the hands of the capitalist, however, the machine has made the burden of labor unbearable.

But in the matter of wages, also, the condition of the wage-earner is worse than that of the medieval apprentice. The proletarian, the workman of today, does not eat at the table of the capitalist; he does not live in the same house. However wretched his home may be, however miserable his food, nay, even though he famish, the well-being of the capitalist is not disturbed by the sickening sight. The words wages and starvation used to be mutually exclusive; the free working-man formerly could starve only when he had no work. Whoever worked earned wages, he had enough to eat, starvation was not his lot.
For the capitalist system was reserved the unenviable distinction of reconciling these two opposites—wages and starvation—raising starvation-wages into a permanent institution, even into a prop of the present social system.

2. Wages.

Wages can never rise so high as to make it impossible for the capitalist to carry on his business and to live from the profits of it; under such circumstances it would be more profitable for the capitalist to give up his business. Consequently, the wages of the working-man can never rise high enough to equal the value of his product. They must always be below that, so as to leave a surplus; it is only the prospect of a surplus that moves the capitalist to purchase labor power. It is therefore evident that under the capitalist system the wages of the workmen can never rise high enough to put an end to the exploitation of labor.

The surplus which the capitalist class appropriates is larger than is usually imagined. It covers not only the profits of the manufacturer, but many other items that are usually credited to the cost of production and exchange. It covers, for instance, rent, interest on loans, salaries, merchant’s profits, taxes, etc. All these have to be subtracted from the surplus, that is, the excess of the value of the product over the wages of the working-man. It is evident that this surplus must be a considerable one if a concern is to “pay.” It is clear that the wages of the working-man cannot rise high enough to be even approximately
equal to the value of his profit. The capitalist system means under all circumstances the exploitation of the wage-workers. It is impossible to abolish this exploitation without abolishing the system itself. And the exploitation must be great even where wages are high.

But wages rarely reach the highest point which even these circumstances would permit; more often they are found to be nearer to the lowest possible point. This point is reached when the wages do not supply the workman with even the barest necessities. When the workman not only starves, but starves rapidly, all work is at an end.

The wages swing between these two extremes. The less the necessities of the workman, the larger the supply of labor on the market, and the slighter the capacity of the working-man for resistance, the lower wages sink.

In general, wages must be high enough to keep the working-man in a condition to work, or, to speak more accurately, they must be high enough to secure to the capitalist the measure of labor-power which he needs. In other words, wages must be high enough, not only to keep the working-men in a condition to work, but also in a condition to produce children to replace them


 the rich more than the poor; for they are all the work of his hands,' Job xxxiv. 19.

6. Christ is a very merciful King. Mercy is the prevailing attribute of his nature, which he delights to make the children of men feel the benign effects of. Therefore he has proclaimed himself to be 'the Lord, the Lord God merciful and gracious.' He does not
willingly grieve nor afflict the children of men. He takes no pleasure in the blood of his most implacable and inveterate foes; and bears with a very tender hand upon his afflicted, broken, and discouraged people. For the bruised reed he will not break, nor quench the smoking flax. He heals the broken in heart, and binds up all their wounds. In all the afflictions of his people he is afflicted; and he that touches them, touches the apple of his eye.

7. Christ is a very meek and patient King. Never any in the world could have borne such indignities, or digested such affronts, as he has met with from such of his own subjects, to whom he has shown the most distinguishing kindness. Had he not been thus patient, Judah and Ephraim had soon been unpeopled. 'As for them, they were bent to backsliding: though they called them to the Most High, none at all would exalt him,' Hos. xi. 7. Though he sent many prophets unto them, calling upon them, and saying, 'Return, ye backsliding children,' &c. yet they did not regard them. Who after this could imagine, that this just and jealous King would have entertained one thought of kindness towards them? yet hear what he says, 'How shall I give thee up, Ephraim? how shall I deliver thee, Israel? how shall I make thee as Admah? how shall I set thee as Zeboim? mine heart is turned within me, my repentings are kindled together;' ver. 8.

8. Christ is a very beautiful King. His glory outshines the sun in its full strength. The united constellations of all created beauty fall infinitely short of his; for he is fairer than the children of men, yea, he is altogether lovely.

9. Christ is a most humble and condescending King: for he does not disdain to be acquainted with the meanest among the sons of men; the beggar will be as welcome to him as the prince. The poor and the rich are all one to him; and he takes as much notice of Job on the dunghill, as of David on the throne. Hear what the prophet, in the name of this great King, says, Isa. lxvi. 1, 2. 'Thus saith the Lord, the heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool: where is the house that ye build unto me? and where is the place of my rest? for all those things hath mine hand made, and all those things have been, saith the Lord: but to this man will I look, even to him that is poor and of a contrite spirit, and trembleth at my word.'

10. Christ is a very rich and opulent King. The earth is the Lord's, and the fulness thereof. He is the heir of all things. Honour and riches are with him, yea, durable riches and righteousness. So that those who are his honest and faithful subjects shall never want any thing that is good for them. Such are the immense trea-
sures and infinite riches of this glorious King, that all the ministers on earth, and all the angels in heaven, cannot possibly lay them open. For can they grasp the heavens in their arms, and the sun in the hollow of their hands? can they weigh the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance? Suppose they could do all this, and a thousand times more, yet could they not give an account of the estate of this my King. So that his subjects shall never want either grace or glory.

11. He is an immortal and everlasting King. 'The heavens and the earth shall perish, but he shall endure; yea, all of them shall wax old like a garment; as a vesture shall they be changed. But he is the same, and his years shall have no end,' Psal. cii. 26, 27. Though the best, the wisest, and the richest kings upon earth will die, and leave their subjects exposed to many inconveniences consequent on their death, yet this King of glory lives for evermore, and will rule over his subjects with justice, mercy, and righteousness, through all the ages of eternity.

It remains to make some improvement of this subject.

1. The kings of the earth have no ground to grudge the kingdom of Christ its freedom in their dominions; seeing it is a spiritual kingdom, and quite of another nature than the kingdoms of this world; and interferes not with any of the just rights and prerogatives of earthly crowns. Yet how sad is it that this kingdom should be an eye-sore to the kings of the earth, and that they should employ their power to suppress and bear it down?

2. The Pope's supremacy, and the supremacy of the magistrate over all persons, and in all causes, whereby they have been made heads of the church, is daring blasphemy against Christ, a bold usurpation of his crown and dignity, and high rebellion against him, who will not suffer the jewels to be stollen from his crown, to deck the head of any earthly power whatever, without the severest testimony of his resentment.

3. There is a government of the church distinct from and independent upon the civil government, lodged in the hands of church-officers, whereby they have a power, in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, to meet in judicatories, transact matters there according to the word and laws of this King, to dissolve their meetings in his name, to appoint fasts and thanksgivings, as the state of the church may require, to inflict censures on offenders, bind and loose, and to do every thing necessary for advancing this kingdom in a spiritual way, but no otherwise. And whoever presumes to hinder them in these acts of administration, or arrogate any of them to themselves, are in so far enemies to Christ and his royal prerogatives.
4. This government of the church is not alterable by any power on earth, whether civil or ecclesiastic; nor have they that are entrusted with it any power to give up the rights and privileges conferred on them by Christ to any person or persons whatsoever. If they do so, they are unfaithful to their trust, and their conduct will be highly resented another day.

5. None have power to appoint any parts of worship in the Church that Christ has not appointed. For he is the sole Lawgiver of the church, and has in his word appointed the platform of the worship which he requires of his subjects. And therefore for any to appoint ceremonies and rights of worship which bear not the stamp of his institution, act in opposition to his laws; and all their rites are useless and unprofitable. Equally culpable are those who presume to make any terms of communion, or of admission to the ordinances of the church, but such as Christ has left behind him. This is high rebellion against the King of Zion.

6. The truth of the kingdom of Christ is a solid ground of suffering, on which people may comfortably lose whatever is dear to them in the world, knowing they are in the way of their duty. And this was the ground of the sufferings of the Lord's people in the persecuting reigns before the Revolution, whose memory ought to be always regarded, for their zealous and firm adherence to the prerogatives of Christ's kingdom.

7. The church shall ride out all the storms that can blow upon her, whether from earth or hell. All plots and contrivances against her shall be defeated in the end; for her King liveth, and will never suffer the gates of hell to prevail against her. The crown shall flourish on his head, when the church's enemies shall be ruined, and their kingdoms laid by for ever.

8. However weak any poor believer be amongst many enemies, yet the broken ship shall surely come to land. The spark of grace shall be preserved amidst an ocean of difficulties and corruptions, within or without. The seed of grace sown in the heart shall be maintained, and spring up in the fruits of holiness. All Christ's honest subjects shall be kept by the power of God through faith unto salvation.

9. Whoever they be that refuse subjection to the ordinances and discipline of Christ's house, do in so far reject Christ from ruling over them. Consider this, ye that neglect a regular attendance upon the ordinances of divine institution, and will not submit to discipline and censure for your scandalous, and offensive behaviour. Ye are the enemies of Zion's King, and your conduct plainly declares, that ye will not have this man to reign over you. Repent of this your rebellion, otherwise ye shall be slain as his enemies.
10. See, believers, ye that are striving against sin and Satan, and
waging war with your lusts and all Christ's enemies, to whom you
are to have recourse for help in all your difficulties; even to your
Almighty King, who is infinitely able to help you in all straits.
Make use of him daily as your King, applying and trusting to him
for life, strength, defence, and victory over all your enemies.

11. Lastly, Ye that are strangers to Christ, captives to Satan,
and under a miserable thraldom to your own lusts, will ye be per-
suaded to come under


 مِنْ الْقُرْآنِ.
3. قال: فقد أملكتكِ بِبِأَمَامَكَ مِنْ الْقُرْآنِ.
4. قال: فقد أملكتكِ بِبِأَمَامَكَ مِنْ الْقُرْآنِ.
5. قال: فقد كنتُكَهَا بِمَا مَعَكَ مِنْ الْقُرْآنِ.

The above five narrations are related to the same event and are narrated from the same Sahabi whose name is Hazrat Sahl bin Sa'd. So the fact comes to the fore that although there is a literal difference between them, there is no spiritual difference. For example, زَوَّجْتُكَهَا and نْكَحْتُكَهَا are synonymous, similarly, there is no difference between بما معك and على ما معك, the purpose of both phrases is the same. In the same way, أملكتكِ and ملْكَتْكَهَا are synonymous.

There is no semantic difference among the above five traditions.

Although there is no difference in the subject matter of the narrations due to the meaning of the narration, scholars and researchers have tried their best in this hadith to point out the words exactly stated by the Holy Prophet (saw). Along with the rules of critique of Hadith, the narrators and scholars were also endowed by Allah Almighty with the special capability and ability of recognition of Hadith by which they could know the words that came from the tongue of the Holy Prophet. In this regard, Ibn Daqiq al-Eid says:

(These are the same words about an incident, but even though the source of the hadith is the same, they differ. One of the above words is the statement of the Holy Prophet (PBUH). The

---

29 Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma'il, Al-Jami 'al-Sahih, Kitab al-Nikah, Bab al-Tazwij ala al-Quran wa bighair sadaq, Dar al-Shaab, Cairo, 1st ed. 1987, No. 5149
30 Bukhari, Al-Jami 'al-Sahih, Kitab Al-Nikah, Bab iza kaana Al-Wali huwal Khatib, No. 5133
32 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Al-Musnud: 334/5, No. 22832
33 Bukhari, Al-Jami 'al-Sahih, Kitab Al-Libas, Bab Khatam Al-Hadid, No. 5871
34 Ibn Hajar Asqalani, Fateh al-Bari: 176/9
correct thing in such narrations is to take the path of priority after reflection. It is narrated from Imam Dar Qutni that the narrator who has narrated the words of زوجتكها is correct, the narrators who narrate these words are more in number and also have a better memory.)

Allama Alaai Describes:

It is known that the Holy Prophet (PBUH) did not utter all these words at that time, so now the only thing left is that he uttered one of these words and the rest of the interpretations are sense-reportings. My heart is inclined towards the preference of this narration which has the word of التزويج because it is the narration of most of the narrators and the words of this Companion زوجتكها يارسول الله also have its context.)

In the same way, Hafiz Ibn-e-Hajr writes:

(From the above discussion, it got clear that the number of narrators who have narrated the words of التزويج is more than the number of narrators who have narrated other words. In particular, they have guards like Imam Malik. The narration of Sufyan ibn Uyena is similar to his narration and so is the narration of Zaydah.)

5.3 Third case: The narration of Labied ibn Rabi’ah:

Labid ibn Rabia ibn Amir Amiri was one of the great poets of the pre-Islamic era. When he became a Muslim, he gave up poetry and settled in Kufa. He died at the age of 150 in the Ottoman Caliphate.

35 do
36 do
37 Ibn Hajar, Al-Asabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahabah, Dar Al-Jail Beirut, 1st ed. 1412 AH: 675/5
38 Muslim ibn Hajjaj, Al-Jami’ al-Sahih, Kitab al-Sha’r, Chapter, No. 2256
39 Bukhari, Muhammad ibn Isma’il, Al-Jami’ al-Sahih, Kitab al-Manaqib, Bab Ayam al-Jahiliyyah, No. 3553
The above differences in the words of traditions, in the tradition of "لا كُل صَدَقُ بَيْتٍ قَالَهُ إلشاعِرُ أ، مَا خَلاَ إلِه" in the second tradition "لا كُل صَدَقُ بَيْتٍ قَالَتْهُ إلشُعَرَإءُ أ، مَا خَلاَ إلِه" in the third tradition "لا كُل صَدَقُ بَيْتٍ قَالَهُ إلشاعِرُ أ، مَا خَلاَ إلِه" in the fourth one are the words of all these narrations have been narrated from the same Companion, Hazrat Abu Hurayrah. Now, it is unreasonable to say about all these narrations that the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) uttered all these words and none of his companions heard them except Abu Hurayrah, but the fact is that in these narrations, the narrators have used synonyms while sense-reporting, which has led to differences in the words of the text.

All the above narrations are of the type of sense-reporting. The narrators of the hadith narrated them using synonyms which caused some differences in the appearance of the words. However, they have preserved the meaning of these narrations to such an extent. That despite the difference of words, there is no difference of meaning or deficiency in any of the traditions.

5.4 Fourth case; The Companions narrate the story of the Holy Prophet in their own words:

This form of sense-reporting is found in those narrations which are related to physical, verbal, or moral conditions. In these cases, it is not possible for the words of all the Companions to be the same, because how the Companions saw them interpreted them in his own words, so there are differences of words in these traditions. There are hundreds of such examples in the books of hadith, here are a few examples.

Examples of Practical Narrations:

1. عن عائشة رضِي إلله عنها قَالَتْ كَانَ رَسُولِ إللهِ أ، نَكْسِرُ حَرَّ هذِه بِبَرْدِ هذَا بِبَرْدِ هذَا بِبَرْدِ، فَيَقُولُ يَأ ُهذَا وَبَرْدَ هذَا بِحَرَّ هذَا.

2. عن أبي بِكَرَ قَالَ، رَأى رَسُولُ إللهِ أ، يَأ بَيْنَ إلِطِبِ وَإِلْخِرْبِزِ.

3. عن عائشة أ ن إلنبي أ، كان يأ كل إلبطيخ بالرطب.

These all three narrations are related to the action of the Holy Prophet, they have been narrated by three different Companions and the words of each of these narrations are different.
from the other, the interpretation of each Companion is different from the other, and the addition of words in some. However, the main theme of all of them is the same and that is to eat watermelon mixed with moist dates.

**Examples of Verbal Traditions:**

The following Hadiths are given as examples in the oral traditions;

1. عن أبي هريرة قال: "بيتُنا الجاهليَّةُ يَتَعَبَّونَ إِلَى الْحَبَشَةِ.» فَقَالَ كَبْرُاءُ ىَتَعَبَّوْنَ إِلَى الْحَبَشَةِ يَتَعَبَّوْنَ إِلَى الْحَبَشَةِ.»

2. عن عائشة رضي الله عنها قال: "يا عُمَّارُ، أَيْ هُوَ إِلَى إِلْحَبَشَةِ يَلْعَبُونَ


and Catechists are to be licensed. The criteria for these functions are spelled out in the canons (Title III, Canon 4, Sec. 3, 5 & 8). Clergy, or senior wardens of vacant parishes, should request licensing for these three functions with a letter to the bishop. The letter should clearly state that the canonical criteria have been met and the person is adequately trained.

Part B: REQUEST AND CERTIFICATION

I ______________________________ , hereby request that the persons listed in Part C of this form be licensed and appointed by the Bishop, to officiate in the lay ministry indicated, under my supervision, at:

________________________________________________________________________
Church Name and Mailing Address

As required by the Canons of the Episcopal Church, USA, Title III.4, I hereby certify that the person(s) listed below are:

(1) a confirmed adult communicant(s) in good standing;
(2) regular in participating in the worship of the church and receiving Holy Communion; and
(3) are active in the support of their mission or parish.

Furthermore, I certify that they have received and will continue to receive appropriate training, continuing education, and oversight.

____________________________________  _________________________________
Clergy/Senior Warden of Vacant Parish (Signature)  Date
### Part C: LICENSING AND APPOINTMENT

(Please Type Or Print)

Please mark (XX) appropriate column(s) for each applicant.

Applicant’s name
Worship Leader (WL)
Eucharistic Minister At Celebrations of Holy Eucharist (EM)
Eucharistic Visitor Take consecrated Sacrament to shut-ins (EV)

I hereby LICENSE AND APPOINT the above-named person(s) to officiate for those duties as marked above for a period of three years from this date.

____________________________________                 _____________________
Bishop of  Southern Virginia  Date

Mail to: Bishop’s Office (Licensing), Diocese of Southern Virginia, 11827 Canon Blvd., Suite 101, Newport News, VA 23606
Audits

The Canons require that all congregations must provide the Diocese a copy of their annual audit report or a letter from an independent accountant summarizing the audit report. **This audit report or the accountant’s letter is to be mailed to the Diocese not later than September 1 of each year.**

In addition to the annual audit requirement, a congregation is required to have their books audited whenever a rector leaves a parish. Recognizing that a number of our congregations are small and therefore, an independent audit would be too expensive, the diocesan Treasurer will accept a letter from the congregation’s Finance Committee, stating that the vestry-appointed Finance Committee has conducted an audit of the books and records and are satisfied with the results. Alternatively, the Diocese may be able to recommend someone to conduct an audit for the congregation. If the congregation employs an accountant to conduct the audit, the vestry should employ the accountant. Specifically, the treasurer or comptroller should not select or employ the accountant.

The Manual of Business Methods in Church Affairs is published by the national church and is available on-line. It covers Financial Management, Internal Controls, Bookkeeping, Taxes, Clergy Discretionary Funds, Audit Guidelines for congregations, insurance, and other important topics. The annual audit of the parish should be conducted using the guidance and checklists provided in Chapter VI of The Manual of Business Methods in Church Affairs. An audit conducted in accordance with this chapter will fulfill all the requirements of the Diocese.
Staff Position Descriptions & Guidelines

A position description is a statement of the duties and responsibilities assigned to a single individual or a group of individuals performing essentially identical duties. When used as part of a pay system, it is the basis for determining pay grade or salary range. (An employee's length of service in a position, level or qualifications are also used to determine an actual salary.) The duties assigned a position also are the determinants of the qualifications required for a position and thus of the type of person sought for a position.

It is in both the employee's and the supervisor's interest to have accurate position descriptions. The employee's because it determines his or her pay. An inaccurate position may result in inadequate or unfair pay. The supervisor's because it describes what may be fairly expected of an employee, and because it provides the basis for setting performance objectives to be used in performance evaluation.

The first place you should go with questions is your immediate supervisor. It is essential that you and your supervisor agree on the duties and level of responsibility described.

Section A - Title
A word or two that identifies the position, e.g., Parish Administrator, Secretary to the Rector, Receptionist, Comptroller.

Section B - Basic Purpose of the Position
A sentence or two that explains the title, locates the position in the organization and tells why it exists but does not describe the duties.

Section C - Specific Duties
A concise paragraph describing each major duty. A major duty is an assignment that is regularly performed, occupies a significant amount of time (10%) and requires a skill or skills needed for successful performance of the duties of the position. Please include the approximate percentage of time each duty occupies. Duties that occupy less than 10% of the time should be grouped into a single major duty that does occupy 10% of the time. For instance, a position may involve the preparation of several quarterly or monthly reports, each taking a day or a major part thereof. While no one of them is more than 1 or 2%, if they were grouped in a single duty they may well aggregate more than 10%.

Staff Position Descriptions Guidelines

Duties that are not performed regularly (once a year is regularly if it takes 10% of the time and represents a skill needed) should not be included, nor should duties that are not representative of the skills needed for the job.

Section D - Nature and Scope of Decisions and Recommendations
A brief description of the different decisions and recommendations made by you in doing the job and the impact of those decisions and recommendations on the activities of the parish. Of particular importance is the finality of decisions and the respect given recommendations.
Section E - Nature and Importance of Personal Contacts
A brief description of the who and why of the personal contacts you experience in performing the major duties of the position, i.e. giving or getting information, solving problems, setting up meetings.

Section F - Supervision Received
To whom do you report? How are instructions and assignments given? How often? How is work reviewed? By whom? How often?

Section G - Supervision Exercised
What positions do you supervise? How are instructions and assignments given? What is the authority to accept or reject the work of supervised employees? What is the authority to approve leave, reward or punish for work performed (or not performed) or change assignments?

Section H - Duration of Unsupervised Performance
How long do you normally work on a project or on continuing operations without requiring a review session with your supervisor? This may vary from major duty to major duty. Be specific if this is so. The result may be expressed in hours, days or months.

Section I - Skills Required
List: manual skills needed (e.g., typing, word-processing); educational and professional requirements (e.g., writing reports and articles for publication, ability to meet and greet visitors); and, things unique to the position. Do not list skills that you have that are not being used and that the major duties do not require, e.g., don't list shorthand skills if dictation is not taken.
Staff Evaluations

A PROPOSAL FOR REVIEWING WORK AND JOB DESCRIPTION PARISH STAFF

STAFF PERSON’S NAME & DATE

POSITION/TITLE

SUPERVISOR/REVIEWER

NOTE: It is intended that this mutual review of ministry be a dialogue. It is based on the assumption that some form of accountability goes with responsibility and the assumption that mutually working out our functions and assignments increases our commitment and satisfaction. We hope it will serve to open up communications between a given staff person and his/her supervisor, be a means to improve both our work product and working conditions, and be a means for a more cohesive, happy and effective staff family.

I. Each with a copy of the latest job description in hand, the staff person responds to the following:
   1. What’s going well for you?
   2. What parts of your job give you the most satisfaction?
   3. What special accomplishment do you feel you have made over the past year?
   4. Which of your expectations do you feel have been unrealistic?
   5. What factors do you feel have been barriers to your effectiveness?
   6. What parts/aspects of your work are disappointing? . . . confusing? . . . demeaning


 to missionary activity by fostering the commitment of the particular churches - especially those of recent origin - to send forth and receive missionaries; and to assure non-Christians and particularly the authorities of countries to which missionary activity is being directed that all of this has but one purpose: to serve man by revealing to him the love of God made manifest in Jesus Christ.

3. **Peoples everywhere, open the doors to Christ!** His Gospel in no way detracts from man's freedom, from the respect that is owed to every culture and to whatever is good in each religion. By accepting Christ, you open yourselves to the definitive Word of God, to the One in whom God has made himself fully known and has shown us the path to himself.

The number of those who do not know Christ and do not belong to the Church is constantly on the increase. Indeed, since the end of the Council it has almost doubled. When we consider this immense portion of humanity which is loved by the Father and for whom he sent his Son, the urgency of the Church's mission is obvious.

On the other hand, our own times offer the Church new opportunities in this field: we have witnessed the collapse of oppressive ideologies and political systems; the opening of frontiers and the formation of a more united world due to an increase in communications; the affirmation among peoples of the gospel values which Jesus made incarnate in his own life (peace, justice, brotherhood, concern for the needy); and a kind of soulless economic and technical development which only stimulates the search for the truth about God, about man and about the meaning of life itself.

God is opening before the Church the horizons of a humanity more fully prepared for the sowing of the Gospel. I sense that the moment has come to commit all of the Church's energies to a new evangelization and to the mission *ad gentes*. No believer in Christ, no institution of the Church can avoid this supreme duty: to proclaim Christ to all peoples.

**CHAPTER I - JESUS CHRIST, THE ONLY SAVIOR**

4. In my first encyclical, in which I set forth the program of my Pontificate, I said that "the Church's fundamental function in every age, and particularly in ours, is to direct man's gaze, to point the awareness and experience of the whole of humanity toward the mystery of Christ."

The Church's universal mission is born of faith in Jesus Christ, as is stated in our Trinitarian profession of faith: "I believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only Son of God, eternally begotten of the Father.... For us men and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man."

The redemption event brings salvation to all, "for each one is included in the mystery of the redemption and with each
one Christ has united himself forever through this mystery. It is only in faith that the Church's mission can be understood and only in faith that it finds its basis.

Nevertheless, also as a result of the changes which have taken place in modern times and the spread of new theological ideas, some people wonder: Is missionary work among non-Christians still relevant? Has it not been replaced by inter-religious dialogue? Is not human development an adequate goal of the Church's mission? Does not respect for conscience and for freedom exclude all efforts at conversion? Is it not possible to attain salvation in any religion? Why then should there be missionary activity?

"No one comes to the Father, but by me" (Jn 14:6)

5. If we go back to the beginnings of the Church, we find a clear affirmation that Christ is the one Savior of all, the only one able to reveal God and lead to God. In reply to the Jewish religious authorities who question the apostles about the healing of the lame man, Peter says: "By the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth whom you crucified, whom God raised from the dead, by him this man is standing before you well.... And there is salvation in no one else, for there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved" (Acts 4:10, 12). This statement, which was made to the Sanhedrin, has a universal value, since for all people-Jews and Gentiles alike - salvation can only come from Jesus Christ.

The universality of this salvation in Christ is asserted throughout the New Testament. St. Paul acknowledges the risen Christ as the Lord. He writes: "Although there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth - as indeed there are many 'gods' and many 'lords' - yet for us there is one God, the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist" (1 Cor 8:5-6). One God and one Lord are asserted by way of contrast to the multitude of "gods" and "lords" commonly accepted. Paul reacts against the polytheism of the religious environment of his time and emphasizes what is characteristic of the Christian faith: belief in one God and in one Lord sent by God.

In the Gospel of St. John, this salvific universality of Christ embraces all the aspects of his mission of grace, truth and revelation: the Word is "the true light that enlightens every man" (Jn 1:9). And again, "no one has ever seen God; the only Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, he has made him known" (Jn 1:18; cf. Mt 11:27). God's revelation becomes definitive and complete through his only-begotten Son: "In many and various ways God spoke of old to our fathers by the prophets; but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed the heir of all things, through whom he also created the world" (Heb 1:1-2; cf. Jn 14:6). In this definitive Word of his revelation, God has made himself known in the fullest possible way. He has revealed to mankind who he is. This definitive self-revelation of God is the fundamental reason why the Church is
missionary by her very nature. She cannot do other than proclaim the Gospel, that is, the fullness of the truth which God has enabled us to know about himself.

Christ is the one mediator between God and mankind: "For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, who gave himself as a ransom for all, the testimony to which was borne at the proper time. For this I was appointed a preacher and apostle (I am telling the truth, I am not lying), a teacher of the Gentiles in faith and truth" (1 Tm 2:5-7; cf. Heb 4:14-16). No one, therefore, can enter into communion with God except through Christ, by the working of the Holy Spirit. Christ's one, universal mediation, far from being an obstacle on the journey toward God, is the way established by God himself, a fact of which Christ is fully aware. Although participated forms of mediation of different kinds and degrees are not excluded, they acquire meaning and value only from Christ's own mediation, and they cannot be understood as parallel or complementary to his.

6. To introduce any sort of separation between the Word and Jesus Christ is contrary to the Christian faith. St. John clearly states that the Word, who "was in the beginning with God," is the very one who "became flesh" (Jn 1:2, 14). Jesus is the Incarnate Word—a single and indivisible person. One cannot separate Jesus from the Christ or speak of a "Jesus of history" who would differ from the "Christ of faith." The Church acknowledges and confesses Jesus as "the Christ, the Son of the living God" (Mt 16:16): Christ is none other than Jesus of Nazareth: he is the Word of God made man for the salvation of all. In Christ "the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily" (Col 2:9) and "from his fullness have we all received" (Jn 1:16). The "only Son, who is the bosom of the Father" (Jn 1:18) is "the beloved Son, in whom we have redemption.... For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his Cross" (Col 1:13-14, 19-20). It is precisely this uniqueness of Christ which gives him an absolute and universal significance, whereby, while belonging to history, he remains history's center and goal: "I am the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end" (Rv 22:13).

Thus, although it is legitimate and helpful to consider the various aspects of the mystery of Christ, we must never lose sight of its unity. In the process of discovering and appreciating the manifold gifts—especially the spiritual treasures—that God has bestowed on every people, we cannot separate those gifts from Jesus Christ, who is at the center of God's plan of salvation. Just as "by his incarnation the Son of God united himself in some sense with every human being," so too "we are obliged to hold that the Holy Spirit offers everyone the possibility of sharing in the Paschal Mystery in a manner known to God."§ God's plan is "to unite all things in Christ, things in heaven and things on earth" (Eph 1:10).

---

Faith


 a rota system on a Saturday night and patrol the streets and just talk to people. At the start of the night we hand out ‘spikeys’ which prevent drinks from being spiked. Later on we give out flip flops for ladies with very sore feet and space blankets for those who are cold. We rely on donations to enable us to buy supplies.

We are from a variety of churches around Kirkcaldy (and beyond) and yes, we do believe in God. We believe we are being guided by God to do this work. We do not have all of the answers but we try our best.

We have a support group who provide soup and sandwiches for us and a group who pray for us as we carry out this work. We are on the streets from 10pm until 3.30 or 4am. I hope this gives you a better idea about who we are, what we do and why!

And, if you meet us in the town centre please don’t be afraid to talk to us - we are human too!!

Liz Smith
Kirk Session and Congregational Board

Starting with this Newsletter, we intend to bring you brief reports of recent Board and Session meetings in order to keep you aware of the nature of discussions and decisions being made.

Kirk Session - December Meeting - The following items were discussed at this meeting:

- The Moderator requested that members split into Groups to discuss how the following three topics could be developed.
  - World Mission
  - Christian Education
  - Future use of Buildings

Feedback was presented at the end and collated for future consideration.

Pastoral Care – The Moderator provided an update on the last Pastoral Care meeting when it had been agreed the initial focus would be on organising lifts to church, visitations to the housebound and those with difficulty getting out of their homes. The Group are also looking to organise a Bereavement Service in February or March 2012 when bereaved families would be invited to attend a Service on a Sunday afternoon followed by Tea and Coffee.

Samaritans – The Session Clerk reported he had received a letter from the Samaritans thanking the Church for their support.

African Children’s Choir – Brian Booth reported the Choir was planning a Tour between mid September 2012 to January 2013 and he asked if Bennochy Church wished to hold a Concert on 21st September 2012. It was agreed that this would be investigated further.

Stained Glass Window – The Moderator reported that it was intended that the stained glass window be installed for the second anniversary of the Union and it was agreed that a Dedication Service would be held on 18th March 2012 in the afternoon.

Business Group - George Grant then went through the paper on Communication and explained that it was hoped to arrange an event for all Organisations e.g. a BBQ at the close of their Session so that they could meet members of the Kirk Session. The Kirk Session agreed to this and should be planned for August 2012. It was also agreed to produce a guidance sheet for Elders to complete when doing organisation visits.

The Group had also discussed a Family Friendly Church and also any other improvements that may be necessary to meet any new needs identified.

Board Meeting - January 2012 - The following reports were presented to the board meeting

The Business Committee reported the stained glass window was projected to be completed on time and within budget. They are in the process of looking at more ways of presenting Bennochy as a Family Friendly Church. Also, from presbytery a directive has been received to introduce a stewardship campaign regarding time, talents and money.

The Finance Team reported that the projected date for the stated AGM will be 25th March. The Church of Scotland are to run a home insurance scheme whereby a £20 donation will be made to the congregation of purchasers. The Bowling Club have donated £500 towards the cost of external lighting. Fife Council have approached the Church with the wish to use our halls for the forthcoming Council Elections.

The Fabric Committee reported that the work on the roof (at that time) was approximately 60% complete. Also recent storm damage repairs were in hand. An inspection of the lightning conductors will take place on completion of the roof repairs. Refurbishment of the vestry is ongoing. Outside notice boards are almost complete. The kitchen extractor fans repairs are in hand. Maintenance of the grounds is ongoing with removal of the Cherry trees being investigated. Church heating is also being investigated.

A new audio visual system is to be ordered and a budget has been set by the board for this equipment.
Fabric Report

Church & Halls

Following completion of the repair work to the coping stonework of the east and west gables of the Methven Hall etc. the final roof repairs to the Vestry, Office and Halls commenced but was unfortunately damaged by the gales at the beginning of January. Quotations for repair works have been obtained and we await the go-ahead from our insurance company for this work, but in the meantime all roofs have been made watertight.

Our lightning conductor system, which was also subjected to damage during the thefts of lead from the roofs, will be tested and repaired if necessary and this work is expected to commence on 5th March.

Also, on 5th March, the installation of our stained glass panels in the west window of our Sanctuary is expected to commence following strengthening and decoration work.

Installation of new external lighting to the Meldrum Road and Elgin Street elevations, together with the CCTV installation to the rear of our buildings are now complete. Due to problems associated with several trees in our grounds, we have had to take down the three trees in the bed on the corner of Meldrum Road and Elgin Street, but it is intended to retain this bed with ground cover and low growing plants, and the removal of the tree canopy will improve the natural light through our new stained glass window. Also, the two tall trees at our main entrance have been trimmed.

However, we still require more volunteers to adopt a small plot in our Church grounds and to litter pick on Saturdays. Names should be added to the list next to the plan of the grounds on the main Notice Board at the ramp entrance, or contact myself (202340) or Graham Harrower (201689). Unless we have more volunteers, this work will have to be carried out by contractors, with a consequent drain on our finances.

Internally, the recently fitted electric wall heater in the Prayer Room has not proved capable of heating this area adequately and a further heater from St. Andrews Church is due to be fitted shortly to improve this, although the new heaters in the Elgin Hall have proved to be very effective.

Alterations to the Vestry are now complete and the increased space has made this area much more user friendly.

Our office area is currently undergoing improvements, part of which is designed to improve communications with Elders, Session and Board members and these are now well advanced.

On a more historical note, during the Christmas Holidays our framed plan of the original St John’s Church hanging in the office area fell down damaging the frame. During repairs it was found that the plan had been inserted in the frame over the top of an illuminated Cradle Roll from St. Johns dating from 1927. A new frame has now been provided for the plan and both now hang from opposite walls in the office area.

New internal signage is currently in progress to define the designations of various parts of our Halls area viz. Methven Hall, St. Andrews Hall, Elgin Hall and Meldrum Room.

Manse

Only one item from the snagging list remains to be rectified and, on satisfactory completion, the final amount will be paid to the Main Contractor.

Finally, as can be seen from the above, a very considerable amount of work has been and is being done and everyone who has contributed in so many ways has my personal thanks.

Again, thank you all for your continuing support.

Roddy Sellars
Fabric Convener

- Seen in the ‘Sunday Post’ on 19.2.12  “Aspire to inspire before you expire”
What’s been happening
Chris was part of the team leading a Christian Focus Week at Auchmuty High School in Glenrothes for 1st year pupils. It was an exciting week and gave all in S1 the opportunity to look at the important issues of life and their own character.
The first X-Cel took place in December with 34 young people in attendance. This is an event for all church youth groups to meet together. It was a good night with positive views from the youth leaders and young people.
Chris leads a football training club at Fair Isle Primary School every Tuesday after school. This club helps children to work on their football skills and to improve their teamwork.

Coming Up
Chris will be a leader at a weekend away in February at Lendrick Muir for P5-S6 pupils. He will also be leading a Primary weekend away at Scoughall in May.
The event called "Strictly Come Praying" takes place on the 4th of March. This exciting prayer event is for young people aged P7-S6 and includes worship, Bible teaching, workshops, interactive prayer stations and dinner. A number of young people from the Kirkcaldy area will be attending this event.
Chris will be part of a team from SU presenting the “Journey through the Bible” tour in primary schools across Fife in March.
Chris will be co-leading the Fife SU primary event on the 17th of March. This activity time is for primary SU groups in Fife and will be held at Kirkcaldy Ice Arena.
KART will be holding a prayer supper on the 20th of March at Templehall Church. The focus of the evening will be to pray for the local


 ... He will not let me go.

For Christ my Sav-ior loves me so, He will not let me go.
Take the Name of Jesus With You.

Mrs. Lydia Baxter. COPYRIGHT, 1846, BY M. H. DOANE, NEW YORK. W. H. Doane.

1. Take the name of Jesus with you, Child of sorrow and of woe;
2. Take the name of Jesus ever As a shield from every snare;
3. O the precious name of Jesus! How it thrills our souls with joy,
4. At the name of Jesus bowing, Falling prostrate at His feet,

It will joy and comfort give you, Take it then, wher’er you go.
If temptations round you gather, Breathe that holy name in prayer.
When His loving arms receive us, And His songs our tongues employ!
King of kings in Heav’n we’ll crown Him, When our journey is complete.

Precious name, O how sweet! Precious name, O how sweet!
Precious name, O how sweet! Precious name, O how sweet!
Precious name, O how sweet! Precious name, O how sweet!
Precious name, O how sweet!

Hope of earth and joy of Heav’n; Precious name, O how sweet!
Hope of earth and joy of Heav’n. Amen.
1. Just when I need Him, Jesus is near, Just when I falter,
   just when I fear; Ready to help me, ready to cheer,
   Just when I need Him most.

2. Just when I need Him, Jesus is true, Never forsaking
   all the way thru; Giving for burdens pleasures anew,
   Just when I need Him most; Jesus is near to

3. Just when I need Him, Jesus is strong, Bearing my burdens
   all the day long; For all my sorrow giving a song,
   comfort and cheer; Just when I need Him most.

4. Just when I need Him, He is my all, Answering when up
   on Him I call; Tenderly watching lest I should fall,
   Amen.
1. I was lost in sin, but Jesus rescued me. He's a wonderful Savior to me;
2. He's a friend so true, so patient and so kind. He's a wonderful Savior to me;
3. He is always near to comfort and to cheer. He's a wonderful Savior to me;
4. Dearer grows the love of Jesus day by day. He's a wonderful Savior to me;

Savior to me; I was bound by fear, but Jesus set me free,
Savior to me; Everything I need in Him I always find,
Savior to me; (So wonderful) He forgives my sins, He dries my every tear,
Savior to me; Sweeter is His grace while pressing on my way,

Chorus:

He's a wonderful Savior to me; (So wonderful) For He's a wonderful Savior to me;

Savior to me, wonder-ful! He's a wonderful Savior to me;

I was lost in sin, but Jesus took me in. He's a wonderful Savior to me.
Are You Washed in the Blood?

H. A. H.

Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb?

1. Have you been to Jesus for the cleansing pow'r? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? Are you fully trusting in His grace this hour? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb?

2. Are you walking daily by the Saviour's side? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? Do you rest each moment in the Crucified? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb?

3. When the Bridegroom cometh will your robes be white? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb? Will your soul be ready for the mansions bright, And be washed in the blood of the Lamb?

4. Lay aside the garments that are stained with sin. And be washed in the blood of the Lamb; There's a fountain flowing for the soul unclean, O be washed in the blood of the Lamb. Are you washed in the blood, Are you washed in the blood, Are your garments spotless? Are they white as snow? Are you washed in the blood of the Lamb?
Satisfied With Jesus.

B. B. McK.

Slowly.

1. I am satisfied with Jesus, He has done so much for me,
2. He is with me in my trials, Best of friends of all is He;
3. I can hear the voice of Jesus Calling out so pleadingly,
4. When my work on earth is ended, And I cross the mystic sea,

He has suffered to redeem me, He has died to set me free,
I can always count on Jesus, Can He always count on me?
"Go and win the lost and straying," Is He satisfied with me?
Oh, that I could hear Him saying, "I am satisfied with thee."

Chorus.

I am satisfied, I am satisfied, I am satisfied with Jesus.
But the question comes to me, As I think of Calvary, Is my Master satisfied with me?
1. When I need some-one in time of grief, Some-one my cheer to be,
2. When I need some-one to guide my soul O-ver the storm-y sea,
3. When I need help to de-feat the foe, Some-one my shield to be,
4. When all my tri-als on earth are o'er, And the dark stream I see,

Jesus I choose, for He gives re-lief, He is the best for me.
Always to Jesus I give con-trol, He is the best for me.
Always to Jesus in faith I go, He is the best for me.
Jesus shall bear me to yonder shore, He is the best for me.

Chorus.

I choose Jesus when I need a friend;... What I need I know that He will send;... I have proved Him.
Yes, I choose my Savior always when I need a help-ful friend; What I need I know that surely He to me will free-ly send; I have proved Him o'er and o'er, and

good and true is He;... I choose Jesus, He is the best for me...
always good and true is He; Yes, I choose my Savior dear, He is the best of all for me.
Loyalty to Christ.

Dr. E. T. Cassel.

1. From o-ver hill and plain There comes the signal strain, 'Tis loy-al-ty, loy-al-ty,
2. O hear, ye brave, the sound That moves the earth around, 'Tis loy-al-ty, loy-al-ty,
3. Come, join our loy-al throng; We'll rout the giant wrong, 'Tis loy-al-ty, loy-al-ty,
4. The strength of youth we lay At Je-sus' feet to-day, 'Tis loy-al-ty, loy-al-ty,

loy-al-ty to Christ; Its mus-ic rolls a-long, The hills take up the song,
loy-al-ty to Christ; A-rise to dare and do, Ring out the watch-word true,
loy-al-ty to Christ; Where Satan's banners float We'll send the be-gle note,
loy-al-ty to Christ; His gos-pel we'll pro-claim Thro'-out the world's domain,

Of loy-al-ty, loy-al-ty, Yes, loy-al-ty to Christ. "On to vic-to-ry! On to

vic-to-ry?" Cries our great Com-mander; "On!" We'll move at His com-mand,
great Com-mander; "On!"

We'll soon possess the land, Thro' loyalty, loyalty, Yes, loy-al-ty to Christ. A-men.
I Am Thine, O Lord.

Fanny J. Crosby.

1. I am Thine, O Lord, I have heard Thy voice, And it told Thy
love to me; But I long to rise in the arms of faith, And be

2. Con-se-crate me now to Thy serv-ice, Lord, By the pow’r of
grace di-vine; Let my soul look up with a steadfast hope, And my

3. O the pure de-light of a sin-gle hour That be-fore Thy
throne I spend, When I kneel in prayer, and with Thee, my God, I com-
nar-row sea; There are heights of joy that I may not reach Till I

4. There are depths of love that I can-not know Till I cross the
love to me; But I long to rise in the arms of faith, And be
closer drawn to Thee.
closer drawn to Thee.
closer drawn to Thee, Draw me near-er, near-er, bless-ed
closer drawn to Thee, Draw me near-er, near-er, bless-ed

Lord, To the cross where Thou hast died; Draw me near-er, near-er,
Lord, To the cross where Thou hast died; Draw me near-er, near-er,
Lord, To the cross where Thou hast died; Draw me near-er, near-er,

near-er, bless-ed Lord, To Thy pre-cious, bleed-ing side.
near-er, bless-ed Lord, To Thy pre-cious, bleed-ing side.
near-er, bless-ed Lord, To Thy pre-cious, bleed-ing side.

A-MEN.
Jesus is Calling.

Fanny J.


. How is it possible to turn your cheek to a wicked person? Or, how is it possible for persons to inherit the kingdom of God because of their poverty? The very nature of the aphorisms, and of Jesus' in particular, is the compulsion the listener has to react, to want to know more about what is meant. Crossan (1983) called it the dance of art and thought. The aphorism by nature upsets one's inner balance. Jesus used aphorisms to present a bold and original worldview.

Perdue (1986) concluded that Jesus questioned the validity of the cause-effect worldview of conventional wisdom. Conventional wisdom is based on a theory of retribution in which a righteous individual is materially rewarded and a wicked individual is punished. Jesus' aphorisms about congratulating the poor, hungry, and sad challenges the theory that poverty and hunger are punishments for wickedness. Jesus wanted to prepare hearers for a new reality, the kingdom of God.
Several of the red sayings of Jesus speak of the kingdom of God in parables. These include the parables called Leaven, Mustard Seed, and Vineyard Laborers. Other red parables are the Shrewd Manager and the Samaritan. All are aphoristic in nature, but not in form. The parables shock and disorient, but they are not short sayings. According to Crossan (1973) and most other Biblical scholars, Jesus' use of aphoristic parables was even more distinctive of his voice. Scott (1989) recognized two defining elements concerning the parables of Jesus. First, parables belong to the Jewish literary genre māshāl. The māshāl use connotative language. Connotative language puts a premium on interpretation and on the symbolic. Second, Jesus and rabbis developed the parable. The parable form is not found in the Old Testament. Rabbinic parables developed between 200 and 500 C.E. There is no evidence that the Pharisees, contemporary rabbis of Jesus, used parables.

Scott (1989) defined the parable as "a mashal that employs a short narrative fiction to reference a transcendent symbol" (p. 8). The term "parable" is a Greek word, parabole, which means "to set aside." The basic intent of the parable is comparison. Jesus' parables are characterized as narrative meshalim (the plural form of māshāl) and are not characteristic of the sages. Witherington (1994) suggested that the narrative meshalim, the parable genre used by Jesus, reflected a prophetic adaptation and expansion of wisdom forms. Ben Sira introduced this new development by claiming to be inspired like the prophets, by drawing on prophetic material, and by offering new revelations from God in sapiential forms. Therefore,
Jesus' teaching represented a cross-fertilization of the sapiential and prophetic traditions (Vorster, 1991).

Jesus' parables were first heard orally, then later written into sayings documents, and then Gospels. Scott (1989) noted that oral stories are not developed as causative, but rather as additive. In other words, events are layered on without concern for specificity or relationality. Parables are short and clean with explanatory details left out. For instance, in the story of the Vineyard Laborers, the hearers are not told what time of year it was, what was being harvested, or why the later laborers were not seen on earlier visits by the vineyard owner. How the revealed elements of the story do relate is dependent on the interpretation of the parable.

Parables are generally hard to understand. Scott (1989) suggested that the reason is that parables are based on concrete thought, not abstract thought. First-century Palestinians were members of a concrete culture. Stories were their vehicles for thinking, not symbolic representations of abstract thoughts. For instance, the story of the Vineyard Laborers might be perceived in our abstract culture as a story about the nature of grace. However, in a concrete culture, Jesus used the story to have his audience think about the way God's kingdom disrupts the usual patron-client relationships.

Scott (1989) further clarified that a concrete culture would organize itself through myths. Myths represent the need for order: "In a myth a thing is sacred because it is in its proper place" (Scott, 1989, p. 37). If something is out of order, then cultural chaos ensues. A myth takes opposites and provides a resolution. Scott (1989)
used the example of the Horatio Alger stories which resolved the problem that everyone is created equal but, in reality, not all persons are equal. However, hard work on the part of Horatio Alger bridged the gap between the two realities. He moved from poverty to wealth. Therefore, a myth provides a logical explanation for contradictions.

- Myths provide order and identity for a social group. Therefore, myths are anonymous. Jesus' parables are anti-myths, not myths (Scott, 1989). His stories created a disorder. He took cultural myth themes and aphoristically disoriented the expected outcomes or relationships. For instance, Jesus used the parable of the Mustard Seed to illustrate the kingdom of God, and yet the mustard plant was considered a weed and a nuisance. The audience would have expected that Jesus would have used the mighty cedar, the usual symbol of Israel's greatness, as an illustration of the kingdom of God.

- Jesus was a teacher, but his teaching was radical and was intended to disorient the hearers so that they would consider an alternative worldview. The parables of the Samaritan, the Vineyard Laborers, and the Shrewd Manager are examples of narrative *meshalim*. All three of the parables would disorient the hearers. Even today, the Shrewd Manager is a parable which confuses its hearers. No one expects that an embezzler who tries to save himself by further deceitfulness would be praised by his employer for acting shrewdly.

- Other Jewish parables of the same period usually dealt with the figure of a king and his concerns. Jesus' parables, on the other hand, dealt with ordinary
occurrences with a paradoxical twist. Vineyard laborers should get paid an honest
day's wage, but no one would have expected the vineyard owner to pay those who
worked only an hour the same as the ones who worked all day long. Jesus presented a
counter-order that caused persons to entertain a new perspective on reality. Blomberg
(1990) concluded that Jewish parables supported conventional wisdom and gave
added interpretation. Jesus' parables had an eschatological element and were usually
not explained.

Rabbinic parables were used to illustrate and explain the Torah, but Jesus'
parables rarely referred to Scripture. Most of Jesus' parables referred to the kingdom
of God. Much of the debate about the historical Jesus has centered around his use and
understanding of this term, "kingdom of God." Scholars generally do agree that the
term "kingdom of God" refers to the sovereignty and rule of God (Vorster, 1991).
Though a full discussion is outside the realm of this study, one important point should
be clarified.

Scott (1989) believed that Jesus used the term in his parables as a symbol
rather than as a metaphorical concept. An abstract social group would use the term as
a concept, but a concrete social group would use it as a symbol. A metaphor suggests
that one thing is like another (A is B). A symbol suggests that "the forms do not
signify themselves; rather they 'allude to,' hint at a wider meaning" (Scott, 1989, p.
58). A symbol is an enigma, representing something which is perceptive and
experiential. Therefore, an element of mystery and paradox remain. With a metaphor,
the mystery and the paradox can be explained. Most scholars agree that Jesus used the
term as a symbol, but they vary in their understanding of its interpretation (e.g., Crossan, 1973; Perrin, 1967; Fiorenza, 1984).

The important observation is that Jesus used parables to challenge the traditional structural notions of God's kingdom without implying a structural solution. For instance, the parable of Leaven compares the kingdom of God to a woman hiding leaven in flour. The primary associations of God's kingdom are located in male power and in holiness. Therefore, to associate the kingdom of God with a woman hiding a corrupt substance, leaven, would be very disorienting to the listeners. However, it would also be erroneous to conclude that God was female and corrupt, a metaphorical and structural interpretation. As symbol, the parable surprises and pushes the listener to think about the diverse nature of God's kingdom. Jesus used parables to enfold and encompass the symbol of the kingdom of God. Jesus' parables and his sayings are examples of aphoristic discourse heard from an individual voice.

**An Analysis of Jesus' Sayings and Parables**

Members of the Jesus Seminar isolated Jesus words' from the editorializing and explaining of others on the basis of four assumptions. These assumptions emerged from the careful scholarship of Biblical historical critical scholars. First, Jesus' sayings and parables "cut against" social and religious norms. For instance, Jesus said "When someone sues you for your shirt, let that person have your coat along with it" (Mt. 5:40).


 his patriotism, and said, "I am not moved by the greatness of the pyramids and their height, nor by the height of the obelisks and their inscriptions, indeed, the numerous antiques of the ancient Egyptians, their inscriptions and workmanship did not excite my soul as much as the example which I saw (in the Pope)". When Mohammed Ali heard about the incident, he considered this action from the side of the Pope to be an honour to himself and to the Copts, and hurried to thank the Pope. The latter said to him, "Do not thank someone who fulfilled his duty toward his country which embraces him and his brothers in the same nationality and patriotism." The tears flew from Mohammed Ali's eyes, and the church enjoyed freedom and peace.

Zahra Pasha, Mohammed Ali's daughter and the wife of Ahmed Bey El-Defterdar, was possessed with an evil spirit and the physicians could not cure her. On the recommendation of some people from the royal palace, Mohammed Ali asked the Pope for help. The Pope sent to him Anba Sarapamon of Menoufia who exorcized the evil spirit by praying.

During the reign of Mohammed Ali, his son Ibrahim Pasha called Pope Boutros and asked him about the light that shines out of the holy tomb of Christ on Saturday of the Holy Week. Ibrahim pasha asked to accompany Pope Boutros to Jerusalem to see what happens. When they arrived, Pope Boutros told him that the Roman Orthodox Patriarch is accustomed to enter the tomb for praying before the light's emission, and they were allowed to enter together. The crowd were let out of the church of the Resurrection
and the door was closed. As the two Patriarchs were praying fervently that God may save His church, the light emitted from the Holy tomb, went around the church and split on the left side of the entrance and was seen by all the crowd.

Ibrahim Pasha was known for his love to Egypt and the Egyptians, and he was loved by both, Muslims and Christians. He used to speak only the Arabic language. Since he was asked by one of the soldiers why was he against the Turks although he was one of them, he answered, "I am not a Turk. I came to Egypt as a young lad, and her sun made me Egyptian and changed my blood..." Ibrahim ruled Egypt only for a few months at the end of his father's reign.

SAID PASHA'S ERA

Said Pasha did renew the freedom of worship, in contrary to his predecessor Abbas I who prohibited the Copts from building new churches or even renovating the old ones, and also neglected education in general.

During Said's reign, the tribute was lifted up from the Copts and this was proclaimed as a law (firman) in 1855. He also ordered the recruiting of the Copts to the army. This order was abused, as they recruited many Copts who were the only bread-winners in their families, and some of the Copts suffered persecution in the army service to renounce their faith.

Pope Kyrillos (Cyril) IV was ordained one year before the beginning of Said's rule, and so he had a chance to practise many progressive efforts, in the spiritual, educational and social fields. One of his patriotic stands was his role in settling the dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia.
When the pope requested the emperor of Ethiopia to cast out the English missionaries, they put agent provocateur between the Pope and the emperor on one hand, and between Said and the Pope on the other hand\(^3\), and this ended by poisoning the Pope and his reposal in the Lord.

**KHEDIVE ISMAIL PASHA'S ERA**

When Ismail Pasha saw that Pope Demetrius II has great zeal for spreading the education like his predecessor, Pope Kyrillos IV, he granted him 1500 acres of land for building Coptic Schools. He also helped the Pope in opposing the Protestant missionaries, maybe because he thought that they would publicise the oppression of the Egyptian peasants in Europe.

When the Protestant denominations attacked the Coptic Church and burnt the icons, Pope Demetrius complained about this act to the Khedive who exiled them. However, the consuls of America and England protected them from being punished.

Ismail Pasha is considered to be the most tolerant ruler of Mohammed Ali's family. He appointed the Copt Wasif Bey Azmi his chief-protocol, and Abd-Allah Bey Serour governor of Qalubia province. He renewed the recruitment of the Copts in the army service in regularity.

When the Khedive discussed with Nubar Pasha the election of members of the "House of Representatives" he said to him:"We have also Copts among the elected. We have opened the doors for Muslims and Copts without discrimination." Among the members of the "House of Representatives" in 1866 there were two Copts: Girgis Barsoum, Mayor of Beni-Salama, and Mkhai Salama,
Mayor of Ashrouba. As we said before there was almost no class at the time of Mohamed Ali because of the monopolization of all sources. Personal ownership started only with Said's regulation in 1858, but it was incomplete until Khedive Ismail opened the door for everybody to work and to own lands. The Copts seized this opportunity and gave attention to commence, particularly with the Sudan, and made great fortunes. Tadros Al- Mankabady in 1884 established an incorporated company in Assuit, to deal with household equipments. From its tithes a land was bought and dedicated to the Coptic School of Assuit. He also promoted the idea of "Savings" in 1890 before it was adopted by the Post Office. In 1896 Wisa Doctor's family established a factory for extraction and refinement of sugar from sugarcane, and bought most of the shares of "Fayoum Train Co." Boushra Bey and Senout Bey established a bank in Upper-Egypt to protect the merchants from the greedy moneylenders. High orders were given that some Copts were to be appointed judges.

As far as the Cabinet is concerned, no Coptic minister was appointed (in the 19th century) until Khedive Abbas' era, when Boutros Ghali Pasha was appointed and remained the only Coptic minister until 1910. Nevertheless, Abbas' era was severe for the Copts as he hated Christianity and expelled many of the Copts from civil service. He requested the Coptic Supervisors (in Revenue Department) to train young Muslim students to take over their places, threatening that if they did not accomplish this within a year they would be thrown into the Nile. Some supervisors noticing after one or two months that the students were not apt for learning and practising the job, were preparing themselves to face death. However, the marvellous hand of God rescued them.
because before the end of the year Abbas fell dead in his palace in 1854.

During the era of Tawfik Pasha, who succeeded Ismail Pasha in 1879, a delegation from the Ethiopian emperor visited Egypt and presented valuable gifts to the Khedive and the Pope, asking the Khedive for continuation of the friendly relationship between the two countries.

**ORABIN REVOLUTION**

The army, which included Muslims and Copts, supported Orabi in his attempt to cast away the foreign influence and stop Khedive Tawfik's tyranny. When the Khedive ordered his dismissal, Arabi asked the Copt Yaqub to call for convening the General Assembly which was held at the ministry of the External Affairs on Saturday July 12, 1882. The meeting was attended by about 500 of the prominent Egyptians. At their forefront were the Sheikh of Al-Azher and Pope Kyrillos V, supporting Orabi. At the populace level both Copts and Muslims offered supplies, and donations flowed to support the army against the British overrun.

The mob in Alexandria committed a great massacre during which the Christians suffered all kinds of tortures. Some of the Christians from all denominations took refuge in the patriarchate, but the majority of Christians were forced to leave Alexandria. Thus, Orabi's revolution took a religious attitude.

At the same time, the Mahdi's Revolution took place in Sudan, and before it ended, the Copts fled to Egypt, and the bishop of Sudan and some of the priests and laymen who could not escape were forced to deny their faith and many were martyred.
2. Tawfik Eskarous: III.
4. Ibid. p.65.
6. Ibid., p 610.
COPTIC PERSONALITIES IN THE 19TH CENTURY

1. POPE KYRILLOS (CYRIL) IV

FATHER OF THE COPTIC REFORM

Pope Kyrillos IV (110th) the greatest Coptic person in the 19th century, led a strong and large state spiritual, scientific and social movement, therefore he is known as the "Father of the Coptic Reform." He established many schools. He opened the first girl's college in Egypt, preceding even the government in female education. He imported the first national printing press from Italy and on its arrival at Alexandria he ordered an impressive official reception of deacons in ecclesiastical vestments chanting hymns all the way from Cairo station to the Patriarchate. He asked Said Pasha the Khedive of Egypt at that time to permit the Copts to be recruited to the army like the Muslims, so that the Copts might not feel that they are foreigners, while they live in their own country. According to Said Pasha's wish he went to Ethiopia to


 of Cuyahoga Falls v. Buckeye Community Hope Foundation, 538 U.S. 188 (2003), the Court rejected a constitutional challenge to a referendum barring the construction of a low-income housing project. The challenge was brought under the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal Protection Clause, based on an allegation that the referendum constituted unconstitutional racial discrimination. The Court noted that such a challenge depended on a finding that the government had intentionally discriminated against the plaintiffs on the basis of race. The Court then rejected the plaintiff’s challenge to the referendum on the ground that there was no evidence of the relevant impermissible intent. The Court held that evidence of allegedly discriminatory voter sentiment was insufficient to justify a finding of discriminatory intent. “[S]tates made by private individuals in the course of a citizen-driven petition drive, while sometimes relevant to equal protection analysis . . . do not, in and of themselves, constitute state action for the purposes of the Fourteenth Amendment.” Id. at 196.

Outside the referendum context, the courts often ascribe to government actions the religious motives of private groups supporting those actions. In Edwards v. Aguillard, for example, Justice Powell discussed the religious background and perspective of two private groups—the Institute for Creation Research and the Creation Research Society—that had expressed support for the “balanced treatment” creationism statute adopted by the Louisiana legislature. “Information on both of these organizations is part of the legislative history, and a review of their goals and activities sheds light on the nature of creation science as it was presented to, and understood by, the Louisiana Legislature.” Edwards, 482 U.S. at 601–02 (Powell, J., concurring). For a more recent example of this phenomenon, consider ACLU v. City of Plattsburgh, 358 F.3d 1020 (8th Cir. 2004), where a city accepted a Ten Commandments monument from a private group, the Fraternal Order of Eagles. Id. at 1025. In Plattsburgh, there was no direct evidence of the city’s intent, but the court noted the explicitly religious
application of the secular purpose analysis to the Arkansas anti-evolution statute at issue in *Epperson* was not linked as directly to specific statements of governmental policy as the similar secular purpose analysis in cases that the Court would later encounter involving more explicit attempts by state legislatures to incorporate religious doctrine into law.27

Ironically, the absence of specific statements expressing the Arkansas government’s purpose in adopting the anti-evolution policy actually strengthens the Court’s holding in *Epperson*. The Court’s determination that state mandates to teach creationism are unconstitutional cannot be limited to situations in which a few public officials make ill-considered public statements about religion. In reaching its conclusion that the amorphous group of voters who voted in favor of the Arkansas initiative did so on the basis of constitutionally impermissible motives, the *Epperson* majority was forced to rely on evidence such as the religious nature of a “typical” political advertisement supporting the initiative,28 a few letters to local newspapers,29 and secondary sources such as academic articles about the nature of the Arkansas statute.30 The major support for the Court’s conclusion that the Arkansas initiative had an impermissible religious purpose, however, was the Court’s analysis of the referendum’s religious effect. In the absence of direct evidence of the state’s impermissible religious purpose, the Court inferred the purpose from the referendum’s inherently religious nature.

The Court found the religious nature of the statute inescapable. The Court noted that the law singled out only one subject for exclusion from Arkansas classrooms: the theory of evolution. The law was not, therefore, an attempt

purposes of the private group, and held the city accountable for adopting the same religious objectives: “The Eagles donated this monument as a part of its nationwide campaign to spread its version of the Ten Commandments; Plattsmouth’s purpose in erecting it was nothing more complex than the adoption of that goal.” *Id.* at 1037.

27. An excellent example of overtly expressed state intent to adopt religious legislation can be found in the Alabama silent prayer decision. *See Wallace v. Jaffree*, 472 U.S. 38 (1985). In this case the state of Alabama enacted a statute authorizing a period of silence for “meditation or voluntary prayer.” *Id.* at 41 (quoting Ala. Code § 16-1-20.1 (1984)). The Court held that this statute failed the *Lemon* secular purpose requirement. *Id.* at 56. The Court focused much of its attention on statements made by the sponsor of the legislation in the state senate:

“Senator Donald Holmes, inserted into the legislative record—apparently without dissent—a statement indicating that the legislation was an “effort to return voluntary prayer” to the public schools. Later Senator Holmes confirmed this purpose before the District Court. In response to the question whether he had any purpose for the legislation other than returning voluntary prayer to public schools, he stated: “No, I did not have no other purpose in mind.” The State did not present evidence of any secular purpose.

*Id.* at 56–57 (footnotes omitted).

29. *Id.*

30. *Id.* at 107 n.15.
by Arkansas to avoid all sensitive discussions of the origins of humanity. Rather, the “law’s effort was confined to an attempt to blot out a particular theory because of its supposed conflict with the biblical account, literally read.” 31 Nothing in the referendum actually said that the law was intended to protect a particular set of religious dogmas; the Court simply concluded that it could conceive of only one possible explanation for the referendum’s specific focus—i.e., “the belief of some that the Book of Genesis must be the exclusive source of doctrine as to the origin of man.” 32 Thus, although the Epperson Court ostensibly focused on the issue of religious intent, in fact the religious effect of the referendum determined the case. The effect of the statute—that is, to omit from public school curricula any references to evolution—was so permeated with religion that the Court felt it could only have been motivated by an impermissible religious purpose: to protect the dominant religious dogma from other theories that proponents of the dominant religion viewed as sacrilegious.

In one sense, the very fact that the religious majority deemed the referendum necessary was itself evidence of an impermissible purpose. By enacting a legal mandate to exclude from the state’s classrooms scientific evidence of evolution, the Arkansas religious majority implicitly acknowledged that in an unregulated intellectual marketplace the majority’s religious conception of biological change could not survive on its merits as science. The central holding of Epperson is that the representatives of a politically powerful group have no constitutional authority to skew the intellectual marketplace in favor of that group’s religion. Under Epperson, no group may use the law to artificially bolster the intellectual merits of its own faith’s perspective on scientific issues at the expense of an open intellectual inquiry into those issues—even if the conclusions generated by the open intellectual inquiry inevitably will create doubts among the faithful about the veracity of the dominant faith. As the Court summed up this aspect of Establishment Clause doctrine, “the state has no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from views distasteful to them.” 33

The prohibition of religious protectionism is key to understanding how the Court’s holding in Epperson will apply to later, subtler versions of creationism, such as the theory of intelligent design. The application of the Epperson anti-protectionism principle does not depend on the particular nature of the religious ideas being fostered by the government. Any political attempt to skew the process of scientific investigation in favor of a particular

31. Id. at 109.
32. Id. at 107.
33. Id. at 107 (quoting Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. 495, 505 (1952)) (internal quotations omitted).
set of religious ideas is invalid—regardless of the mechanism used by the
government to advance its sectarian agenda. The Constitution therefore
prohibits statutes that bar the inclusion of evolution in public school curricula
(as in Epperson), but it also prohibits statutes that mandate the inclusion of
particular ideas (as in Edwards v. Aguillard\textsuperscript{34}) as well as statutes that
disparage or disclaim the conclusions of scientific inquiry (as in a recent
local school board policy struck down by the federal courts in Louisiana\textsuperscript{35}).
Each type of statute is unconstitutional because it conflicts with the Court’s
basic understanding that if creationism has secular merit as science, the
scientific community will recognize these merits without being forced to do
so by legal decree.

When the courts strike down legal mandates protecting creationism from
the challenges posed by evolutionary theory, they are not protecting
evolutionary theory per se, nor are they attacking the merits of creationism.
Rather, the courts are merely protecting the system of open intellectual
inquiry from political manipulation directed toward protecting the interests of
powerful religious groups outside the academic community. In this analysis,
applying the secular purpose and secular effect tests is simpler than it
otherwise might seem because the Constitution presumptively prohibits \textit{any}
legal mandate to incorporate certain perspectives in a public school
educational curriculum if those perspectives have been rejected by
overwhelming numbers of scientists in the academic community. It does not
matter whether the religious perspective is obvious on the face of the legal
mandate; the existence of the mandate itself is the problem. Thus


 decided upon this course.53 According to a lengthy, somewhat hagiographic, account of Reggio's hiring written
by Castiglioni, the community's leaders offered Reggio the post, and he accepted on condition that he not receive the slightest remuneration.\textsuperscript{54}

Reggio's financial circumstances could certainly explain such a magnanimous gesture, but the fact that Isaac's father had also been hired without pay suggests that another consideration was at work. In 1798, following the death of R. Moise Gentili, the ristretta consulta offered Abram Vita the position of acting rabbi. The appointment carried with it no salary because the appointment was a provisional one, and it was provisional because Abram Vita had never been formally ordained. Abram Vita was formally elected rabbi of the Gorizian community only in 1803, after travelling to Ferrara to receive the rabbinical title \textit{Hakham}.\textsuperscript{55} Castiglioni's narrative suggests that, like his father, Isaac Reggio was offered the post of acting rabbi, with no salary, because he too had never been formally ordained. This explanation is supported by the fact that following Abram Vita's death in 1841, the Jews of Gorizia also hired his grandson (and Isaac's own son), Abramo, who had completed the program of study at the Paduan rabbinical seminary.\textsuperscript{57} The community asked him to assume responsibility for issuing decisions on matters of Jewish law and doctrine. He accepted, and held the position for twenty months, until September 4, 1843.\textsuperscript{58} For those months Isaac and Abramo served together, with Isaac serving as acting rabbi \textit{(facendo funzioni di rabbino)} for all but halakhic matters.\textsuperscript{59}

As for Reggio's ouster, money appears as a factor at all stages: dismissal, rehiring and replacement. At least some of those community members who supported Reggio were presumably motivated by the desire to save the six hundred florins of the Chief Rabbi's annual salary, aside from their regard for Reggio's abilities or their attitudes towards Reform. This is suggested by the final struggle over Reggio's permanent successor. The petition to prevent the hiring of a replacement, signed (as the \textit{Capi} report) by some of the community's principal taxpayers, lends weight to the mercenary factor.\textsuperscript{290}

There is also the possibility that money took second place to ideology in the struggle over Reggio's position. The annulment of Reggio's dismissal in 1850 on technical grounds and the later petition against hiring a replacement can be interpreted as tactical ploys in the struggle against Reform. If so, Reggio's supporters were using a tight-fisted posture to pressure the \textit{Capi} into rehiring Reggio. In the controversy over Reggio's permanent replacement they employed slander in pursuit of the same goal: by accusing the \textit{Capi} of religious abuses, the petitioners stigmatized them as impious.

An ideological reading is even more plausible as far as the \textit{Capi} are concerned. The fact that dismissing Reggio would cost the community considerable effort and expense indicates the strength of the anti-Reggio camp's ideological motivation.

Authority is yet another in the web of tightly interwoven forces behind the struggle over Reggio's ouster. The hiring of Isaac's son Abramo as legal expert, however reasonable and appropriate, curbed Reggio's authority as Chief Rabbi. The fact that he had to cede halakhic authority to his son teaches that Isaac's authority never approached that enjoyed by his father, Abram Vita. In the struggle over Reform, or any communal controversy, Isaac's spiritual leadership was weakened by his inadequate halakhic credentials.

Authority also needs to be factored into our understanding of Isaac's point of view. The last stipulation in clause 35 of the communal regulations required the Chief Rabbi to reach agreement with the \textit{Capi} and ristretta consulta on reforms to be introduced. These communal leaders were not, after all, scholars in Jewish law, and Reggio may have considered them incompetent to define the nature and scope of the community's halakhic life.

\section*{V. CONTEXT}

On August 29, 1855, soon after his ouster, Reggio died. But, having been outmaneuvered on the field of communal politics, he nevertheless managed to have the last word on Reform, with the 1852 publication of his masterpiece, \textit{Be'ihinat ha-Kabbala}. Was Reggio the heresiarch this book led Rapoport and others to believe? What does the new material on Reggio's career presented in this study teach us about his attitude towards Reform?
Certainly Isaac supported Reform. He entered the fray in 1835, with a short work favoring abrogation of the taboo on shaving during hol ha-moed. This treatise drew a volley of critical responses, including a rebuttal by his own father, R. Abram Vita. Yet Reggio’s attitude to Reform during the controversy leading to his ouster, coupled with his role in the phylacteries incident of 1835, portrays him in a more conservative and traditional guise, rather than as a radical Reformer.

The more moderate view of Reggio is thoroughly grounded in his writings, including Behinat ha-Kabbala. Reggio opposed radical reform as vehemently as he opposed rigid orthodoxy. Among the advantages of the rabbinical college he proposed in 1820 was the rabbi’s ability to combat unrestrained attacks on tradition. Reggio excoriated those who rejected the concept of mandatory precepts in favor of a purely spiritual approach to Judaism, as did Aaron Chorin of Hungary. Although he did not consider rabbinic law inviolable, Reggio advocated changing only rabbinic prescriptions that he felt contravened the biblical commandments upon which they were based. Reggio was a Reformer in the sense that he sanctioned deviation from the Shulhan Arukh, but he decried the threat to Judaism posed by the extremist camps of both orthodoxy and Reform.

Reggio’s conservatism was typical of the lackluster Italian reaction to the liturgical and curricular initiatives from across the Alps. Naftali Herz Wesseley saw Italian Jewry as a natural ally in the Haskalah campaign. This view was born of the assumption that the Italians were already ‘enlightened’; they knew Italian and heard synagogue sermons in the vernacular. In addition, compared with the Jews of Eastern Europe, their intellectual focus was less single-mindedly talmudic, and more inclined towards Bible, grammar, and the sciences. But the Italians disappointed Wesseley. Endorsing his initiative only halfheartedly, they emphasized the primacy of the established curriculum and the importance of safeguarding tradition. Ironically, it was precisely because Wesseley’s recommendations were already in place that Italian Jewry proved a lethargic ally.

The weak showing of Reform in Gorizia also mirrors dynamics found in the international arena. Radical Reform did not take off in the Hapsburg realm as it had in Germany. This was partly due to the region’s Catholic identity. Germany’s Protestant environment appears to have had cultural influence on German Reform Judaism, because the latter echoed Protestantism’s emphasis on liturgy and oratory, rather than ritual. Conversely, scholars have attributed the flaccid response to Reform—in Italy as in Vienna—to the stolid conservatism of the surround...
ing Catholic environment, and specifically to the absence of any general concept of theological, institutional, and liturgical Reform. In addition to these forces, in Gorizia the size of the community was also a factor. It seems plain that size affects a community’s social behavior, and hence its response to change. In small intimate communities, anonymity is impossible and social pressures are intensified. These communal quarrels highlight the textured nature of social change. The ideological issues were no different in Gorizia than in the capitals of Europe, but because of its size, money, authority and interpersonal relationships had a magnified impact on the community’s religious life. As much or more than ideological factors, temporal forces were what buffeted and ultimately upended Isaac Reggio.

Notes
2. Ha-Shahar 1/2 (1869) 12–14. In a footnote to Rapoport’s letter, Peretz Smolenskin, the editor of Ha-Shahar, alludes to Rapoport’s personal resentment of Reggio. For Reggio’s reaction, see Algemeine Zeitung des Judenthums 18 (1854) pp. 73–86. Reggio had clearly gotten under Rapoport’s skin.
3. Though there have been several sketches of Reggio’s career, his full biography has yet to be written, and his views and social environment have never been systematically analyzed. See Moise Ehrenreich, “Isaac S. Reggio,” L’Educatore Israelita 1 (1856) 74.
8. Regolamento interno della comunità israelitica di Gorizia, Archivio di Stato di Gorizia (ASG), Capitanato Circolare di Gorizia, busta (b.) 16, fascicolo (fasc.) 172, IV/24, #12 (1850-54). An identical edition was printed in Gorizia, in