 were lower than those with H-PW – in the shear rate range examined (50 s⁻¹ - 1500
s$^{-1}$). Similar behaviour was found for the measurements at 170 °C and 180 °C. The lower viscosity of the blends would imply that it could be more easily melt processed an important consideration in the manufacturing step, if for example sheets of such materials were to be used in construction applications. This is associated with the lower viscosity of molten wax compared with that of hv-HDPE. By increasing the temperature, the total energy added to the system during the mixing process increases and consequently the shear viscosity is expected to decrease. However, as it can be seen from Figure 11 (c), the difference between the shear viscosity of hv-HDPE$_{50}$H-PW$_{50}$ measured at 160 °C, 170 °C and 180 °C cannot be regarded as significant. Similar results were found for hv-HDPE$_{50}$L-PW$_{50}$, Figure 11 (d). This might be explained by that as each blend is consisted of a considerable large proportion of wax with a melting point far below 160 °C, the effect of increment of temperature from 160 °C to 170 °C or from 170 °C to 180 °C on the shear viscosity for the blends is not significant. Thus, 160 °C is an adequate processing temperature. This is an important consideration as the lower the temperature, the less energy required to mix the blend components, but also less evaporation of wax, especially for hv-HDPE/L-PW blends.

To further investigate the interaction between and dispersion of wax in hv-HDPE, an oscillatory melt rheology study, at low shear rates, was also carried out. Polymers exhibit viscoelastic behaviour which is directly related to molecular structure. In order to evaluate the relationship between molecular structure and viscoelastic behaviour it is necessary to perform rheological experiments in the linear viscoelastic region where the viscoelastic properties observed are independent of imposed stress or strain level. An oscillatory stress sweep test was performed to establish the linear viscoelastic region and determine the maximum stress for linear behaviour at 160 °C. The limit of the viscoelastic regime for each material is determined by the stress value when the moduli ($G'$ and $G''$) start to decrease becoming non-linear. In this study, a stress value of 2Pa was selected as all the samples were in linear viscoelastic region at
this value. As shown in Figure 12 (a) and (b), with increasing frequency, the storage modulus $G'$ increased for all samples, approximately by two orders of magnitude. $G'$ of hv-HDPE is higher than the two sets of the blends. With increasing wax content, $G'$ decreased. This is associated with the less viscous property of the waxes at elevated temperatures. However, the plots of hv-HDPE$_{35}$H-PW$_{65}$ and hv-HDPE$_{25}$H-PW$_{75}$ were nearly overlapping, and lie below that for hv-HDPE$_{50}$H-PW$_{50}$, see Figure 12 (a). $G'$ of the three hv-HDPE/L-PW composites were very similar in the low frequency region and separated at high frequencies, as shown in Figure 12 (b). Plots of log shear viscosity $\eta'$ vs log frequency $f$ are shown in Figure 12 (c) and (d). With increase $f$, $\eta'$ decreased in all samples. This is because when shear rate increased, the entanglement of the molecular of hv-HDPE decreased. With increasing wax content, the viscosity of all composites decreased, again associated with the less viscous properties of the waxes. However, the difference between the viscosity values of hv-HDPE$_{35}$H-PW$_{65}$ and hv-HDPE$_{25}$H-PW$_{75}$ is not significant. A Cole-Cole plot ($\log G'$ versus $\log G''$ plot) is a sensitive tool that can probe composite miscibility/compatibility in that changing slopes of the linear relationship between both parameters can indicate poor interaction, in this instance between hv-HDPE and wax. Curves corresponding to different wax content deviate slightly from each other and from pure hv-HDPE, Figure 12 (e) and (f), and indicated less interaction between hv-HDPE and wax at higher wax loading, evidence for induced heterogeneity within the composite material [50, 51].

4 Conclusions

Both H-PW and L-PW could be mixed uniformly with hv-HDPE to form SSPCMs using twin screw extrusion, and the blends formed are physical mixes with no evidence of chemical interaction between blend components. The extrusion temperature for hv-HDPE/L-PW blends should not be > 160 °C, as the onset of the evaporation temperature of L-PW is
relatively low, \( \leq 130 ^\circ C \). However, the extent of L-PW evaporation we assume is low as the residence time of L-PW in the extruder is less than 30 sec. No such consideration is required for blends prepared with H-PW. The SSPCMs had latent heats up to 89 J/g (hv-HDPE\(_{25}\)H-PW\(_{75}\)), as determined from DSC analysis and thus these composite materials are candidates for LHTES applications. The enthalpy of H-PW in SSPCM blends decreased while that of L-PW remained unaltered, as a consequence of co-crystallisation between H-PW and hv-HDPE. DMTA analyses show the plasticising effect of both waxes on the hv-HDPE matrix. The mechanical properties, moduli and stress, irrespective of mode of deformation are much greater for the hv-HDPE/H-PW blends compared with those of the hv-HDPE/L-PW blends at RT. The tensile and flexural strength of hv-HDPE/H-PW blends were much greater than hv-HDPE/L-PW blends at RT. The rheological behaviour of these blends confirmed increased heterogeneity with increasing wax content and that melt processing such SSPCMs with conventional polymer processing techniques should be routine, at least for the wax loadings used in this study. Further studies are ongoing to address some of the many limitations of such SSPCMs [52], e.g. thermal conductivity, and will be reported shortly.

Acknowledgements

MM thanks the UK-China Sciences Bridge Project for financial support, and we acknowledge Mr Graham Garrett and Dr Bronagh Miller for technical assistance.
References

18. Zhang, P., et al., *The influence of expanded graphite on thermal properties for paraffin/high density polyethylene/chlorinated paraffin/antimony trioxide as a flame

44. Mngomezulu, M.E., *Phase Change Materials Based on Polyethylene, Paraffin Wax and Wood Flour*, 2009, University of the Free State (Qwaqwa Campus).

45. Mochane, M.J., *Polymer Encapsulated Paraffin Wax to be Used as Phase Change Material for Energy Storage*, 2011, University of the Free State (Qwaqwa Campus).

Table and Figure Captions

Table 1 Thermal properties of hv-HDPE/H-PW blends (melting) as determined from DSC measurements.

Table 2 Thermal properties of hv-HDPE/L-PW blends (melting) as determined from DSC measurements.

Table 3 Thermal properties of hv-HDPE/H-PW blends (crystallisation) as determined from DSC measurements.

Table 4 Thermal properties of hv-HDPE/L-PW blends (crystallisation) as determined from DSC measurements.

Figure 1 SEM images of (a) surface of hv-HDPE35H-PW65; (b) surface of hv-HDPE35H-LW65; (c) surface of hv-HDPE35H-PW65 after xylene treatment; (d) surface of hv-HDPE35H-PW65 after xylene treatment; (e) fractured surface of hv-HDPE35H-PW65 and (f) fractured surface of hv-HDPE35H-PW65.

Figure 2 FTIR spectra of (a) H-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/H-PW blends, and (b) L-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/L-PW blends.

Figure 3 XRD diffractograms of (a) H-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/H-PW blends, and (b) hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/L-PW blends.

Figure 4 DSC thermograms for (a) heating curves of H-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/H-PW blends; (b) cooling curves of H-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/H-PW blends; (c) heating curves of L-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/L-PW blends and (d) cooling curves of L-PW, hv-HDPE and hv-HDPE/L-PW blends.
Figure 5 TGA curves for (


*; and the great hammerhead, *Sphryna mokarran*.

- **HUMAN IMPORTANCE:** The red grouper is both commercially and recreationally important throughout its range, and is one of the most abundant grouper species in southern Florida.

**SCAMP**: *Mycteroperca interstitialis*

Information from: http://www.fishbase.org/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?id=1211

The Scamp is found in the Western Atlantic, including the Gulf of Mexico, Bermuda, the Caribbean (mainly insular localities), and Brazil. Found mainly on rocky or coral bottoms from the shoreline to at least 55 m depth; small and middle-sized individuals commonly occur in mangrove-lined lagoons. More common in island waters than along the coast.

- **DISTINGUISHING FEATURES:** Dorsal spines (total): 11 - 11; Dorsal softrays (total): 16 - 18; Anal spines : 3; Anal soft rays: 10 – 12. Tan to brown above, paler below; upper parts of head and most of body usually have small, brown, close-set spots; sometimes uniformly brown. The tricolored pattern of the juveniles mimics that of the juveniles of the clown wrasse, *Halichoeres maculipinna*.

- **SIZE:** Common to about 15 lbs. Maximum size recorded: 84.0 cm. Maximum weight recorded: 10.5kg Maximum reported age: 41 years

- **DIET:** Feeds on smaller fishes.

- **REPRODUCTION:** Sex reversal is observed in this species. The young individual females become male. The scamp is a pelagic spawner.

- **PREDATORS:** Predators of smaller groupers include other groupers and moray eels, larger groupers are likely preyed upon by sharks, among them the sandbar shark, *Carcharhinus plumbeus*; and the great hammerhead, *Sphryna mokarran*.

- **HUMAN IMPORTANCE:** Marketed fresh as food in markets.
GAG GROUPER: *Mycteroperca microlepis*
Prepared by: Cathleen Bester

The gag grouper is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina south to the Yucatan Peninsula. Residing in brackish to marine waters, the gag grouper is found offshore on rocky bottom as well as inshore on rocky or grassy bottoms to depths of 500 ft. It is common on rocky ledges along the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Adult gag grouper school in groups of 5-50 individuals or may be found solitary.

- **DISTINGUISHING FEATURES:** The gag grouper is typical among the groupers with an oblong-shaped elongate body. The head is long while the mouth is large with a protruding lower jaw. The bases of the dorsal and anal fins are covered with scales and thick skin. Body color of the gag grouper is dependent upon the sex and age of the fish. Juveniles and mature females are pale to brown-gray with dark blotches and worm-shaped markings resulting in a marbled appearance. Inactive individuals sometimes display a camouflaged pattern with dark brown "saddles" separated by white bars just below the dorsal fin. Large mature males are pale to medium gray in color with barely visible reticulations below the dorsal fin. The ventral surface is darker gray to black in color. There are two well-developed canine teeth present anteriorly in each jaw. These are quite effective for holding prey items.

- **SIZE:** Gag grouper reach a maximum total length of 4.75 ft and a maximum weight of 80.5 lbs.

- **DIET:** Adult gag grouper primarily feed on fishes, crabs, shrimps, and cephalopods while juveniles measuring less than 8 in. in length feed on crustaceans residing in shallow grass beds.

- **REPRODUCTION:** Similar to other serranids, gag grouper are protogynous hermaphrodites. They begin life as female, however after a few years of spawning as a female, some gag groupers change sex, becoming functional males. This transition generally occurs at 10-11 yrs of age. Spawning occurs from January through May in the Gulf of Mexico and the South Atlantic Bight at offshore spawning grounds. The fertilized eggs are pelagic and transparent, containing a single oil globule. Eggs hatch after approximately 45 hours at water temperatures of 70ºF (laboratory study). The kite-shaped larvae persist for 40-50 days, as post larvae they migrate from the spawning grounds to inshore seagrasses, mangroves, oyster reefs and salt marshes. Juveniles remain in these locations for approximately 3-5 months before they migrate to offshore reefs.

- **PREDATORS:** Juvenile gag grouper may fall prey to cannibalism as well as to large fishes. Sharks and other large fishes are known predators of adult gag grouper.

- **IMPORTANCE TO HUMANS:** The gag grouper provides important recreational and commercial fisheries. It is caught with hook and line and the flesh is marketed fresh.
YELLOWTAIL SNAPPER: *Lutjanus chrysurus*

Prepared by: Cathleen Bester

The yellowtail snapper is found in the western Atlantic Ocean from Massachusetts to Bermuda and southward to southeastern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. It is most common in the Bahamas, off south Florida and in the Caribbean Sea. Adult yellowtail snappers live over sandy areas near deep reefs at depths of 32-230 feet (10-70m), while small adults tend to congregate over hard bottom habitats. Once established, adult yellowtail snapper tend to remain in the same area for long periods of time.

- **DISTINGUISHING FEATURES:** In comparison with most other snapper species the head and mouth of the yellowtail snapper are small. The pectoral fins are long, reaching the anus. An unusual characteristic among snappers in our area, the caudal fin of this species is deeply forked with the upper lobe longer than the lower one. The yellowtail snapper has an olive to bluish back and upper sides with yellow spots. The lower sides and belly have alternating narrow, longitudinal pink and yellow stripes. Perhaps most conspicuously, a prominent midlateral yellow stripe begins at the mouth and continues to the caudal fin base, becoming broader as it passes the dorsal fins. The caudal fin is yellow while the anal and pelvic fins are whitish in color. Although most teeth in the upper jaw are densely packed, fine, or hair like "villiform" teeth, there are several canine teeth present as well – the latter constituting a definitive characteristic of all snappers.

- **SIZE:** Adult yellowtail snappers may reach a maximum length of 30 inches. This fish rarely exceeds weights of 5 pounds.

- **DIET:** Adult yellowtail snappers are nocturnal predators. They feed on benthic organisms including crabs, shrimp, cephalopods, worms, and fish. Juveniles, living primarily among seagrasses, feed on plankton.

- **REPRODUCTION:** Spawning occurs year round, peaking at different times in different locations, with an overall activity decline in the winter months. Spawning yellowtail snapper form offshore aggregations. The spherical eggs are released into open waters and contain an oil droplet, which provides buoyancy in their pelagic environment. The eggs hatch within 24 hours, producing sparsely pigmented larvae.

- **PREDATORS:** Natural predators of adult yellowtail snapper include sharks and other large predatory fishes, including barracuda, mackerel and grouper in addition to other snapper species. Larvae and juveniles face a wide array of predators.

**IMPORTANCE TO HUMANS:** The bar jack is a sport fish, caught mainly on light tackle. It also appears in commercial catches made using seines and trawls. Its edibility is fair to good and is marketed fresh in the Bahamas.
The black drum is found on the Atlantic coast of the United States, *Pogonias cromis* occurs from southern New England south through Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, to Argentina. It is much more common south of Chesapeake Bay. Juveniles are found more often over muddy bottoms in estuaries. Adults are usually common over sand or sand/mud bottom types in shallow coastal and estuarine waters, especially in high runoff areas, oyster reefs and shell hash. Adults sometimes move onto near-shelf waters, but are primarily estuarine-dwelling and show little migratory behavior.

- **DISTINGUISHING FEATURES:** The head is short with a blunt snout and inferior, horizontal mouth. The chin has 5 pores and 12-13 short barbels set close to the inner edges of the lower jaw. The pharyngeal teeth are small and set in broad bands for effective grinding of mollusk and arthropod shells. The vomer, palatines and tongue lack teeth. Body color in adults is a silver to black base color, highlighted with a coppery or brassy sheen. Fins are dusky to black in color. Young typically have 4-6 vertical black bars along their sides. Coloration may change depending on habitat or age of the fish.
- **SIZE:** Grows to a maximum size of approximately 170 cm (67 inches) and may weigh as much as 51.3 kg (113.1 pounds


 for the provider to rectify these as best they can. The provider may (eventually) send out a “super-tech” to go and analyze the problem and attempt to optimize the installation using “free” and off-the-shelf tools such as mobile phone signal strength apps. Alternately,
the provider may simply offer Wi-Fi extenders that in their simplest form just reduce overall throughput to half by occupying at least twice as many timeslots for each transmission.

Some providers may choose to offer secondary access points perhaps connected via MoCA or “powerline” (e.g., HomePlug AV2) communication to the master gateway. These have the advantage of offering additional bandwidth without compromising the original access point, provided a second non-overlapping channel is available. Also, the technician may need a little knowledge to correctly position and configure these devices.

In 2018, Providers began to aggressively install mesh Wi-Fi systems with multiple coordinated access points. This was bolstered by the availability of Wi-Fi Alliance’s EasyMesh standard and certification for Multi-AP.

### 7.3.2 Consumer Self-install

To avoid the need for the service provider to visit to the end-user’s home, equipment such as set-tops, cable modems, and Wi-Fi APs can be sent by mail for the end user to install and configure or made available for sale (or pickup) at retail kiosks. In particular, the default configuration or capability of the in-home wireless equipment may not always be optimum, though algorithms in the equipment’s firmware do attempt to analyze the area and choose the optimum channel. Basic instructions for optimum placement are included but often a lot of trial and error is needed to improve this. The “obvious” location near the center of the home is not always best for many reasons. The end-user may be reluctant or unable to run additional cabling from the network termination point to a more optimum location for the AP.

Cable operators should consider providing more comprehensive instructions with recommendations for optimal AP placement and other setup issues. Alternatively a provider can recommend a mesh or EasyMesh system. The following guidelines can be used by subscribers for self-installs as well as by cable company installers and technicians.

For best Wi-Fi coverage, try to place the wireless gateway or AP close to where Wi-Fi capable devices are or will be most frequently used. For best Wi-Fi reception and minimal interference, the wireless gateway/AP should be located in an open area away from exterior walls, metal surfaces, microwave ovens and windows (do not place it inside of a cupboard, closet, file cabinet, or other enclosed area). Once the wireless gateway is in the best location in the home, it’s time to plug it in and power it up.

Note: If you are replacing a modem currently connected in the home, be sure to unplug that device from the cable or coaxial outlet and plug the new wireless gateway/AP (often built in to the new modem) into that same coaxial outlet. If you do not have an existing modem set up, simply plug the new modem into the main cable or coaxial outlet in the home.

The wireless gateway or wireless router makes it easy to set up the Wi-Fi network and adjust its settings. Once you set up the network, you can wirelessly access the Internet and other services from your computer, laptop, game system and more. You can find out how to set up a wireless network with these simple steps.

Before you can access your provider’s services or the Internet through your wireless gateway, you'll need to make sure it's properly connected. Please check that:

Your wireless gateway is connected to the Internet through the cable connector on the back panel with a coaxial cable (labeled “F” in Figure 4)
Figure 4 - Wireless gateway connections and controls

Wireless gateway back panel features are:

- Reset button for resetting the wireless gateway
- USB host connector [for future use]
- Tel1 connector for analog phone line
- Tel2 connector for analog phone line
- Gigabit Ethernet (1-4) connectors for use with a computer LAN port
- Cable connector for the coaxial cable
- Power connector for the power cord

Check your specific make and model regarding light indicators, etc., which may be different than what is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Ensure the following: the wireless gateway is plugged in to a power source through the power connector with the provided power cord. The power, US/DS, and online LED indicators on the front panel are steadily lit. This may take several minutes after plugging in your wireless gateway.
7.3.3. Activating Your Wireless Gateway

Now you are ready to activate your cable company’s services and your wireless gateway. Generic activation information is provided below and specific activation information may be available from the cable company’s web site (refer to the gateway’s printed instructions).

Once you have installed your wireless gateway/AP and established a temporary Internet connection, you are ready to activate your Internet/voice service.

Once connected, if you're not automatically presented with an Activation Welcome screen:

1. Open a web browser (such as Chrome, Safari, Internet Explorer, etc.) on your device and go to [provider site]. Next, click Continue.
2. Enter your account number and phone number (if you received a self-installation kit, the account number can be found on the activation information card inside the kit.). You can also authenticate your account by signing in with your service provider username. If you've already created a username, skip steps 3 through.
3. Create a username and password. If you have moved and are transferring your service(s) to a new address, click “Sign-in” with your existing username.
4. Choose a security question and answer (answer must be 3-25 characters long and is case-sensitive) and check the box that you agree to the Terms and Privacy Policy, then click “Continue”.
   o Note: Your username provides access to your account settings and services. It will also become your email address prefix, similar to [Username]@{service provider.net}. Feel free to use it as your
primary email account or as a spare. It is recommended that you print or write down this important information.

5. Click “Continue” to proceed from the Connection Established screen.

6. After you receive the “Device Activated” screen, your gateway may reboot. It should be all set when the power, US/DS and online lights on the front of the gateway stop blinking and remain solid for one minute, and the Wi-Fi light(s) start flashing.

Notes:

- You can continue to use the default Wi-Fi network name and password on your device, but it is highly recommended that you change your Wi-Fi network name and password to something easy for you to remember.
- Depending on the type of gateway you have, you may be required to create a new Wi-Fi network name and password as part of the activation process.

7.4. Qualifying CPE

For maximum trust any test solution must be capable of testing via the existing or newly installed gateway device. Showing the technician’s equipment working at extreme far range is all well and good, but customers want assurance that their own equipment will work, maybe not as quickly (see below), and that they will have coverage in the home where they need it.

Some providers are now suggesting that their set top boxes for high and ultra-high definition video streaming can be connected wirelessly, reducing the need for additional cabling at the time of installation or encouraging a self-install. If the initial installation attempt does not work, what visibility is there from the customer’s perspective or from the provider’s perspective as to what to try next? Troubleshooting steps are provided elsewhere in this document.

7.5. Customer Education

Customers often expect the hardware they bought many years ago, perhaps only offering 802.11b capability, to keep on working or even to be improved in performance by updating their gateway/AP. While older equipment will generally still work, they do not understand that operating older equipment will inevitably occupy more timeslots that could carry much higher data rates using more modern modulation profiles and expanded channel widths. Education that older hardware really does need replacing is important.

8. Installation, Configuration and Management

8.1. Common Residential / Commercial Deployment Models

- Wi-Fi Gateway
- Wi-Fi Gateway with EasyMesh Controller and multiple EasyMesh Agents (APs)
- Wi-Fi Gateway with Repeater/Extender
- Wi-Fi Gateway with Secondary Device (Dual AP)
- Wi-Fi Gateway and Wi-Fi Peripheral
- Wi-Fi Gateway and Managed Broadband Router
- Wi-Fi Gateway and Wi-Fi Video AP
- Wi-Fi Gateway and outdoor (OD) Wi-Fi Gateway
- Community Wi-Fi Gateway
8.2. Example Wi-Fi Home

The average North American home will have almost a dozen Wi-Fi client devices active today. Many industry disruptions such as Internet of Things (IoT) will drive per subscriber Wi-Fi device counts much higher, with some predicting this device count is set to double in just three years.

There are also many different and often simultaneous use cases for Wi-Fi service occurring in the typical home. Telework VPN and VoIP traffic, Over-The-Top IP Video, Gaming, home automation and security, and general web surfing may all be actively competing for radio airtime.

The placement of these clients varies and is usually not fixed with perhaps the exception of home automation and security and perhaps gaming consoles. This poses a real challenge as we consider today’s Wi-Fi deployment models beginning with Wi-Fi enabled DOCSIS Gateways.

8.3. Wi-Fi Deployment Models - Gateway Deployment Model (Single AP)

A common scenario in many deployments is the use of a DOCSIS 3.0 or 3.1 cable modem gateway with embedded Wi-Fi access point. The install technician likely locates the gateway near the utility panel or closest to drop entry point to avoid in home coax runs and splitters. There are several disadvantages to this approach depending on the device and the circumstances


 blood, bacterial or fungal cultures, gill biopsies, and skin scrapings are all moderately damaging to the fish. In addition, these samples can be used to detect diseases from the outside of the fish, but not necessarily the inside. Often for a definitive diagnosis, a sick fish must be euthanized and a post-mortem examination performed to get all needed laboratory samples. This works for disease problems that are occurring in a number of fish: one fish is sacrificed to find a treatment for the others, but does not help to treat an individual fish health problem.

Clinical Signs of Disease
Clinical signs of disease in fish can be very vague. Frequently the animal is swimming slowly- often alone, it may swim on its side, the gills may move rapidly, the animal may move rapidly back and forth in one area, the fins are droopy, it doesn't eat, and it may be losing weight. These signs don't tell you much more than that the fish is sick. If that is all you see, without diagnostic tests run by a veterinarian, the only type of treatment that is recommended is isolation in a 0.1% salt bath, perhaps with antibiotics added. Other clinical signs can indicate a specific type of disease, or can be seen with several types of diseases.

- **Skin and mouth ulcers** usually indicate a bacterial infection.
- **Bleeding** of the skin, fins, mouth or gills can indicate a bacterial or a parasite infection.
- **Ragged looking fins** can indicate a bacterial or parasite infection.
- **Fluffy white growth** from the skin usually indicates a fungus infection, but can also be a bacterial infection.
- **Excessive slime** is a sign of skin irritation. This can be from bacterial or parasite infections, or excessive salt or medication.
• **Discoloration** of the skin can indicate bacterial infection, some parasitic conditions, poor nutrition, excessive light, or other stress.

• **Bloat** of the abdomen can indicate an internal bacterial or parasitic infection.

• **Bulging of the eyes** can indicate a tumor behind the eye, or a bacterial or parasite infection.

### Bacterial Infections

A variety of bacteria can infect fish and cause clinical signs such as hemorrhage, ulcers, ragged fins, mouth lesions, bloat and bulging of the eyes. These bacteria include species such as *Aeromonas sp*, *Pseudomonas sp*, *Flexibacter columnaris*, *Vibrio anguillarum*, and *Mycobacterium sp*. The only way to definitively identify most bacteria is to culture them, although some can be identified just by using special stains. These tests must be performed by a veterinarian and a diagnostic laboratory. Bacterial infections often require antibiotic therapy, although the **water quality** should also be tested at and the **diet** must be examined to determine if it is optimal for the species in question. Antibiotics that are often used are tetracyclines (minocycline), nitrofurantoin, nalidixic acid, and others. These are available over the counter in pet stores and should be used according to package direction. Antibiotics are usually mixed in the water for convenience, however, antibiotic treated food, or injections of antibiotics are usually more effective. Some bacteria can be resistant to antibiotics and it may be necessary to try a different one if the one does not work. Often for resistant infections, the bacteria must be cultured by a veterinarian and tested for its sensitivity to antibiotics.

### Parasite Infections

There are a large number of parasites than can infect fishes. These can only be identified by examining them under a microscope. It takes a trained veterinarian or parasitologist to identify these organisms. Parasites can fall into several categories:

• **Protozoa** are one-celled parasites. These include species that live on the skin or in the gills, such as *Ichthyophthirius multifilis* ("Ich"), *Cryptokaryon irritans, Ichthyobodo necatrix, Costia necatrix, Chalodonella cyprini, Brooklynella horridus, Odonium, Trichodonids, Tetrahymena pyriformis, Uronema miamiensis, Epistylis sp*, and *Vorticella sp*. Internal protozoans include *Hexamita* and *Spironucleus sp, Plistophora hyphehssobryconis* and other myxosporidia, cryptosporidia and coccidia such as *Eimeria*. The point being, there's a lot of them and they all have names you'll never remember.

• **Helminths** are worms that like Protozoans, can live in different parts of the fishes' bodies. Species such as *Dactylogyris sp, Gyrodactylus* and the Turbellarians live in the skin. Other species live internally such as *Neascus sp, Clinostomum spp, Diplostomulum sp*, tapeworms, *Eustrongylides spp, Capillaria* and *Camallanus spp.*

• **Crustaceans** or shelled animals can act as parasites. Learnea and Ergasilus are species that resemble worm, but are actually copepods. They can parasitize the skin, as can the fish louse, Argulus. Another parasite that has been classified as both a crustacean and as a tepeworm, that can act as a skin parasite is *Livoneca symmetrica.*
Parasites can be treated with a number of drugs. However, as with bacterial infections, parasite problems are almost always secondary to poor water quality. The parasite will live in a symbiotic state with the fish as long as environmental conditions are optimal for the fish. When the animal is stressed, its immune system becomes depressed and the parasites get the upper hand.

Some antiparasitic drugs are specific for a certain category of parasite. Over the counter products are available for common parasites like "Ich". Use as directed on the package. Other parasite treatments such as formaldehyde, malachite green, metronidazole, praziquantel, methylene blue, potassium permanganate, acriflavine, nasoten and copper should only be used by persons trained in their use (many of the products are only available to veterinarians).

**Fungal Infections**
Fungal infections are diagnosed by examining a laboratory sample under a microscope, or by culturing the organism. Fungal infections can be extremely difficult to treat in fish. Often the lesion is scraped free of fungus and iodine (povidone iodine, not tincture of iodine) can be applied. Other drugs that are used to treat human fungal infections may also be used. These require daily treatments for several weeks. Overall the prognosis is poor. Fungal infections often occur secondary to an injury or to poor water quality.

**Dietary Deficiencies**
Because dietary deficiencies can be extremely complex to sort out, the best approach is to only feed a commercial food for the species you are caring for. Feeding excessive fresh ingredients such as a fish diet, shrimp, tubifex worms, etc. to fish that do not specifically require them will result in deficiencies, as they will eat less of the balanced commercial diet. If you have an unusual species that does not have a commercial diet, consider consulting an expert in the area for dietary recommendations. Otherwise research its feeding habits and use a commercial diet for a comparable type of fish.

These recommendations on fish health and husbandry are very general. A trained veterinarian or other expert in aquaculture should always be consulted for a problem that does not resolve itself though control of water quality and removal of diseased animals.

Marine Aquarium Chemical Filtration

Marine aquarium chemical filtration is very important in a reef tank but is often misunderstood.

By J. Charles Delbeek

The topic of chemical filtration is described in just about every textbook written on marine aquariums, yet few people really seem to understand its capabilities, limitations and applications. There are numerous forms of filtration that could fall under the category of chemical filtration depending on their mode of operation. For the purposes of this article, we will limit our discussion to the common forms of chemical filtration used in reef systems: activated carbon, foam fractionation (also known as protein skimming), molecular adsorbants and ozone.

Due to the various biological processes that occur in an aquarium, a build-up of organic substances takes place. These substances are referred to as organic because they all contain the element carbon in their chemical composition. The list of substances is quite lengthy and includes such items as amino acids, proteins, phenols, creosols, terpenoids, fats, carbohydrates, hydrocarbons, plant hormones, vitamins, carotenoids and various organic acids such as fatty, acetic, lactic, glycolic, malic and citric (deGraaf, 1981; Moe, 1989). Fortunately, these various substances can be lumped together under the all-encompassing term of dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Taken as a whole, these DOCs often have various deleterious effects on aquarium inhabitants, including reduced growth, reduced disease resistance and metabolic stress.

DOCs are processed in different ways in an aquarium. Some are mineralized into ammonia by bacteria present in the tank. The ammonia is then oxidized by nitrifying bacteria into nitrite and then into the final product, nitrate. Unless utilized by plants as food, nitrate tends to accumulate in the aquarium water. Many organic substances are not mineralized but also tend to accumulate in the aquarium. This is why water changes are usually advocated as part of aquarium maintenance. Hobbyists are often under the impression that the purpose of a water change is to lower the nitrate concentration. While water changes do reduce nitrate levels, a more significant result is that the


taster, and instead of being perceived as ‘sweet’ or ‘savory’, they might both elicit a single pleasurable sensation. The higher-level consequences and central processing of these stimuli will be exciting to examine, as will the question of whether convergently-evolved nectarivorous birds detect and perceive amino acids in a similar fashion. Once new technologies allow for genome-editing, labeling, and tracing of taste-related neurons, comparative studies of taste in birds will provide valuable insights into vertebrate taste biology and the evolution of sensory perception.

17. F. Reed Hainsworth, L. L. Wolf, Nectar characteristics and food selection by

Appendix

Table S1

Number of visits of black-chinned hummingbirds in behavioral trials (for Figure 6 and 7A-C)

Type
Stimulus
# visits

Stimulus

Amino acid
L-Proline
39

Amino acid
D-Asparagine
23

Amino acid
D-Tryptophan
39

Amino acid
D-Phenylalanine
20

Synthetic Sweetener
Cyclamate
61

Synthetic Sweetener
Sucralose
45

Synthetic Sweetener
Acesulfame K
40

Sugar Alcohol
Xylitol
47

Sugar Alcohol
Erythritol
50

Sugar Alcohol
Sorbitol
43

Table S2

Number of visits of black-chinned hummingbirds in behavioral trials with different concentrations of sucrose (Figure 7D)

Sucrose (M)
0.25
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5

25
29
29
29
27
43

Table S3

Number of visits of wild hummingbirds in behavioral trials with carbohydrates and sugar alcohols (Figures 11B and C)

Stimulus
# visits of Anna's males in 15 minute trial

1 = Water
1 2 3

2 = Sucrose 250 mM
12 14 67

3 = Sucrose 500 mM

1 = Glucose 1M
19 70 16

2 = Fructose 1M

3 = Sucrose 1M

Erythritol 2.15 M
37 14 8

1 = Stimulus

2 = Mix

3 = Sucrose

Sorbitol 1.56 M
16 23 46

1 = Stimulus

2 = Mix

3 = Sucrose

Table S4

Number of visits of wild hummingbirds in behavioral trials with synthetic sweeteners (Figures 11B and 12)

Stimulus
# visits of Anna's males in 15 minute trial
# visits of all birds (first rotation only)

Aspartame 3 mM*
21 79 42
19 77 104

Aspartame 15 mM
10 50 26
12 53 122

Acesulfame K 50 mM *
10 16 39
30 85 86

Acesulfame K 100 mM
11 10 20
6 16 95

Stimulus
# visits
# visits of Anna's males in 15 minute trial

--------------------------
----------
---------------------------------------------

Cyclamate 10 mM
7
11

Cyclamate 30 mM
3
2

Sucralose 1 mM*
22
10

Sucralose 10 mM
13
24

* for all-bird trial, first ~200 bouts scored

Table S5

Number of visits of wild hummingbirds in behavioral trials (Figure 13A and B)

Stimulus
Stimulus
Mix
Sucrose
Stimulus
Mix
Sucrose

5 mM Sucralose 2013
21
65
31
28
68
103

5 mM Sucralose 2014, replicate 1
10
51
32

5 mM Sucralose 2014, replicate 2
17
48
29

5 mM Sucralose 2014, replicate 3
10
27
36

Table S6

Number of visits of wild hummingbirds in behavioral trials (Figures 13C and 14A)

Trial
# visits Anna’s males
# visits of all birds

1
2

1 = 5 mM sucralose
21
22

2 = Water

Splenda ®
15
7

1 = 0.55 mM

2 = 1.38 mM

</tbody


in morpheme boundaries

/atama/
/oka/
/imata/

a- 1PL/POSS
[a-á¹tama]
'to see’
‘to kill’

o- 3F/ POSS
[¹o-õka]

hí- 2PL/ POSS
[hí-í¹mata]

Conceivably, if more abstract rules are used, the rule stating the process of vowel lengthening in morpheme boundaries could be generalized to all environments in the language. All long vowels would derive from underlying short ones. Here, however, I will only mention the possibility of such an alternative analysis, reserving such a higher level of abstract generalization to more theoretically based approaches to the data. Such an analysis would be done in an internal reconstruction of the Apurinã phonological system.
4.0. Introduction

This chapter describes the word internal structural properties of nouns and their syntactic properties, distinguishing the noun subcategories present in the language. The grammatical bound formatives that are described in this chapter as part of the morphological structure of nouns are those that only occur as part of noun bases. Apurinã also has affix-like forms that occur outside of the morphological formatives inherent to nouns. The majority of such morphological forms belonging to this outer-layer morphology can occur not only with nouns but, also, with verbs, pronouns and/or other closed word classes (depending on the relevant case). In this chapter, I will concentrate on the description of inherently nominal bound formatives, postponing the description of non-inherently nominal affix-like forms to chapter 7, where they will be described as a special class of bound formatives.

The grammatical properties described in this chapter for nouns will motivate the following nominal categories:

1. Unless it is necessary to distinguish the general word class from its particular subclasses, I will be using the term “category” to refer to a general word class or to its particular subclasses such that, for example, “noun” and “simple noun” will be both be referred to as a “(noun) category”.

149
In classificatory nouns, there are:

1. Inalienable Nouns
2. Non-Inalienable Nouns

In alienable nouns, there are:

1. Simple Nouns
2. Mixed Nouns
3. Compound Nouns

In mixed nouns, there are:

1. Nouns of the type N
2. Nouns of the type N

In productive compound nouns, there are:

1. Nouns of the type N
2. Nouns of the type N

In non-productive compound nouns, there are:

1. Nouns of the type N
2. Nouns of the type N

In addition to these categories, there is also the following gender categorization that cuts across all the categories given above:

1. Masculine
2. Feminine

The notion of “noun” can be grammatically defined in Apurinã in terms of its morphological and syntactic properties. Therefore, the exclusively nominal morphological properties described in the next sections will be taken as the distinctive MORPHOLOGICAL delineation of nouns. Morphological properties that nouns share with verbs will be highlighted, in this work, as outside the domain of intrinsic nominal morphological features and will be described separately in chapter 7. The existence of exclusively nominal morphology was already anticipated in chapter 3, under 3.2.2, (for example, in (4)), where the plural marker was illustrated. Hence, it is morphological
properties such as the plural marker, which are intrinsic to nouns, that are described in
detail in the rest of this chapter. In addition to specific morphological properties, nouns
also have particular syntactic properties (such as, for example, distribution in larger units)
which distinguish them from verbs, pronouns etc., as will be made explicit in the
following subsections in this chapter.

4.1. Simple Nouns And Alienability

An underived noun (i.e. a noun that is not derived from another word category)
can be minimally a bare root which is intrinsically nominal (i.e. can take exclusively
nominal morphology). For instance, the words kema ‘tapir’ and anāpa ‘dog’ cannot be
reanalyzed into smaller morphological elements and can only behave as nouns in the
language. Nouns which have only one root are simple nouns. The following word
formation rule (i.e. rewriting rule), thus, represents the simplest type of noun structure
possible, one that states that a noun (i.e. N) can be realized as a bare root (i.e. Rt):

3. N → Rt

While some simple nouns are lexically marked\(^2\) to be obligatorily possessed,
others are not.\(^3\) Obligatorily possessed simple nouns are labeled inalienable nouns,
whereas non-obligatorily possessed simple nouns are labeled alienable nouns. The
inalienable versus alienable distinction is reflected in the morphological marking patterns

\(^2\) “Lexically marked” properties are those that are part of the meaning of a lexical entry. Hence obligatory possession
and unpossession are lexically marked in simple nouns because each lexical entry for simple nouns either is
obligatorily possessed or is not.

\(^3\) The present analysis differs from previous ones (cf. Facundes 1994a, 1995) in that the nouns which were there
analyzed as lexically marked for obligatory unpossession are here being analyzed as simply not having the property
described next. Some of the formatives involved in the marking patterns of simple nouns will be shown later, in section 4.3, to occur also with verb bases as nominalizers. Since the purpose of this section is to describe the morphological and syntactic factors that motivate the different lexical categories of nouns found in the language, I will, for the moment, ignore such additional functions of these formatives, returning to them in 4.3.

4.1.1 Simple Inalienable Nouns

Inalienable nouns belong to the class of simple nouns insofar as they comprise a single root. Inalienable nouns are obligatorily possessed, require no morphological marker to occur possessed, and, also, require a morphological marker (i.e. -txi) to occur unpossessed (in the cases where the semantics/pragmatics allows for the noun to occur unpossessed). As an example, the word kuwu by itself means ‘head of’, not simply ‘head’. Thus, in order to express the concept ‘head’ without specifying whose head it is, one needs to say kuwî-txi. The inalienable noun kuwu is further illustrated in the clausal contexts given below. In (4a) kuwu is the possessed noun in the construction kema kuwu ‘tapir’s head’. In (4b) kuwu requires the -txi unpossessed marker because it occurs unpossessed:

4a. [kema kuwu] mipa atama-ta
   tapir head.of Mipa look-VBLZ
   ‘Mipa looked at the tapir’s head.’

4 The nasalization of the root final vowel when preceding the suffix -txi is a property of RINAL morphemes described in detail in 4.4.3.
b. [kuwī-txi] su-pe
   head.of-UNPOSS  go-PFTV
   ‘The head person left.’ (In this case ‘head’ refers to a mythological personage who only
   exists as a head, with no other body parts.)

   In (4), as everywhere else in this work, inalienable nouns are glossed as ‘N of’,
   where “N” is the lexical meaning of the inalienable noun in question and “of” marks it as
   obligatorily possessed. Thus, in the analysis proposed here, obligatory possession is part
   of the lexical entry of inalienable nouns; that is, it is stored with the lexical entries of
   inalienable nouns, rather than added by morphosyntactic rules. As seen (4a), no
   morphological marker is added when an inalienable noun occurs possessed, and, as a
   consequence, the syntactic context in which inalienable nouns occur possessed is one
   where two nouns are placed together by juxtaposition. On the other hand, when
   inalienable nouns occur unpossessed they require the presence of the unpossession
   marker -txi:

   The example given in (4) may suggest that possession constructions such as
   [kema kuwu] can be described purely in terms of the syntactic structure internal to the
   nominal phrase. In this case, the possession relation would not be marked by any lexical
   property of the possessed noun but, instead, by a syntactic distribution in which the
   possessor would always precede the possessed noun. However, while this “precedence
   rule” is a necessary part of the grammar of possession constructions in the language, it is
   not sufficient to describe them. The reason is a twofold one: First, it is necessary to refer
   to the lexical property of inalien


 assisted by the government which assumed control over all the natural water resources in the State in 1886 (Eastburn 1990).

The most audacious irrigation project took shape at Mildura. In 1884 Canadian-born brothers George and Ben Chaffey were invited by the Victorian government to establish an irrigation settlement on the Murray (Davies 1978). The Chaffeys were granted 50,000 acres of rabbit-infested land which they cleared, subdivided and serviced with water channels. Huge pumps were placed in 1889 at psyche Bend where water was drawn from the Murray and pumped to Kings Billabong. From there, through a series of pumps and open channels it was distributed throughout the area. At psyche Bend the steam engine drove three centrifugal pumps, each delivering 8000 gallons of water per minute.

Ultimately, irrigation along the Murray was not the success it was envisaged by government or farmers. Environmentally, it was disastrous. The waste of water through evaporation and seepage was enormous. Worse still was the effect of clearing and ploughing on vast areas inland from the river. This allowed rain to run straight into the subsoil raising the water table and bringing saline groundwater close to the soil surface. The introduction of irrigation water exacerbated the problem. Irrigation-
induced salinisation was recorded at Mildura as early as 1895 (Eastburn 1990). By 1911 it appeared near Cohuna and Kerang. Today it affects virtually all regional settings along the river, including the highlands, the riverine plain and the mallee of the Murray-Darling Basin.

Timber reserves and state forests

The first attempts to control land and resources along the Murray came in 1865 when the Victorian government gave itself the power to proclaim reserves for the ‘preservation and growth of timber’ (Wright 1989: 107). By the close of the decade 276,116 acres had been set aside as state forests and timber reserves, including the Barmah Forest of 19,600 acres, created in 1869 (Wright 1989). Further reserves were created at places like Gunbower Island, Nyab and Walpolla, partly to halt the damage being done to River Red Gum forests as a result of unregulated harvesting, but also to secure a valuable economic resource.

These developments were not motivated by ecological intent. Government action was propelled largely by utilitarian concerns. Red Gum forests along the Murray continued to be heavily exploited for mill logs. During the nineteenth century, sawmillers had only to pay £15 to set up a mill in the forest, and for £10 for cartage and £5 for each man employed in felling timber, he could fell the pick of the trees in the forest (Fahey 1987). In the Barmah Forest the Red Gum trade flourished, prompting one observer to claim that the timber was an ‘object of worship on the Murray’.

The mills declare dividends because of it; the sleeper-cutter keeps the pot boiling in return for his daily sweat upon it. The bullock driver draws his Saturday night beer from it. The axeman’s camp in the bush is kept supplied in tucker by it. The barge-master, the deck hand, and the skipper of the river tramp knows its value well (Brady 1912, cited in Hibbins 1991: 38).

The 1901 Royal Commission on State Forests and Timber Reserves reported critically on the use and management of the

A load of Red Gum timber arrives at the Evans Bros sawmill in Echuca, 1923. (Historic Places Section, DNRF)

Barmah Forest. The Commission noted that the forest had been cut over several times, and that at the current rates of cutting, the forest would not yield five years’ supply (Fahey 1987).

A similar pattern of use developed in most of the Red Gum forests along the river. By 1932 the district forester at Swan Hill reported that all the red gum at Annuello, Mamboing and Toll Toll had been cut out (Hattah-Kulkyne National Park’ Resource Collection File F/C: 3/1).

It took many decades for the State’s forests to be placed under more effective management. Although a series of bills specifically for forest legislation were introduced into parliament, in 1879, 1881, 1887 and 1892, none was enacted. Finally, in 1907 a Forests Act was passed, which provided for the establishment of a State Forests Department under a Minister of Forests. A Conservator of Forests was appointed, with appropriate supporting staff and power to declare permanent forest reserve (Moulds 1991). Over the next decade, several initiatives were undertaken, including improvement works on the forest estate, the establishment of hardwood plantations and improved fire protection measures.

From the 1920s foresters based at Ouyen, Swan Hill, Nyah and Mildura made attempts to re-afforest native pine areas. Unfortunately, until the 1960s these efforts were largely unsuccessful. In the Barmah Forest, thinning and coppice treatment was carried out in the 1920s and 1930s. Foresters also experimented with non-indigenous species. At the Timbooo Forest in the 1930s Red Ironbark Eucalyptus sideroxylon and Silky Oak Grevillea robust-
ta were trialed ('Hattah-Kulkyne National Park' Resource Collection File).

Foresters were often the first advocates for conservation. It was at their insistence, during the 1930s, that settlers in the Hattah-Kulkyne area were forbidden to remove native pines from their selections. In the Barmah Forest in the 1940s foresters and scientists began to re-assess the impact of grazing. Forester, WP Tingate drew attention to the damage done to saplings by cattle, ‘When grass was dry’ he said, ‘cattle would eat anything green’. Tingate’s concerns were echoed by his colleague, Stan Duncan, who observed in 1950 that there was little hope for widespread regeneration of the forest until grazing was discontinued. The Forests Commission acted on this advice and in 1950 Barmah West, Yalca and portions of Yelliclina were closed to cattle (Fahey 1987).

Water reserves

Another government concern of the 1870s and 1880s was the need to protect water resources from the designs of squatters and selectors. Thus, in 1881 all unalienated land within one to one-and-a-half chains of the colony’s ‘Rivers, Rivulets, Creeks, Channels, Aqueducts, Lakes, Reservoirs, Swamps, Inlets, Loughs and Straits’ was reserved (Wright 1989: 224). The order ensured the Murray River water frontage was retained in public ownership and today this corridor forms the basis of the Murray River Reserves managed by Parks Victoria.

National parks

For many conservation-minded people, the creation of State forests and Crown land reserves was not enough. Towards the end of the nineteenth century a growing body of scientific opinion became increasingly vocal in their demands for the protection of wildlife and the establishment of national parks. In the broader community too there was a growing awareness of the natural world. Changing recreation patterns brought about by extensions to the rail network and the emergence of field naturalist and bushwalking clubs awakened people to the beauties of nature.

The Field Naturalists Club of Victoria (FNCV) was one of the first supporters of national parks. Established in 1880, the FNCV combined the desire for open air recreation with an interest in the natural environment. The Club instituted walking and camping expeditions in which the observation of wildlife and the collection of botanical specimens were important activities. The FNCV was soon joined by other societies, including the Wattle Club, the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, and the Bird Observers Club. This small but committed conservation movement, led by influential spokesmen like Baldwin Spencer and Sir James Barrett, began to exert pressure on the government to protect Victoria’s bushland.

In 1914, the FNCV became interested in the Hattah Lakes system near Mildura. At its meeting on 14 December the Club decided to write to the Fisheries and Game Department and request that the area be proclaimed a sanctuary for native game. Native game sanctuaries were proclaimed under the Game Act of 1890 and made it unlawful for any person to kill any native game within a designated area and specifically mentioned by proclamation (Mahon 1992). Of particular concern to the FNCV was the practice of punt-gun shooting on Lake Mornpall. Speaking for the resolution, JG O’Donoghue reported on a recent visit to the Lake where he claimed that, after a single discharge of the gun used by one individual, as many as 72 pairs of ducks had been ‘picked up’ (The Victorian Naturalist 1915: 31). The resolution was supported by the Inspector of Fisheries and Game, Mr F Lewis, and in 1915 an extensive area embracing parts of Chalka Creek, Lakes Hattah, Little Hattah, Mornpall and Brookie, together with all land


 \mapsto a_3 v_7 \mapsto a_3^2 v_3 \mapsto 0; \]
\[ v_9 \mapsto a_3 v_6 \mapsto a_3^2 v_2 \mapsto 0; \]
\[ v_8 \mapsto a_3 v_4 \mapsto a_3^2 v_1 \mapsto 0; \]
\[ v_5 - \frac{b}{a_3} v_4 \mapsto 0. \]

We therefore see that the Jordan type of \( A \) is \((3^3, 1) = (\rho_3(9), 1)\), noting that \( \rho_3(9) \) is the Jordan type of \( A' \). The basis with respect to which \( A \) has Jordan normal form is \( \{v_{10}, Av_{10}, A^2v_{10}, v_9, Av_9, A^2v_9, v_8, Av_8, A^2v_8, v_5 - \frac{b}{a_3} v_4\} \). In general, if \( i \) is minimal such that \( a_i \neq 0 \), we can use this method to show that the Jordan type of \( A \) is \((\rho_i(9), 1)\).

The case that \( b = 0 \) and \( c \neq 0 \) is for the most part similar. We illustrate this with the example of \( a_3 \neq 0 \neq c \) and \( a_i = b = 0 \) for \( i \neq 3 \). By drawing lines on the Dynkin pyramid in the same way as the \( b \neq 0 \) example above, we obtain:

In particular, we have \( v_{10} \mapsto a_3 v_7 + cv_5 \mapsto a_3^2 v_3 \mapsto 0 \); that is to say, \( A \) maps \( v_{10} \) to 0 in two steps via \( v_5 \), but in three steps via the long block of the Dynkin pyramid. We say that the string \( v_{10} \mapsto a_3 v_7 \mapsto a_3^2 v_3 \mapsto 0 \) subsumes the string \( v_{10} \mapsto cv_5 \mapsto 0 \).

This then gives a Jordan type of \((3^3, 1) = (\rho_3(9), 1)\) with respect to the basis \( \{v_{10}, Av_{10}, A^2v_{10}, v_9, Av_9, A^2v_9, v_8, Av_8, A^2v_8, v_5\} \).

As in the previous cases, we can alter the non-zero \( a_i \) to find matrices which have all Jordan types of the form \((\rho_j(9), 1)\).

Finally we consider the case that \( b \neq 0 \neq c \). If \( a_i = 0 \) for all \( i \), then we have \( v_{10} \mapsto cv_5 \mapsto bcv_1 \mapsto 0 \), and \( v_j \mapsto 0 \) for all \( j \neq 10, 5, 1 \). So here we find that \( A \) has Jordan type \((3, 1^7)\).
It remains to consider which Jordan types occur in this case for the possible choices of non-zero $a_i$.

First, suppose that $a_3 \neq 0$ and $a_i = 0$ otherwise. Here the Jordan type of $A'$ is $(3^3) = \rho_3(9)$, and we obtain

$$v_{10} \mapsto a_3 v_7 + cv_5 \mapsto a_3^2 v_3 + bc v_1 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_9 \mapsto a_3 v_6 \mapsto a_3^2 v_2 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_8 \mapsto a_3 v_4 \mapsto a_3^2 v_1 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_5 - \frac{b}{a_3} v_4 \mapsto 0.$$

Consequently we find that the Jordan type of $A$ is $(3^3, 1) = (\rho_3(9), 1)$.

The cases of $a_2 \neq 0$ and $a_1 \neq 0$ are treated in the same way, and in each case we obtain a Jordan type of $(\rho_i(9), 1)$. In effect, in these cases the string

$$v_{10} \mapsto cv_5 \mapsto bcv_1 \mapsto 0$$

is subsumed into the string arising from the largest Jordan block of $A'$.

Next, the case of $a_4 \neq 0$ and $a_i = 0$ otherwise requires a closer look. In this case the Jordan type of $A'$ is $\rho_4(9) = (3, 2^3)$, and we may represent this by drawing the following lines on the Dynkin pyramid:

Now we have $v_{10} \mapsto a_4 v_6 + cv_5 \mapsto (a_4^2 + bc) v_1$; so the Jordan type of $A$ now depends on whether or not we have $a_4^2 + bc = 0$.

63
If it is the case that $a_4^2 + bc = 0$, then we have the following:

$$v_10 \mapsto a_4 v_6 + cv_5 \mapsto (a_4^2 + bc)v_1 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_9 \mapsto a_4 v_4 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_8 \mapsto a_4 v_3 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_7 \mapsto a_4 v_2 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_5 \mapsto bv_1 \mapsto 0.$$

We thus see that $A$ has Jordan type $(2^5)$ in this case, with respect to the basis \{v_{10}, Av_{10}, v_9, Av_9, v_8Av_8, v_7, Av_7, v_5, Av_5\}.

Conversely suppose that $a_4^2 + bc \neq 0$. Then we have:

$$v_10 \mapsto a_4 v_6 + cv_5 \mapsto (a_4^2 + bc)v_1 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_9 \mapsto a_4 v_4 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_8 \mapsto a_4 v_3 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_7 \mapsto a_4 v_2 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_5 - \frac{b}{a_5} v_6 \mapsto 0.$$

Thus we find that $A$ has Jordan type $(3, 2^3, 1)$.

Now suppose that $a_5 \neq 0$, and $a_i = 0$ otherwise. In this case the Jordan type of $A'$ is $\rho_5(9) = (2^4, 1)$. We then find the following:

$$v_{10} \mapsto cv_5 + a_5 v_4 \mapsto bcv_1 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_9 \mapsto a_5 v_3 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_8 \mapsto a_5 v_2 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_5 - \frac{b}{a_5} v_7 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_6 \mapsto 0;$$
$$v_4 \mapsto 0.$$
In this case also, we see that $A$ has Jordan type $(3, 2^2, 1^3)$. Finally, we can use the exact same argument to show that if $a_6 \neq 0$ (respectively, $a_7 \neq 0$ and $a_8 \neq 0$) and $a_i = 0$ otherwise, then in this case $A$ has Jordan type $(3, 2, 1^5)$ (respectively, $(3, 1^7)$ and $(3, 1^7)$). We conclude by observing that we have obtained matrices in the centraliser of $D(9, 1)$ of each of the Jordan types described in Proposition 4.2.3.

Having shown that Proposition 4.2.3 holds in $\mathfrak{gl}_{10}(k)$


tr>

φ = 0 ~ 33; C = 23~36 kg/cm²

C = 18 ~ 24 kg/cm³ ; f = 1,0

3. Unconfine
C = kg/cm³ ; f = ~ 1,2

C = kg/cm³ ; f = ~

4. Consolidation
Pc = 1,4 ~ 1,7 kg/cm² ; Cv = 0,00161 to 0,00169 cm²/sec

Pc = 1,31,7 kg/cm² ; Cv = 0,001580,00210 cm²/sec

5. Swelling
k = 0,590 ~ 0,913%

k = ~ %

**Figure 7. Topography of the study area**

**Tabel 2. Parameter tanah sebagai input pada pemodelan**

Lapisan
NSPT
Kedalaman (m)
Jenis tanah
Jenis sampel
Berat isi tanah sat
Berat isi tanah unsat
Modulus young E<sub>ref</sub>
Poisson ratio
Kohesi C<sub>ref</sub>
Sudut geser γ

1
32
0-8
Lempung Kepasiran
Undisturb
17
17
30000
0.2
35
32

2
50
8-14
Pasir
Undisturb
17
20
50000
0.2
42
36

http://eduvest.greenvest.co.id
Results of Modeling and Analysis

In this modeling, the use of data involves several types of data:

1. Topography is used to provide information about the variation in the area, elevation contours, and vegetation levels. Here is the topographic map covering the area around the research object. Looking at the results of the Topography Survey in a project area of 9,076 hectares. The main road access is the Cidahu highway located at the hilltop position, so on the left and right sides of the road, the ground conditions descend in tiers with a height difference of about 16 meters and 3 tiers with very steep slopes (Figure 7).

2. Soil parameters and characteristics. The correlation values used still refer to the results of field testing and laboratory testing by observing the types and NSPT in each layer, with results as seen in Table 1 above. Soil parameter data from field testing, laboratory testing results, and correlations used in the analysis using the Plaxis 3D V20 program for layer parameters are shown in Table 2.

3. Structure and load data. This structure data is related to the technical specifications of the materials used and the loads and tolerances of those loads.

The results of slope stability analysis in the area where landslides occurred on the Cidahu road in Cidahu Village, Kuningan Regency, were conducted using the PLAXIS 3D V20 program. It can be seen from Figure 8a, which is the result of modeling from the existing condition, the slip plane with results cannot be further analyzed due to "some soil body collapse" and cannot produce a safety factor (SF) value. From the analysis results above, it can be seen that the slope experienced landslides and required remedial action. It can be seen in Figure 8b with the addition of embankments as retainers; the slip plane and deviatoric strain are too large and produce a safety factor value of 1.18. This value, according to SNI-8460-2017, is considered unsafe because it is less than 1.5; therefore, alternative treatments are performed.
Figure 8. Slip field exiting conditions: a) without reinforcement piles and b) with additional reinforcement piles

Landslides at the study site occurred after rain, so the main cause of this collapse was the instability of the soil retaining wall when rain occurred. This instability is caused by several factors, such as poor foundation dimension design and low quality of implementation. Along with that, the fall of the pile behind the wall is caused by water seepage from the surface and groundwater flow. This causes compression of the pile behind the wall pair and a fracture on the outer side of the wall in the form of piping.

In the initial stage, namely the determination of the analysis phase which aims to determine the number of construction stages and determine the type of calculation, this study uses 6 phases including the initial phase, the initial construction phase (sheet pile, stake, anchor), the pile phase, the loading phase, the 2nd construction phase (alternative handling 1 & 2) and the safety condition phase.

Alternative Treatment 1

Alternative treatment 1 is carried out in order to find out other conditions that may be more effective and also remain safe, and also function as additional reinforcement if needed. The model of the handling structure as shown in Figure 9, by replacing the existing soil retaining wall with the installation of a new retaining wall and the addition of ribs on the inside.

Seen in Figure 10 of gelincir and deviatoric strain fields and the results obtained from the results of this analysis the safety factor value of 1.516 based on (SNI-8460-2017) can be said to be safe because > 1.5.
The picture below is a continuation of the results of the analysis of conditions in the field which turns out that the x-direction reaction (horizontal) of the heap soil is not restrained and there is "some body soil collapse". **Figure 11.** Alternative Handling Structure Model 2 involves the existing sheet pile with the addition of a retaining wall with rib on the outside as reinforcement with additional piles. **Figure 12.** the slip and shading fields are too large, so by adding additional structures, shading and slipping planes are reduced so that after there is an additional structure FS becomes 1.63 based on SNI-8460-2017 it is said to be safe because it is more than 1.50.
CONCLUSION

Based on the evaluation of slope stability and the calculation of soil retaining walls on the slope on the Cidahu road in Cidahu village, Cidahu Regency, the following results were found: 1. In slope stability analysis using the PLAXIS 3D V20 program, the initial condition (existing) is a slope with reinforcement using anchor beam, beam and sheet pile with the addition of piles as reinforcement, it shows that the safety factor (SF) is less safe against landslides, with an SF<1.5 value, which is 1.18.

To address the potential for further slope avalanches, an analysis of soil retaining walls designed to meet safety standards was conducted. The soil retaining wall involves retaining wall, rib and bored pile. With alternative option 1, namely using a new retaining wall with a rib on the inside with a safety factor of 1.61 and alternative 2 using an existing sheet pile with the addition of a retaining wall with a rib on the outside and an additional pile and bored pile obtained by a safety factor of 1.63.

REFERENCES

BPS Kabupaten Kuningan, 2020, Kuningan dalam Gambar.
Fellenius, W., 1927, Static soil calculations with friction and cohesion (adhesion) assuming circular cylindrical sliding surfaces. Ernst & Sohn, Berlin.
Janbu, B.K., 1956, Norwegian Geotechnical institute Publication No. 16<|endoftext|>Physics in pp collisions
LHC, machine, detectors, physics

Johannes Haller
(Universität Hamburg)
Motivation/Introduction: open questions in particle physics
- The Standard Model
- New physics?

Hadron Collider Physics
- Overview of colliders
- pp colliders vs e⁺e⁻ colliders
- LHC
  - Conditions of data taking
  - Main physics goals

Detectors: ATLAS and CMS
- Reminder: general design of collider detectors
- Main features ATLAS
- Main features CMS
- Data acquisition and trigger systems

Physics: Existing results and prospects at the LHC:
- Test of the SM at Hadron Colliders (Top


 until the fuel surface reaches the ignition temperature. The ignition temperature is assumed as 90ºC.

Calculation Results
Calculations are carried out for each case of experiments under smoke layer. The calculated results are shown in Fig. 16. In the experiments, the time to spread gradually decreases as the depth of the suspended walls increases. As shown in Fig. 16a), this tendency is reproduced well by method B. However, the calculated spread time is shorter than the experiments. This is because the method B would overestimate the radiation heat flux. In contrast, method A results in too long spread time as the depth of the suspended walls. As shown in Fig. 16b), smoke layer temperature is calculated excessively, because the fire spread takes place simultaneously in calculation, while in experiments symmetrical spread is not so often.

![Fig 16a) time to spread](image)

![Fig 16b) smoke layer temperature (method B)](image)

FIGURE 16. Comparison of the calculation results with experimental results

CONCLUSION

In the present study, the time required for a fire to spread between five liquid fuel pools is measured in an open area, near a wall, under a ceiling, and under a ceiling with a suspended wall. A model was developed to predict the fire spread between the fuel trays and compared them experimentally.

In an open area, an asymmetrical fire spread is observed in some cases because the merging and leaning of the flame along the direction of the fire spread delays the fire spread along other directions. This necessitates the estimation of the merged flame height and the leaning of the flame. An empirical model for estimating the flame height from multiple fire sources has been proposed by Sugawa et al. In contrast, the leaning of the flame is unclear and requires further study.

When the fire sources are placed on the wall, the extension of the flames increases the thermal radiation to the vicinity and accelerates the fire spread. The flames enlarge along planar walls and the thermal radiation along the orthogonal direction is larger than that in the other cases, which is believed to affect the fire spread. In contrast, when the fire sources are placed away from the wall, the leaning of the flame decreases the thermal radiation along some direction and delays the fire spread process. The effects of the distance between the fire sources and the wall on the flame height and the leaning of the flame are unclear and require further study.
When the ceiling height is higher than the maximum flame height, the rate of fire spread and the HRR are almost the same as those in an open area because of the low temperature of the ceiling surface and the ceiling jets. In contrast, when the flames touch the ceiling, the rate of fire spread increases as the ceiling height decreases. In particular, when the flames continuously impinge the ceiling, the flames spread concentrically under the ceiling and the rate of fire spread increases significantly; further, the HRR for each pool increases rapidly. The ceiling jets of strong fire plumes significantly affect the fire spread and increase the HRR of the original fire source that produces the fire plume. The temperature distribution model has been proposed by Heskedstad et al. Therefore, a method that predicts the thermal radiation to the floor by using this model should be developed.

In the initial stage of fire development in the experiments conducted under a ceiling with a suspended wall, the effects of the thermal radiation from flames on the fire spread are dominant, while those of the smoke layer are marginal. Subsequently, the smoke layer temperature increases and the thermal radiation from the smoke layer becomes dominant. The calculated results of the fire spread are in fair agreement with the measurements; however, the calculated fire-spread time is too small if the radiation from the smoke layer and the flame are independently calculated and added. In the case where the flames enter the smoke layer, the interaction between the flame and the smoke layer would have to be calculated correctly. This issue is currently being studied.

REFERENCES

3. Hasemi, Y. and Tokunaga, T., “Some Experimental Aspects of Turbulent Diffusion Flame and Buoyant Plumes from Fire Source Against Wall and in a Corner of Walls”, Combustion Science and Technology, 40, 1-17, 1984<|endoftext|>Carry Speculative Adder with Variable Latency for Low Power VLSI

IJCA Proceedings on National Conference on Innovation in Computing and Communication Technology

© 2016 by IJCA Journal

NCICCT 2016 - Number 1

Year of Publication: 2016

Authors:
Subhashinee A.
Rajasekaran C.

Abstract

Arithmetic logic units and digital signal processors widely uses adders. It is the most complicated arithmetic circuits in digital electronics. The existing adders suffer from critical path delay, area overhead and power consumption. Speculative adders are designed with variable latency that combines speculation technique along with correction methodology to attain high performance in terms of low area overhead over the existing adders. In speculative adders the sum and carry generation part is separated to reduce the area overhead. Carry Speculative Adder (CSPA) uses carry predictor circuit to reduce power consumption and to reduce the computational time and it uses error recognition and error correction circuit to detect the fault.
occurred in the partial sum generator and to recover it to get accurate results. CSPA circuit provides error free output so that it can be used in many digital applications. This speculative adder can reduce the delay upto 11.88%.

References

- Y. Chen, H. Li, J. Li, and C. -K. Koh, "Variable-latency adder (VL-adder): New arithmetic circuit design practice to overcome NBTI," in Proceedings International...
Index Terms

Computer Science
Circuits And Systems

Keywords
Speculative Adder  Variable Latency  Error Detection  Error Correction<|endoftext|>The Improved Recognition Method of Radiation Signal under the Condition of Unstable SNR

Yun Lin*, Xiaochun Xu and Jinfeng Pang

College of Information and Communication Engineering
Harbin Engineering University
Harbin, China
linyun@hrbeu.edu.cn

Abstract

The existing recognition methods of radiation source signal are extremely sensitive to the change of signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In order to solve this problem, in this paper, it proposes a radar signal recognition method based on fractal box dimension and neural network under the condition of unstable SNR. Firstly, it extracts box counting dimension features of four different radiation source signals, and then uses the characteristic values of stable box counting dimension as the inputs of the neural network. Finally, it can recognize the four different kinds of radiation source signals. Simulation results show that, taking the box counting dimension characteristics as the input of the neural network to train, test and classify, it has good recognition rate in a certain changed range of SNR, and it has more widely application in the application environment.

Keywords: radiation source signal recognition; fractal box dimension; neural network; unstable SNR

1. Introduction

Radar signal recognition [1] is an important part of the modern electronic reconnaissance and electronic support system. It is also the key problem need to be solved in radar signal processing. The traditional identification methods [2-4] usually recognize radar signals based on several important parameters characteristics, including the pulse width PW, signal pulse repetition intervals PRI, signal carrier frequency RF, intra-pulse modulation information MOP, signal arrive angle AOA, signal pulse amplitude PA, and signal pulse arrival time TOA, etc. First, estimating these parameters, and then using them to match with the characteristic parameters in the database to reach the purpose of recognition. However, with the signal environment getting more and more complicated and the emerging of different radar signals, the recognition rate is always low using the traditional characteristic parameters. And it has high requirements of the stability of noise environment. With the rapid development of science and technology, people began to focus on some of the strong anti-interference signal characteristics. While the fractal box dimension [5] has been widely used in mechanical fault diagnosis [6], exploration [7] and other areas. This article will introduce the fractal box dimension as the characteristic parameters to the radar signal recognition, in preparation for the subsequent identification. Because the fractal box dimension has good noise immunity, so even if the SNR unstable environment, the value of extracted features is still relatively stable.
The article first proposed the fractal box dimension characteristics of four kinds of radar signals for feature extraction, and using neural network classifiers [8-9] to classify four radar signals under the instability signal to noise ratio. Using the good robustness characteristic parameters combines with the neural network classifiers which has strong adaptive ability, even if the signal to noise ratio changes in the environment, it can still sort of radar signals with good recognition results.

2. Basic Theoretical Knowledge

2.1. Theory of Fractal Dimension

Fractal dimension [10] is the main parameters in fractal theory. It can quantitatively describe the complexity of fractal sets; measure the extent of irregular signals. Among them, Hausdorff dimension is the basic fractal theory of fractal dimension. In practice, the calculation of the Hausdorff dimension is very difficult, so many people usually use fractal box dimension to describe the measure of the signal information.

Fractal box dimension is defined as follows: Make a metric space \((X, d)\), \(H\) is a non-empty compact set of \(X\), \(B(x, \varepsilon)\) is a closed ball with the center of \(x\) and the radius of \(\varepsilon\). Let \(A\) be a non-empty compact set of \(X\), for every positive number \(\varepsilon\), let \(N(A, \varepsilon)\) be the number of the smallest closed ball covering \(A\), the radius of the closed ball is \(\


another study by Halmiton and Desmond (2003) that was done in Zimbabwe, 44 fresh wild elephant faecal samples were collected. Baerman’s technique resulted in 73% positive and 23% negative samples. Halmiton and Desmond (2003) reported that due to equipment difficulties the exact identification of the larvae was not possible. Sedimentation resulted in 36% of the
samples containing strongyles, 57% containing strongyloids and 36% of the samples containing negative samples. Floatation resulted in 93% of the samples containing strongyles 93% of the samples containing strongyloids and 51% negative samples (Halmiton and Desmond, 2003).

Strongyle parasites are therefore common in elephants. However the biology of strongyles in elephants is not quite well understood. One other highlight from the above studies is that strongyle parasites in elephants can be treated with different medicines for example Fenbendazole and Oral Kalbend (Fowler and Mikota, 2006: Suresh, 2000).

2.4 Elephant body condition and nutrition

Elephants in the wild have been described as general feeders consuming more than 400 different species of plants (Fowler and Mikota, 2006). Grass is preferred by elephants but they also consume trees, shrubs, leaves, twigs, roots, fruits, seeds and stones (Fowler and Mikota, 2006). It has been demonstrated through observational studies, faecal analysis and gastrointestinal studies that elephants are both grazers and browsers. The feeding choices of elephants have been linked to many factors with variation mainly influenced by habitat and season.

According to Fowler and Mikota (2006), elephants in Tsavo National Park in Kenya spend 48-63% of their time feeding. Fowler and Mikota (2006) indicated that even though there are quite a number of studies on elephant feeding behaviour, there are few studies focusing on nutrition analyses. The few nutrition analysis studies that have been conducted were through collection of plant materials, stomach content or other sections of the gastrointestinal tract. Another way to determine the quality of diet is through faecal sample analysis (Leslie and Starkey, 1985).
A study conducted by McCullagh (1967) investigated stomach content of 148 elephants at different times of the year for nutrition chemical composition. On average, the study found that samples contained 8.4g of protein, 1.5g of fat, 43.5g of carbohydrate, 35.7g of fibre and 11.0g of mineral material in 100g of their dry matter. This study concluded that those elephants may be deficient in protein in dry season than wet season, also the intake of calcium was high during the dry season than in the wet season. The analysis of the quality of the dietary fat showed it to contain relatively small amounts of essential poly unsaturated fatty acids. Ullrey et al., (1997) stated that while observations are not sufficient to set minimum nutrient requirements, analysis of plant parts eaten by elephants can help define nutrient intakes in wild diets.

For protein requirements, browse species in the Hwanke National Park in Zimbabwe in 1997 had 8-24% of crude protein (CP) (Ullrey et al., 1997). As for minerals, browse plant species eaten by wild African elephants during February 1997 in Hwanke National Park, Zimbabwe contained 0.35-2.4% calcium (Ca) and 0.11-0.33% phosphorus (P) (Ullrey et al., 1997). In another study, a 10yr old male African elephant was observed for 12 hours during daylight in Tsavo National Park, Kenya and 64 plant species were consumed (Bax et al., 1963). CP concentration ranged from 6-23% from the 59 plant species that were analysed. Crude fibre concentrations in the leaves of trees used by African elephants in the Kasungu National Park, Malawi, ranged from 13-62% (Ullrey et al., 1997).

Alternative analyses for neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), and lignin have been developed, which are more accurate in characterizing plant cell wall fractions that are mostly difficult to digest. NDF includes lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose, whereas ADF includes lignin and cellulose (Robinson, 1999). This analytical system has been used to characterize fibre concentrations in plants consumed by African elephants in a private game reserve bordering the Kruger National Park in South Africa, and averages of 62% NDF, 48%
ADF, and 15% lignin were found (Ullrey et al., 1997). The nutrient requirements of elephants have not been defined; however the similarities in the digestive systems of the elephant and the horse suggested that the nutrient needs for the elephants might reasonably be compared to the nutrient requirements of the horse (Fowler and Mikota, 2006; Robbins, 1983). A study that was conducted by Rode et al. (2006) investigating the nutritional ecology of elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda, found that energy and protein concentrations were within the recommended levels, but the concentrations of several minerals such as sodium were low relative to the requirements (Table 1) based on captive elephants and values reported for other wild populations. The study suggested that mineral nutrition is most likely to be one of the important factors that drive elephant behaviour and patterns of habitat use.

**Table 1**: Suggested elephant nutrition requirements (on dry matter basis) (Rode et al., 2006).

Nutritional elements
Elephant Requirements
Horses Requirements

Copper (ppm)
-
10

Manganese (ppm)
-
40

Zinc (ppm)
-
40

Iron (ppm)
157.0
50

Sodium (ppm)
2000
1000

Magnesium (%)
0.1
0.3-0.4

Potassium (%)
0.6
0.3-0.6

Calcium (%)
1.5
-

Phosphorus (%)
-
-

Crude Protein
-
8.0

ADF (%)
10-12
-

Energy (KJg⁻¹)
16.7
-

2.5 Conclusion

This chapter identified techniques used to determine elephant body condition of both African and Asian elephants. The studies revealed that measuring body condition of elephants using physical body scores has been used for a long time and is still used. Furthermore, literature revealed that there has been a relationship between strongyle parasites and body condition. Another highlight is that nutrition composition of elephant feed is not well studied, and hence the nutritional requirements for elephants are not clear. Studies investigating the relationship between individual nutrition and body condition are limited. What is also evident from literature is that the Asian elephants are far better studied than wild African elephants. Many African elephant studies have been done in Kenya and Uganda, and there is very little research conducted on elephants in Namibia.
CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

This study was conducted with permission from the Ministry of Environment and Tourism under the supervision of the University of Namibia and a non-profitable organisation, Utopia Scientific. Data were collected during winter of 2012 and 2013 from June to August, this allowed for comparison of elephant body condition during winter over a period of two years.

3.1 Study Area

The study was conducted in Etosha National Park, one of southern Africa’s most important game reserves, located at latitude 18° 94’ 53”S and longitude 15° 89’ 78”E and it covers an area of 22,270 km² (du Plessis, 2001). In its centre is a salt pan which covers 40% of the park (du Plessis, 2001). The park has high biodiversity with grass and thorn savannah and Mopane bush land in the west and dry forests in the north-east (de Beer et al., 2005). The coolest and dry months are May to September, while the rainy season is from November to March. Average daily


 available magnetization, and neglecting relaxation effects and pulse imperfections, increases the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio relative to a reference spectrum, albeit only for a subset of signals. It is this aspect that is of particular interest to reaction monitoring, where maximizing sensitivity can be highly beneficial. Below we present the design and implementation of a new pure-shift method, explore its scope and limitations, and demonstrate its application in the analysis of the kinetics of chemical reactions and equilibria by \(^{19}F\) and \(^31P\) NMR.
EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

NMR Experiments. The $^{19}$F spectra were acquired on a two-channel 400 MHz Bruker Avance III NMR spectrometer equipped with a Prodigy probe or on a three-channel 400 MHz Bruker Avance III NMR spectrometer equipped with a 5 mm z gradient BB TBO H, $^{19}$F probe. The $^{19}$F spectra of 1 in CDCl$_3$ presented in Figure 2 were acquired using the following parameters: relaxation and nominal acquisition times of 1.5 and 17.4 s, respectively, two dummy scans and 4 scans were accumulated. The $^{19}$F SHARP spectrum was acquired using the pulse sequence of Figure 1, 17 and 34 µs 90° and 180° pulses, respectively, $n = 256$, 34 ms chunk time and the overall acquisition time per one scan of 17.9 s.

The $^{19}$F SHARP spectra of a mixture of 3 and 4 in a mixture of 1:1 CD$_3$OD/H$_2$O presented in Figure 4 were acquired using the pulse sequence of Figure 3. $n = 128$, 13.6 ms acquisition chunks, 10 ms 180° sinc pulse during the initial SPFGSE. The relaxation and the nominal acquisition time of 10 and 3.49 s were used, respectively. Two dummy scans and four scans were accumulated. The spectra were processed by applying a 0.1 Hz exponential line broadening and a forward complex linear prediction (the stated signals half-height linewidths quote values without this additional line broadening). The $^{19}$F SHARP spectra of Figure 5 were acquired using identical parameters as used for the spectra of Figure 4, but with the $x$, $y$, $z$, $z'$, $x$, $y$, and $y'$ shim corrections deviating by + 500 units from their optimal values.

The $^{19}$F SHARP spectra of 1 presented in Figure 6 were acquired using the pulse sequence of Figure 1. The relaxation and the nominal acquisition times of 3 and 1.09 s were used, respectively. The loop parameter $n$ was set to 64, 128, 256 or 512, yielding acquisition chunks of 8.5, 4.25, 2.13 and 1.06 ms; 70 µs 180° $^{19}$F pulses were applied during acquisition. Two dummy scans and two scans were accumulated. The spectra were processed by applying a 0.5 Hz exponential line broadening (the half-height linewidths are quoted without this additional line broadening).

Spectra of F-3 or 3 in CD$_3$OD/H$_2$O (1:1 ratio) presented in Figure 7 were acquired using the SHARP pulse sequence of Figure 1, relaxation delay of 3 s, acquisition time of 0.89 s, two dummy scans and two scans, a 125 µs 90° rectangular excitation pulse and 250 µs rectangular 180° pulses during the acquisition. The length of 180° rectangular pulses was set to avoid perturbation of the F-1 and F-4 spins. The acquisition chunk lengths varied between 0.845 and 3.38 ms. The spectra were processed using exponential line broadening of 0.5 Hz (the half-height linewidths are quoted without this additional line broadening). The 1D $^{19}$F spectra were acquired using a 90° excitation pulse and parameters used for the SHARP spectra.

KOH catalyzed protodeboronation of 2/2a in 1:1 H$_2$O/dioxane mixture was monitored by the acquisition of $^{19}$F NMR sel-SHARP spectra (pulse sequence of Figure 3, $n =$128) in a stop-flow experiment (Figure 8). Two scans were acquired per spectrum using a relaxation delay of 1.5 s and the overall acquisition time of 4.99 s per scan, which consisted of 2.18 s of sampling (acquisition chunk time of 8.5 ms) and 2.81 s (10 ms Gaussian pulses, 300 us PFGs and 200 us gradient recovery delays). Two dummy scans were applied before the acquisition of the first spectrum only. Sixteen spectra were acquired with the first and the last starting and 208 s, respectively, after the mixing was triggered.

Spectra of 5/5a in 1:1 H$_2$O/dioxane mixture presented in Figure 9 were acquired using the sel-SHARP pulse sequence of Figure 3, relaxation delay of 3 s, acquisition time of 1.5 s, two dummy scans and four scans, a 93 µs 90° rectangular excitation pulse, 1 ms 180° Gaussian pulse during the SPFGSE and 186 µs rectangular 180° pulses during the acquisition. The length of 180° rectangular pulses was set to avoid perturbation of the other fluorine spins. The chunk lengths was set to 23.4 ms. The 1D $^{19}$F spectra were acquired using relaxation delay of 3 s, acquisition time of 0.87 s, 2 dummy scans and 8 scans. Samples were prepared by mixing 500 µl of 0.1 M 5 containing 0.01 M trifluoroacetic acid with increasing amounts of 0.1 M 5 in 0.1 M KOH. In this way the concentration of 5 was kept constant. The resulting concentrations of KOH, together with obtained linewidths and chemical shifts, are reported in (Supporting Information, Table S4).

Line Shape Analysis. As indicated, the 5/5a exchange (Equation 3) is fast on the chemical shift scales ($k_e >> \Delta \omega$, where $\Delta \omega = \omega_1 - \omega_2$ and $\omega_1$, $\omega_2$ are the resonance frequencies of spins in sites A and B in the absence of chemical exchange) and also on the relaxation time scale ($\Delta \omega >> \Delta \tau$ and $k_e >> \Delta \tau$, where $\Delta \tau = \Delta \tau_{AB} - \Delta \tau_{AA}$ and $\Delta \tau_{AB}$ are the relaxation rate constants for sites in sites A and B in the absence of chemical exchange and $k_e = k_a + k_b$). Under these circumstances, the relative site populations, $p_A$ and $p_B$ ($p_A + p_B = 1$) satisfy the balance relationship $p_Ak_A = p_Bk_B$. If $p_A >> p_B$ (or $p_B >> p_A$), the transverse relaxation rate constant $R_2$ of the population–averaged resonance line is given by Equation (1) where $R_2^2 = R_2^2A + R_2^2B$. The position of the observed spectral line is given by Equation (2)

$$R_2 = R_2^2A + p_AR_2^2A\Delta \omega_0^2/k_{ex}$$

$$\Omega = p_AR_2B + p_BR_2B$$

(1)

(2)

Based on the measured values of $\Omega_2$, $\Delta \omega_0$, $\Omega_3$, $R_2A$, and $R_2B$ values of $p_A$ and $k_{ex}$ were calculated using Equations (1) and (2).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Alternative Pure-Shift Arrangements. In a pure-shift method designed for reaction monitoring, the r.f. carrier is placed on the chemical shift of a selected nucleus. This arrangement ultimately produces an exponential free induction decay (FID) with zero chemical shift modulation. Under these circumstances, 180° pulses can be repeatedly applied to the active spin. The effective $\theta/180^\circ$ rotation of the detected/coupled protons, which is at the heart of broadband decoupling of selected signals during indirect$^{19}$F or direct$^{19}$F acquisition periods, can thus be replaced with a $180^\circ/\alpha^\circ$ element, maintaining all the attributes of a pure shift methodology while realizing additional benefits.
In its basic form, the outlined pure-shift real-time experiment removes all heteronuclear couplings of an isolated nucleus, e.g. a $^{19}$F in a fluorinated organic molecule – a motif common in contemporary medicinal chemistry. The experiment