, standard honeysuckles, and philadelphuses.

The lily-pond is of irregular form, bordered with rocks and planted at intervals with lotuses, water-lilies, Cyperus papyrus, and the quaint and charming floating pontederia.

Thus we have made the round of the park and come to the Casino Restaurant, which is worth visiting in early or late May of all seasons, for the sake of the wonderful wistaria effect crowning the Pergola, a summer shelter overlooking the Mall at this point. The purple clusters of flowers lie in piles among the tossing tendrils and leaves until against the blue sky beyond the effect is that of a purple and green cloud resting on the arbor.
Before concluding this brief itinerary of the park, however, I must take the reader on horseback, as it were, to two or three bits of charming scenery on the bridle-paths, which can be seen nowhere else as well. The first is on a curve around the southwest side of the lower green near Seventh Avenue and 59th Street. There is a great rock here, and an ever widening meadow, with a distant view over another meadow and plenty of trees and shrubs round about. The sweet influences of spring at this point are not to be surpassed anywhere else in the park.

Another charmingly secluded spot may be found by passing up the bridle-path to the stone bridge at 77th Street and Eighth Avenue to a pool of water with a loop road leading to the water’s brink and a great sheer rock on the opposite shore. The shrubs on the bank at this point are attractive, in both spring and autumn, including spireas, dogwoods, *Lonicera fragrantissima*, weigelas, privets, and masses of honeysuckles over the small rocks on the edge of the water, and *Ampelopsis tricuspidata* and Virginia creepers on the stone bridge and sheer rock. I would advise the reader to mount a horse and ride through the park, if only for the opportunity of sauntering down this loop bridle-path at 77th Street and Eighth Avenue.

There are, besides, choice bits of landscape along the bridle-paths between 81st Street and 86th Street and up by 97th Street among the pin-oaks. But in no other way can the great North Meadow be seen so well as on horseback from the bridle-path that runs round its entire extent. On the east side the bridle-path is completely embowered
with trees, and from these you look out with peculiar enjoyment over the expanse of the North Meadow.

There are five and one half miles of bridle-paths, and nine miles of drives, and thirty miles of foot-paths in Central Park. Altogether, there are eight hundred and fifty acres in Central Park, including the one hundred and fifty acres of reservoir.

It might doubtless be interesting to speak of many other individual features of marked interest in Central Park. I do not, however, think it expedient in such a general description and illustration of general principles as this to be drawn into such emphasis of details. Indeed, the manifest superiority of the design as a whole is its general adequacy to the effect sought, which was simple park scenery in the midst of a city.

This seems a proper place to remark that another great attraction possessed by Central Park is the essential unity of its design. Here is a park laid out on paper according to definite artistic conceptions and then executed substantially as conceived in the beginning.

Before closing my remarks on Central Park I desire to direct especial attention to the popular-amusement feature insisted upon in its arrangement. The chief and most important office of Central Park is not to furnish agreeable driving territory for the beau monde, the millionaires, and the lovers of horseflesh. It is not a scheme to please and attract the fashionable, but it is a playground for the young people, a pleasant open-air breathing space for the mothers and fathers who desire to go into the country and cannot get there.
As a part of this scheme for the pleasure and well-being of the multitude there is music on the Mall twice a week, goat-carriages, donkeys, merry-go-rounds, summer-houses, grounds for croquet, lawn-tennis, base-ball, foot-ball, and lacrosse, and, above all, grounds everywhere for picnics in spring and early summer. Last year there were picnic permits issued to over seventy-five thousand children, whose wants were ministered to by park employés without charge.

In order to secure the greatest amount of pleasure from these games, the turf requires special and solicitous attention. It must be mown frequently, and manured yearly; and above all it must not be used when soft from rain, and liable to be torn up by the feet of visitors.

Before closing this chapter on city parks, I must say a few words about small city squares or greens. They are generally not large enough to consist of more than a few square yards or half a dozen acres. Usually they come on some irregularly shaped space situated at the junction of two or more streets. Properly they should be termed "Greens," like the Bowling Green, at the foot of Broadway, New York City. The green effect of the grass should be made the chief and most important feature of their treatment.

Some fence of a simple and inconspicuous character should surround the plot, and this fence should be masked and ornamented with shrubs and trees, but the interior should be simple open greensward, with a few bright bits of bedding, and trees enough for shade along the paths. The semi-artificial lines and masses of formal bedding are out of place in the strictly rural scenery of Central Park,
but in the city parks they look well amid the architectural lines of the surrounding buildings.

Every small city park should have a widening of the pathway towards the centre, and if possible an open plaza where the children may play and the visitor linger. Architectural adornments may properly be employed in small parks, so long as they do not seriously interfere with the open grass effect. There may be even busts or statues, but especially suitable are drinking fountains, and fountain basins, with great sprays of water.

The fountain basins may be effectively ornamented with lotuses, water-lilies, and other decorative water-plants. All such adornment of small city squares or greens tends to appropriately enliven and enrich the general appearance of a crowded city, where the effect of everything is artificial, and more or less formal or tedious.

I should warn those who propose to plant these small city squares, that the surrounding conditions are not primarily favorable for the growth of plants. The air is apt to be hot, dry, and dust-laden, if not actually impure. Consequently the soil should be thoroughly enriched, and the most vigorous and hardy trees and shrubs employed. Evergreens seldom do well in large, crowded cities. It is better to plant certain hardy, deciduous trees and shrubs, such as the privet, weigelia, snowball, *Spirea opulifolia*, American thorn (*Crataegus Crus-galli*), philadelphus, American elm, honey-locust, American linden, Norway and sugar maples, and the Oriental plane trees.

The care of these small city squares is often difficult on account of the crowds that congregate or pass through, and
on account of the heat and dust, but it can be done by continual watering, cleaning, and cultivating. Canal Street Park, New York, is situated in perhaps the most difficult position in the city of which it is possible to conceive. The surrounding houses are tenements, produce stores, and the like, and the incessant traffic consists largely of trucks and carts, laden with coal, refuse, vegetables, and the roughest material. Dirt is ubiquitous, and the heat at times is great. And yet the grass is always green here, and the shrubs, trees, and bedding plants, always thriving. The park is only 195 feet long by 69 feet wide, but it occupies the entire attention of one gardener, and two police officers, either one of whom is on guard at night and during the day.

It is a pleasure to see the mothers with their children gather here on the settees throughout the long sultry summer nights, and realize that this unspeakable boon can be secured at such comparatively low cost. Every city should seek to adorn these small greens, to increase their number, and to enlarge their boundaries.
CHAPTER XV.

RAILWAY, CHURCHYARD, AND CEMETERY LAWN-PLANTING.

A RAILWAY LAWN.

An encouraging sign of the times is the interest which has been manifested of late by our railroad officials in the appearance of the stations on their lines. Many of these buildings and surroundings, which were formerly eyesores, have been so beautified by the judicious expenditure of some thought and a little money, that they now lend an added charm to the landscape; and were they to be removed, they would be missed with regret.

I had occasion lately to visit one of these recently improved stations. The natural surface of the ground rose rapidly in the rear of the building, and along the edge of the great rock mass, cut through just here by the railroad, gurgled a small, tumbling rill across the road, under a board or two. Except just about the station, where everything
had been thoroughly cleared away, bits of rock abounded, and these had been utilized in a picturesque manner. Immediately around the station ran a carriage road, with a convenient oval circuit for turning. On one end of this circuit, near the station, was a weeping beech, and the other extremity was occupied by a group of flowering shrubs, that, although too freshly planted to blossom that year


 then, and an evergreen has never that cheerful enlivening aspect presented by the green of deciduous trees.
We propose to include no plants the foliage of which suffers from mere white frost, and even to include some the leaves of which will endure a severe freezing without injury to their beauty. There is doubtless a season in late August and early September, during which the lawn should be carefully supplied with such foliage and flowers as will yet flourish; but we have chosen a later period, which is sometimes deferred until the middle of October, and which is more neglected and needy.

One would think the maples would be valuable for their green in fall and so they unquestionably are. They are healthy, thrifty, and vigorous, but no variety very remarkable for its late green exists among them unless it be the little colchicum maple, properly called *Acer latum*. The foliage of this tree is pleasing and of curious outline. Delicate red stems support the leaves, and the general appearance is bright and cheerful. It is a choice, uncommon maple, to which I have already referred with respect, and should be more employed as a single specimen on the lawn.

The common catalpa (*C. syringafolia*), much spoken of nowadays for its enduring wood, and most valuable to the lawn planter for broad, shadowy foliage, retains its green color well in fall. There is also a dwarf form, *C. Bungeii*, sometimes misnamed *Kampferi*, rounded like a hemisphere, with very delicate autumnal greens. The *Aralia Japonica* is drooping and graceful and effective in its autumn green.

*Chionanthus Virginica*, the white fringe, old, well-known, and choice, is not usually spoken of for its autum-
nal beauty. The reputation of the exquisite lace-like flowers has doubtless eclipsed the glory of the foliage. It is large for a shrub, lustrous and oval in contour, and the leaves have a dark, rich green in fall.

The American persimmon is a noteworthy tree for its green in fall; but the Japanese persimmon, or kaki, shows a richer, glossier foliage, like orange leaves in color. Unfortunately, it is not hardy in the Middle and Northern States.

Few shrubs are prettier in the fall than the evergreen thorn (Cotoneaster or Crataegus pyracantha). The small glossy dark-green leaves and orange-colored berries, all protected by masses of thorns, characterize the finest foreign Crataegus which is thoroughly healthy in America, as it is also attractive in very late fall and even winter.

Cercis Japonica, the Japan Judas tree, has heart-shaped leaves, glossy, tough, and retained late in fall. It is rare and choice, and decidedly attractive both for its flowers and leaves during at least five months of the year. In spring, early pink flowers wreath the stem, before the leaves put forth.

The best green-leaved spirea in fall is, perhaps, S. pruni-
which assumes still richer colors as a late autumnal garb. *Spiraea crispi*folia, rare, and recently introduced from Japan, is a variety of *S. bullata*; a dwarf mass of rounded, curling foliage, it is well preserved in fall.

*Spiraea laurifolia*, or *S. pentandra*, the laurel-leaved willow, preserves a shining green late in the season. The ornamental value of this tree is not sufficiently considered. It endures all exposures and soils, even close to the seashore, and is always clean and thrifty.

The elms are remarkably deficient in attraction during the fall, with one or two curious exceptions. The one specially notable is the weeping—so called slippery—elm, or it may be simply a variety of the American, which grows with great rapidity, and has a fine vigorous foliage. So rapid is this growth that grafts made in the spring will attain six or eight feet during the following summer. We see a specimen before us, while we are writing, where a large American elm has been stripped of its branches and grafted at numerous points with cions of this weeping elm. The effect produced after a few years has been most extraordinary. Long, pendent branches, clothed with luxuriant foliage, swing and wreathe themselves about against the sky like gigantic snakes. The most valuable quality of this choice tree lies in the fact that its foliage is frequently green until October, and always green weeks later than most other elms. There is one other elm which is rare—*Ulmus parrifolia*—that holds its green so late that it might be classed with oaks and beeches for this peculiarity. It is of moderate growth, and has rough, slightly curled foliage, grouped closely along the branches.
So far as we know, the lindens can only boast of two varieties that remain really green in fall, viz.: *Tilia dasy-styla* and *T. sulphurea*, golden-barked trees with bright green foliage. All other lindens fade soon, and become almost unsightly in early autumn, so that the green foliage of these varieties seem very curious to behold in October. The effect of the unusual season of such coloring is increased by the strong contrast afforded by a bright yellow bark and a singularly lustrous foliage.

But the noblest trees of bright green and other good qualities are the beeches and oaks, rich in color and picturesque in form, always affording grateful shade; other trees may possibly be as fine in some peculiar fashion, but
none can be more generally satisfactory. Not specially early in spring in putting forth leaves, they are most beautiful in June, and indeed throughout the summer. In

autumnal landscapes, however, their late foliage, almost evergreen during mild winters, performs a valuable part, for the very reason that there is now so much less beauty among trees than earlier in the season. All kinds of beeches are fine in the fall. The cut-leaved, the purple, and the common American and European beeches are all most effective and green until winter; but the noblest of all is the celebrated weeping beech. Its great, gleaming masses of foliage assume all kinds of fantastic shapes, and reveal bowers and recesses until the leaves of almost every other
tree have taken their departure.

To me the American beech *Fagus perruginea,* is no less beautiful than the European species and variety. The foliage is delicate in finish, and it lies in an arrangement of layers that is peculiarly attractive. The only other rival the beech really has in late fall, is the oak. Strong, sturdy, and picturesque, enduring and grand, it is admired by every one and planted by few. It transplants with difficulty and grows slowly; but when once established it is well worth the patience it has demanded. All oaks are fine in fall, and in many cases preserve their leaves fresh and green into November and later. Indeed, though we have no really evergreen oaks in the North, there are seasons when some oaks, notably the pyramidal, retain a few leaves all winter. The willow-leaved oak, as well as the pin oak, and the rare, large-leaved *Daimio* from Japan, among others, are very beautiful in fall, sometimes even in late November and December.
Did space permit, we should like to dwell on the beauty in autumn of various privets, *Daphne cneorum* of tiny evergreen foliage, and certain of the *Elmagnus* species, notably the gray *E. Hortensis* and the robust *E. longipes*, with large leaves and red berries, as well as the beautiful fall climbers, evergreen honeysuckles, *Akebia*, Virginia silk, etc. All these should be planted with taste here and there about the lawn, supported by occasional masses of rhododendrons, laurels, mahonias, and other evergreen shrubs. Thus adorned, the lawn, in the fine air and lights of autumn and during bright days, may well tempt us to linger amid its yet beautiful foliage, where crimson and gold are mingled plentifully with green.
CHAPTER VII.

AUTUMNAL COLOR ON THE LAWN.

The supreme point of our enjoyment of lawn-planting is reached when we have compassed in our grounds the loveliest effects of color. Although this is a fact, I fancy we seldom consciously attempt to compass these color effects. A dress pattern is selected, the tints of every part of the room, both walls, furniture, and floor, are studied with the critical eye of genius, but when we come to the lawn, composition of any kind is seldom attempted, much less a harmonious disposition of color.

Indeed, I believe, when any one does more than stand specimens about wherever they may happen to come, form is apt to receive first and almost exclusive attention. A pyramidal tree, a broad-spreading tree, a tall tree, a dwarf tree, secures a certain amount of attention for its proper disposition, but the foliage might be, to all intents and purposes, one shade of green for any consideration color re-
ceives in the special grouping and arrangement. Even Central Park, New York, the most notable landscape-gardening essay in America, has always impressed me as defective in studied color effects of foliage. This is doubtless caused in part by a want of sufficient variety in the large masses of the plants employed. Twenty-five years ago, when the Park was planted, there was likewise a much smaller variety of ornamental trees in the nurseries than there is at present.

Yet, notwithstanding this apparent neglect of color in lawn-planting of the present day,


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by Randall Arendt, FRTPA, ASLA (Hon.)

An approach to laying out subdivisions so that a significant percentage of buildable uplands is permanently protected in such a manner as to create interconnected networks of conservation lands. The percentage of protected land varies according to project density, rising from 30-35% at density levels of three or more dwellings/acre, to 75-80% at four or more acres/dwelling.

This approach is distinct from earlier "clustering" and "planned unit development" (PUD) in terms of both the higher open space ratios and in terms of conscious design to forge community-wide networks of open space.

This is primarily a design approach for conserving existing natural and cultural resources, although a limited amount of active recreation is permissible (such as ballfields and neighborhood greens). Subdivisions where the majority of open space is taken up by a golf course do not meet this basic criterion.

Conservation subdivisions are generally "density-neutral", meaning that the overall number of dwellings built is not different from that done in conventional developments. Small density bonuses are sometimes granted in return for dedicating some or all of the conservation land for public access or use, for endowing permanent maintenance of the open space, or for providing workforce housing.

Conservation subdivisions are specifically designed around each site's most significant natural and cultural resources, with their open space networks being the first element to be "green-lined" in the design process. This open space includes all of the "Primary Conservation Areas" (inherently unbuildable wetlands, floodplains, and steep slopes), plus 30-80% of the remaining unconstrained land, depending upon zoning densities and infrastructure availability.

The site planning process begins with general mapping of the project site in its context of surrounding properties (up to 2000 feet away, typically mapped at 1" = 400 feet). On this Location Map (compiled form existing published data) are shown vegetative cover, topography, soils, and floodplains. This initial map informs decisions regarding the design of the interconnected open space network.

A more detailed, site-specific Existing Resources and Site Analysis Map is then created, identifying significant natural and cultural resource, such as productive cropland, wildlife habitat and travel corridors (meadows and forests, stream valleys), and significant trees, with size thresholds related to species: 4-6 inches for smaller species such as dogwood and redbud, 8-10 inches for medium species such as sassafras, cherry and water beech, 12-14 inches for slow growing hardwoods (oak, maple, ash), and 15-18 inches for fast growers (tulip poplar, sycamore, conifers). Historic or cultural resources such as farmhouses, barns, cellarholes, wells, stone walls, earthworks, trails/traces, and hedgerows are also identified, usually through GPS. (A photo essay illustrating such resources can be seen at http://www.terrain.org/articles/18/arendt.htm).

A four-step process then ensues, Step One separating the site's resources into two categories. The first, Primary Conservation Areas (PCAs), are limited to inherently unbuildable wetlands, floodplains, and steep slopes (>25%). Secondary Conservation Areas are comprised of "the best of the rest". Because the PCAs would be off-limits to development in conventional developments in any event, they are not counted toward the minimum required open space percentages of conservation subdivisions. Therefore, 30-80% of the buildable land is usually designated as SCAs, depending on density (as noted above).

Step Two consists of locating house sites in relation to the protected open space, to add livability, marketability, and value to the homes. The third step is to "connect the dots" with streets and trails. Step Four consists simply of drawing in the lot lines.

This process works best when guided by a landscape architect or physical planner, collaborating with a civil engineer. The creative skills of a landscape architect or physical planner are essential, balancing the technical training of engineers whose expertise lies principally in streets and drains.
The optimal design process begins with a site walk by the LA/planner and engineer, landowner, and developer, with the Existing Resources Site Analysis Map in hand, usually reproduced on an aerial photo at the working scale. The design is done in the field or immediately afterwards, on thin tracing paper so that the underlying resource information is visible to the designers, who typically work with pencil and eraser. (CAD technology is never used at this initial design stage, but is invaluable for later revisions.)

The resulting Sketch Plan is then shown to local officials, some of whom may have been invited to join the designers on their initial site walk. Officials who have not yet walked the property are strongly urged to do so during a subsequent site visit prior to voting on the Sketch Plan, whose merits (or lack thereof) will be come clear when examining the drawing while standing on the property and observing the terrain, landscape elements, cultural features, etc.

After completing the above procedures, the time is right to prepare the highly detailed, expensive, Preliminary and Final Plans. Many municipalities inadvertently cripple their open space preservation efforts by skipping the critically-important Sketch Plan stage, and allowing (or requiring) applicants to submit highly detailed engineering documents at the so called "Preliminary Plan" stage. These cost so much to prepare that they lock applicants into whatever initial layout is prepared, usually with minimal previous consultation with staff or officials.

The above paragraphs summarize the key points relating to necessary improvements to most local subdivision ordinances.

Zoning ordinances work best when density is established directly (such as by designating density as three units per acre in sewered areas, or two acres per dwelling in unsewered areas) instead of indirectly (such as through minimum lot sizes, e.g. 12,000 sq. ft and 88,000 sq. ft). As long as density is regulated indirectly through lot size, subdivisions will consist of nothing more than houselots (of that size) and streets, with no open space.

After separating the notions of lot size and density, treating them as independent variables, zoning works best when conservation design is designated as a by-right Permitted Use, making applications simple, straight-forward, and relatively easy. Conventional developments can be actively discouraged by re-classifying them as Conditional Uses. The condition to be met is a clear and compelling showing at a public hearing, convincing officials that dividing land into


 trees. The main feature of the place
must evidently be the house, and therefore in devising prominent vistas and near or distant views we must take our stand at or not far from this point. Minor standpoints may of course be taken when some special effect is desired. Failure to contrive the landscape grouping from these established standpoints often weakens if it does not spoil lawn-planting, which is otherwise good and effective.

The curves of the walks or foot-paths are long and easy, reaching their destination in a natural and pleasing manner. All the junctions of paths and the main curves are planted with shrubbery in an irregular and informal manner. Furthermore, they are usually arranged with a view to suggesting the idea that the path is winding through single masses of flowers. It is not proposed in this plan to reserve any space for a vegetable garden, not only for want of room, but because it is notorious that vegetables thus grown are very expensive and troublesome. If exercise in gardening pursuits is desired, the same amount and a similar kind of work may be had in the culture of trees and shrubs as in that of vegetables with more generally satisfactory results. All necessary objects, not interesting in a picturesque way, such as drying-ground, entrance to the rear of buildings, tool-sheds, etc., should be shut out with deciduous shrubs. The front of these hedges or belts of shrubbery may be diversified by planting here and there occasional choice specimens.

The extreme end of the grounds may be also entered, if desired, by a path which should wind among shrubbery in somewhat obscure fashion, and come out suddenly on the lawn. The approach or entrance to the house is, in this case, somewhat formal and straight, for the sake of
convenience, which must at times overrule considerations of beauty. It is well planted with shrubbery, however, to relieve all stiffness and vary the straight line. This system also introduces the pleasant element of surprise, as the full effect of the lawn is only presented after the place has been fairly entered. Flowing, graceful lines, with one exception, are retained everywhere, especially in the vistas that extend off to the full depth of the lot. On the most extended side, the vista takes a slanting direction across a croquet-ground, reached by a winding path and fronted by a summer-house in the extreme corner. This simple, inexpensive rustic structure—shown in the lawn-planting study—looks out toward the house over the croquet-ground, down the most attractive vista of the place. About it should climb vines, honey-suckles, etc., and some flowering shrubs. The entire feature is finely crowned and perfected by associating with it a slender, drooping, cut-leaved birch, with tender gray or light-green foliage and gleaming white bark. It will thus form one of the corner posts, or prominent points that define the outline of the picture, and, at the same time, constitute a most interesting and picturesque termination for a walk. One such feature is almost enough for a small place. Architecture should be confined, as a rule, to the house structure, and the lawn devoted to plants. Even rockwork, except in peculiar spots, has hardly a place on any small lawn, for reasons that should be obvious. Whatever portion of the summer-house appears from among the vines and surrounding foliage is intended to show a rustic, graceful, and solid structure. Simple rustic seats may, of course, be erected in suitable positions, but should not be made architecturally prominent. As a rule, however, chairs
may be carried from the porch or veranda to any spot on so small a place. The planting on the walks directly fronting the summer-house should be made specially attractive by the employment of choice and dwarf trees and shrubs. The simple design of using a summer-house at all, has been to increase, within safe limits, the picturesque effect of the place, and to lend that portion of the scene a cozy, home-like aspect. Indeed, we have sought to give the entire place a similar natural appearance. Good lawn-planting should make it look, not as if it had been constructed in the ordinary sense of the term, but as if it had grown there, out of the special needs of the plants and of those expecting to enjoy them. Please note that we make most prominent the necessities of the plant. They must receive first attention, when the best effects will follow in due course. Landscape architects are, perhaps, liable to fall into the habit of regarding plants as they would bricks or stones. An edifice of landscape architecture cannot be erected exactly as one
chooses. Plants have their freaks and peculiarities in different positions, which even practical experience can scarcely foresee.

Beware of using on small places large-growing trees, and even on the outer boundary employ them sparsely. All such trees, like the Norway spruce or white pine, become in a few years, independent of their crowding mass, more or less unsightly for limited inclosures and necessarily close inspection. There should be an exact proportion between the size of a place and the eventual size—say in ten years—of all plants used for ornamenting it. For this reason, the rapid-growing, deciduous shrubs, with their wonderful variety of foliage and flowers and their moderate growth, are well adapted for small places. They not only attain moderate size, but can be duly restrained for many years by pruning. There are, also, many beautiful dwarf evergreen trees and shrubs well suited for lawn-planting on a small scale. Indeed, such plants may be kept, by pruning both root and branches intelligently, within a height of five feet for near a score of years.

It seems almost absurd to say that ornamental plants in their entire variety and special aptitudes for lawn-planting should be carefully studied by the lawn-planter. Nevertheless, many so-called experts seem to lose sight of the fact. With knowledge, however, and a cultivated taste, most delightful results can be obtained on a small lot by an outlay ranging from one hundred dollars to three hundred dollars, depending on the amount of choice plants used. Grading and fences are considerations governed by special conditions, and cannot, therefore, be taken into
a general and typical estimate. This hardly seems an extravagant sum to devote to the exterior adornment of a home that has probably cost at least $4,000 for the building, and $2,000 more for a simple and tasteful furnishing. The general impression is widely spread abroad that the accomplishment of artistic effects in lawn-planting on small places, if possible at all, must be expensive and elaborate. Perhaps the idea comes from the fact that our parks and grand show places afford almost the only instances of artistic lawn-planting, and they, of course, are expensive. The lawn-planting efforts, moreover, of the jobbing gardener or owner of the place, are generally crude and based on no settled principles of art. It is this, perhaps, that gains credence for the belief that landscape gardening, as a picturesque art, is not only expensive, but does not suit small places. People may not state such ideas definitely to themselves; but they clearly demonstrate, by practice, a conscious or unconscious belief in their truth.

It has been, therefore, our desire to enunciate a few simple and important considerations of an art too much neglected, and to exemplify them practically from a plan intended for execution in a simple and inexpensive manner. There are necessarily many features and details, not here treated, that may be introduced on small places with much effect and without transgressing any fundamental rules of lawn-planting. We desire, however, to utter, before concluding, yet another warning against attempting too much when once we assume the artistic standpoint. Care for the proper exhibition and health of the plants themselves must
be, after all, the prime consideration, in pursuance of which we cannot go far astray.

As I have already intimated, the rural adornment of the exterior of homes may rightfully demand and is receiving increased attention. It is improvement of taste in the same line, as that encouraged for the decoration of interiors, in that they both form important elements of home life. Unfortunately, many people have a way of regarding such work as requiring greater skill than is actually the case. It is really less difficult and expensive in proportion to the results obtained than most other forms of home art.
CHAPTER XIV.

CITY PARKS.

O write of parks is to enter a field which is almost unlimited in extent. It has come now to the pass that every town and city of importance in Europe and America must have its park. It is the fashion. Whether the fashion is always well wrought out, is another thing. Unenlightened town authorities cannot always be depended on to employ competent talent, and to adopt a wise and comprehensive scheme of operations.

Yet, after all, parks are but larger door-yards or lawns,—or rather, in many cases, a series of them. The landscape-gardening lore applied to them is essentially the same as that employed in constructing the most modest home grounds. There is nothing really different in the general theory of the landscape gardening of parks from that of ordinary grounds. The apparent difference simply lies in the special application to some particular individual undertaking.
In actual practice, one park must, of course, be treated differently from other parks; but the lessons acquired by considering one piece of work of this kind, must always be helpful in carrying on other park-work.

In order, therefore, not to weary the reader with the enunciation of abstract principles, and detailing instructions that do not always really instruct, I am going to ask attention for a few moments to what I consider the best well advanced example of this kind of landscape gardening in America, namely, Central Park, New York City.

In considering Central Park, I beg leave to first introduce a few lines from the pen of Mr. Calvert V


DF stretch back years, and primarily concern a contract involving EDF’s prepayment for uranium.

In July 2017, administrators from KPMG were appointed by Paladin’s board in order to undertake financial and operational assessments to assess the future options (if any) for Paladin Energy and its subsidiaries.

Paladin’s shares were delisted from the Toronto Stock Exchange in August 2017, and trading in Paladin shares on the Australian Stock Exchange was suspended in June 2017. The company was restructured and relisted on the Australian Securities Exchange in February 2018 (and Paladin’s Canadian share sub-register was transferred to its Australian register). However, just three months later, LHM was put into care-and-maintenance. As discussed in the following chapter, the company's future is bleak.

Chapter Four: The Need to Fund and Plan for Rehabilitation of the Kayelekera Mine

4.1 The Broader Context of Mine Rehabilitation Issues in Africa

Rehabilitation refers to the steps taken to repair the environment from damage and includes processes of decommissioning as well as ecological restitution. In terms of the process of assessing an abandoned or inactive mine site for the purpose of rehabilitation, it is imperative to address issues pertaining to the age of the mine site, the level of environmental impact presented by the site, health issues and public safety, social issues, availability of government support and the commitment of the community to rehabilitation.

Rehabilitation of mines has been problematic in various jurisdictions in Africa. Many of the legacy issues have occurred as a result of poor regulatory frameworks. An international comparative assessment of mine closure conducted by the University of Witwatersrand (Wits) Centre for Sustainability in Mining and Industry indicated that, despite challenges, South Africa was further advanced than most countries in the region in relation to addressing both environmental and social impacts of mine closure. South Africa has incorporated regulations regarding the financial capacity of entities to engage in mining operations under the National Environmental Management Act which include the life cycle of a mine, rehabilitation at closure and rehabilitation of latent or residual impacts that might arise long after mining has stopped.
To some extent in South Africa, and certainly elsewhere in Africa, weak regulatory frameworks allow investors to avoid rehabilitation of once operational mines, and mining companies may have an incentive to avoid decommissioning and rehabilitation due to the significant costs involved – a financial challenge that may be exacerbated by the cessation of the revenue stream from mining.

In Malawi, civil society groups have long fought for a strengthening of mining regulations, including regulations pertaining to mine-site rehabilitation. Funding for mine rehabilitation should be set aside before mining commences to ensure that funds will be available even in a worst-case scenario such as the mining company going bankrupt. The Chamber of Mines of South Africa, in a 2007 report on mine-site rehabilitation, stated: “Rehabilitation is an expensive business, which can account for as much as 10% of mining costs in certain circumstances. As the majority of these costs are usually incurred after mine closure, or at least after a significant portion of mining has been completed, some form of guarantee is usually required by authorities to ensure that these costs are met. In addition, there is now a requirement to provide financial assurance that the costs of rehabilitation will be met in the case of early or unplanned closure.”

4.2 Prospects for the Kayelekera Mine

Paladin claims that it hopes to restart the Kayelekera mine at some unspecified future date but the likelihood of a restart is minimal and receding.

Paladin states: “It is expected that the mining and milling operation will be quickly and effectively re-started when market conditions make it attractive to do so.” Such statements ignore obvious problems such as the time and expense involved in establishing a workforce to operate the mine. There are two further sets of problems, discussed below. Firstly, Paladin has been put into administration once already, and the company’s future prospects are bleak following the May 2018 decision to put LHM into care-and-maintenance. Secondly, the uranium market is in a protracted slump and expert opinion is increasingly leaning towards the view that the slump will persist well into the 2020s.

4.3 Paladin’s Bleak Future

Paladin’s two uranium mines in Africa are both in care-and-maintenance. Paladin also owns various ‘nonproducing assets’ in Australia, Canada and Niger. In 2016, Paladin sold a number of Australian uranium exploration projects to Uranium Africa for just A$2.5 million, including Oobagooma in Western Australia and the Angela/Pamela and Bigryli projects in the Northern Territory. Also in 2016, Paladin sold its 257.5 million shares in uranium exploration company Deep Yellow for A$2.6 million, with shares priced at one Australian cent per share.

Paladin has tried but failed to sell other ‘nonproducing assets’ such as its 30% stake in the Manyingee uranium project in Western Australia. Development of Manyingee (and all other non-approved deposits) is prohibited under the policy of the current Western Australian government.

Likewise, Paladin has a stake in two undeveloped uranium projects in Queensland – Mount Isa North Project and the Valhalla North Project – but the development of those mines is prohibited.
under the policy of the current Queensland government. In 2015, Paladin booked a A$323.6 million write-down on its exploration assets in Queensland.\(^\text{103}\)

Paladin’s share price went from one Australian cent in 2003 to A$10.80 in 2007, but fell more than 200-fold and traded at 4.7 cents before trading was suspended in June 2017.\(^\text{104}\) (Trading resumed in February 2018 – the share price was 18 Australian cents as of 13 June 2018.) The company was delisted from the Toronto Stock Exchange in August 2017 due to its failure to meet the exchange’s requirements for continued listing.\(^\text{105}\) Paladin’s losses totalled US$1.9 billion between 1994 and 2014.\(^\text{106}\)

The company’s prospects appear to be very bleak. It is poorly placed to be sitting on dormant mines in Africa – and other nonproducing assets – for years to come in the hope of a uranium market revival.

4.4 The Uranium Market

"It has never been a worse time for uranium miners." – Alexander Molyneux, CEO of Paladin Energy, October 2016.\(^\text{107}\)

Paladin has said that a price of about US$75 per pound of uranium oxide would be required for Kayelekera to become economically viable.\(^\text{108}\) In Paladin’s words, the company would "not contemplate any such an expansion until uranium prices reach at least US$75/lb and are sustainable at or above this level."\(^\text{109}\)

US$75/lb is far higher than the prevailing prices as of 31 May 2018: US$22.73 spot price and US$29.00 long-term contract price.\(^\text{110}\) The spot price hasn’t reached US$75 since early 2008 – the tail-end of a price bubble.\(^\text{111}\) The long-term price hasn’t reached US$75 since September 2008 – also the tail-end of a price bubble.\(^\text{112}\)

Paladin also said that the availability of grid power supply would be necessary to restart Kayelekera, to replace the existing diesel generators which are expensive to run.\(^\text{113}\)

Even if the uranium price did rebound and the mining resumed, Kayelekera would operate for only 3–5 years according to a 2014 Paladin document\(^\text{114}\) – it isn’t a large uranium deposit.

Of course, it is possible that uranium prices could rise such that Kayelekera could be restarted and operate profitably. However the likelihood of that scenario eventuating in the foreseeable future is remote. Numerous nuclear and uranium industry insiders, along with uranium market analysts, anticipate depressed prices for many years ahead. For example:

- Then Paladin Energy chief executive John Borshoff said in 2013 that the uranium industry "is definitely in crisis ... and is showing all the symptoms of a mid-term paralysis".\(^\text{115}\)
- Former World Nuclear Association executive Steve Kidd said in May 2014 that "the case made by the uranium bulls is in reality full of holes" and he predicted "a long period of relatively low prices, in which uranium producers will find it hard to make a living".\(^\text{116}\)
- An October 2015 report in Nuclear Engineering International noted that "there may not be much upward pressure on market prices until the next decade" as "excess supply is expected to persist."\(^\text{117}\)
- Nick Carter from Ux Consulting said in April 2016 that the spot uranium price could stay in the low $30s/lb "for quite some time" because supply is expected to exceed demand by 25–30
million pounds U3O8 each year from 2016 to 2019, and he does not anticipate a supply deficit in the market until "the late 2020s".118

- The Wall Street Journal reported in September 201


. It is shown in the examples of the patent in suit that the heat treated granules have a level of fines, measured by the ball mill test, which is from about 5 times to about 25 times lower than that of the starting compacted granules, depending on the heat treatment time. The appellant argued in the grounds of appeal that the value of 4.9% obtained by the ball mill test for the starting granules equated to an unacceptable value of above 15% fines after pneumatic transport. Although the level of fines of the heat treated granules after pneumatic transport is not given in the examples, it is plausible in view of the considerable reduction of the fines level obtained by the ball mill test that the level of fines after pneumatic transport has been reduced to an acceptable level.

At the oral proceedings the respondent expressed doubts that the technical problem was solved by the claimed process. He argued that the value of 4.9% obtained in
the ball mill test was meaningless since the amount of fines (<200 µm) of the starting compacted granules had not been measured. This argument is not convincing in view of the explanation on page 3 (lines 47 to 55) of the patent in suit as to how the ball mill friability was determined. As the sample of granules was sieved to remove oversize (>1200 µm) and undersize (<200 µm) before introduction into the ball mill, the percentage of fines formed during milling for 5 minutes can be determined by simple sieving. Knowledge of the amount of fines <200 µm before the test is not necessary since the fines were removed from the product before its introduction into the ball mill.

The respondent objected for the first time at the oral proceedings that the fine level above 15% after pneumatic transport was not stated in the patent in suit, thus implicitly questioning its correctness. However he provided no evidence that this value was incorrect. It is true that the patent in suit does not contain any value about the level of fines after pneumatic transport. However, European patent specification EP-B-0 471 049 which is from the same patentee as the patent in suit and has the same filing and priority dates, also concerns the treatment of compacted sodium silicate granules with the view to reducing their attrition loss during pneumatic transport. This patent specification, which was known to the respondent as he confirmed at the oral proceedings, discloses in Table II both the fine level obtained by the ball mill test and the fine level after pneumatic transport. According to Table II and Example 2, the starting compacted sodium silicate granules were obtained from Crosfield Chemicals Eisden Netherlands. They had a particle size similar to the
claimed one and a water content falling within the claimed range. The level of fines determined by the ball mill test was 0.8% below 125 µm and the level of fines after pneumatic transport was 11% below 180 µm. In the patent in suit, the compacted sodium silicate granules used as the starting product in the examples also come from Crosfield Chemicals Eisden Netherlands and the ball mill test gives a level of fines below 200 µm of 4.9%. In view of the level of fines disclosed in EP-B-0 471 049 for both the ball mill test and the pneumatic transport, the board considers it plausible that the value of 4.9% fines < 200 µm in the ball mill test of the patent in suit equated to a level of fines of above 15% during pneumatic transport. Therefore, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, the board sees no reason not to accept the appellant's arguments already presented in the grounds of appeal and not contested by the respondent until the oral proceedings.

The respondent's line of arguments that an improvement of the attrition resistance was not obtained with all kinds of compacted sodium silicate falling within the definition of claim 1, in particular with those compacted sodium silicate granules whose manufacture included the optional heat treatment before granulation disclosed in D4, cannot be accepted by the board for the following reasons. The respondent's affirmation that with these compacted granules the problem of attrition during pneumatic transport does not arise and thus no improvement of the attrition can be achieved, is not supported by any evidence, although the burden of proof rests on the respondent in this respect. Taking into account that the heat treatment before granulation disclosed in D4 is not performed in an agitated bed, that it is applied to a sheet or flakes,
ie to a product which is very different from the granulated product, and that the heated product is then crushed in a mill, it is not credible, in the absence of evidence, that this heat treatment would have the same effect on attrition as the claimed heat treatment and that the problem of attrition loss does not exist with those starting compacted granules. Concerning the starting granules used in the examples of the patent in suit, the board sees no reason not to accept the respondent's arguments that the compacted sodium silicate granules from Crosfield Chemicals of Eijsden Netherlands were obtained by compacting the feedstock between rollers since this is in agreement with the disclosure of the patent in suit, page 2, second paragraph, and with claim 1. As pointed out by the respondent at the oral proceedings, it appears that the properties of the starting compacted granules depend on certain parameters such as the compaction pressure, the thickness of the sheet or the water content of the spray-dried powder. However, it cannot be deduced therefrom that a reduction of the attrition loss would not be obtained with all kinds of compacted granules falling within the definition given in claim 1. The respondent has provided no evidence in support of his affirmation that the claimed heat treatment would not lead to an improvement of the attrition resistance for all kinds of compacted granules prepared as stated in claim 1, although the burden of proof lies on him. In the absence of such evidence and considering, on the other hand, that the examples of the patent in suit show a reduction of attrition loss resulting from the claimed heat treatment, the board cannot conclude that the technical problem is not solved over the whole breadth of claim 1.
For the preceding reasons the board considers it credible, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, that the technical problem has actually been solved by the claimed process.

5. The respondent's arguments that the teaching of D4 would have rendered the claimed solution obvious to the skilled person (see point VI above) are not convincing. The board observes that neither D4 nor D5 deals with the problem of attrition of the compacted granules prepared by the process disclosed therein, let alone with the attrition loss during pneumatic transport. These documents also do not disclose a heat treatment of the compacted granules. In the process of production of compacted alkali silicates according to D4, the compacted sheet is aged for 5 to 15 minutes before the granulation step. During this aging step the compacted material, either in the form of whole sheets or of flakes, can be subjected to heating and/ or cooling. During the aging step the compacted material is for example heated to a temperature of 65°C to 200°C for 3-8 minutes and then cooled to below 21°C in 1 to 10 minutes. Then the compacted material is granulated by crushing in various types of mills and the resulting granules are screened (see claims 1 and 6; column 1, lines 44 to 57; column 3, lines 19 to 39). The appellant's argument that the skilled person would have contemplated performing the heat treatment before instead of after the granulation step because D4 taught that this heat treatment resulted in improved properties of the granules cannot be accepted since D4 does not disclose an improvement of properties due to the said heat treatment. According to D4 the advantage obtained by heating the sheet or flakes after compaction is that the time needed for aging before
granulation is reduced: see column 3, lines 62 to 64. This effect which is in no way related to the attrition properties cannot suggest to the skilled person that performing a heat treatment of the compacted granules, ie a heat treatment after instead of before granulation, would have improved the attrition resistance during pneumatic transport. D5 which mentions no heat treatment and does not deal with the problem of attrition of the compacted granules likewise cannot point towards the claimed solution.

6. In the process for producing sodium polysilicate disclosed in D2, the spray-dried hollow microspheres are fractured and pulverized in the milling apparatus (9) in order to increase their bulk density and the pulverized particles are then passed into the rotary dryer (10) which serves to reduce the surface irregularities of the fractured particles and to form a product having continuously even surfaces. The temperature of the fractured particles in the rotary drum is preferably in the range of from 70 to 140°C. According to D2, at a temperature of about 70°C or higher the particles become somewhat plastic in nature. This characteristic is preferable in obtaining the desired reduction of the surface irregularities of the particles, ie obtaining a product having continuously even surfaces. It is further disclosed in Example 1 that the tumbling action of the rotary dryer has the effect of rounding off the sharp edges of the fractured particles so that the particles have continuously even surfaces (see claim 1, column 4, lines 45 to 70; column 7, lines 33 to 39; Figure 3). The heat


concrete be evaluated to determine ASR potential and an effective mitigation. EM 1110-2-2000, provides recommendations for evaluating and mitigating ASR in concrete mixtures. Aggregate evaluations may not be

SECTION 03 37 23 Page 23
practical for projects requiring small quantities of concrete (less than 200 cubic meters 250 cubic yards).

Section 32 13 14.13 CONCRETE PAVING FOR AIRFIELDS AND OTHER HEAVY DUTY PAVEMENTS, paragraph 2.3.1.2 Alkali-Silica Reactivity, provides a specification method for the Contractor to evaluate and mitigate ASR in concrete mixtures. The expansion limits specified in Section 32 13 14.13 are requirements for pavements and exterior slab construction. For structural concrete applications the measured expansion shall be less than 0.10 percent. It may not be economical or practical to specify different test limit requirements for use on the same project. In which case the lower limit required by the application should be used.

The designer may use the specification method in Section 32 13 14.13 by incorporating the relevant paragraphs into this specification, or may use the following requirements (retain either the 0.10 or the 0.08 percent expansion limits as appropriate). included in the set of brackets highlighted thus "[ ]".

**************************************************************************

2.2.4.1 Composition

[Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, manufactured sand, or a combination of natural and manufactured sands. Coarse aggregate shall consist of [gravel], [crushed gravel], [crushed stone], [air-cooled blast-furnace slag], or a combination thereof.] "[Fine and coarse aggregates proposed for use in concrete shall be tested and evaluated for alkali-aggregate reactivity in accordance with ASTM C1260. The fine and coarse aggregates shall be evaluated separately and in combination, which matches the Contractor's proposed mix design proportioning. All results of the separate and combination testing shall have a measured expansion less than 0.10 (0.08) percent at 16 days after casting. Should the test data indicate an expansion of 0.10 (0.08) percent or greater, the aggregate(s) shall be rejected or additional testing using ASTM C1260 and ASTM C1567 shall be performed. The additional testing using ASTM C1260 and ASTM C1567 shall be performed using the low alkali portland cement in combination with ground granulated blast furnace (GGBF) slag, or Class F fly ash. GGBF slag shall be used in the range of 40 to 50 percent of the total cementitious material by mass. Class F fly ash shall be used in the range of 25 to 40 percent of the total cementitious material by mass.]

2.2.4.2 Quality

**************************************************************************

NOTE: The tests selected should be those which are applicable to the concrete to be used in the project. These tests may include those listed below in addition to others not listed. See EM 1110-2-2000 for schedule of tests.

Only a limited number of laboratories are now running ASTM C123/C123M due to the toxic chemicals.
required. Recommend that ASTM C295/C295M/C295M be specified.

A list of properties and test values are unique to each project and should be taken from the concrete materials DM. Delete the quality tests not required in the DM.

The petrographic examination shall be used to identify deleterious substances in aggregates. Deleterious substances shall be listed individually with respective limits.

**************************************************************************

Aggregates delivered to the mixer shall meet the following requirements:

PROPERTY
FINE AGGREGATE
COARSE AGGREGATE
TESTS

Specific Gravity
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C127

ASTM C128

Absorption
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C127

ASTM C128

Flat and Elongate
[_____]
25 percent max.
ASTM D4791

Durability Factor using Procedure A
[_____]
[_____]
COE CRD-C 114

ASTM C666/C666M

Clay Lumps and Friable Particles
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C142/C142M

Material Finer than 75 µm No. 200 Sieve
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C117

Liquid Limit and Plastic Limit on material passing the 75 µm No. 200 sieve size
LL 30 max.,
[_____]
ASTM D4318

PI 10 max.

Organic Impurities
Not Darker than No. 3, Not less than 95 percent
[_____]
ASTM C40/C40M

ASTM C87/C87M

L.A. Abrasion
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C131/C131M

ASTM C535

Soft Particles
[_____]
[_____]
COE CRD-C 130

### TEST LIMITS

PROPERTY
FINE AGGREGATE
COARSE AGGREGATE
TESTS

Petrographic Examination
List unwanted deleterious materials and their limits
[_____]
ASTM C295/C295M

Percent coarse aggregate with 2 or more fractured faces
[_____]
20 percent min.
[_____]

Chert, less than 2.40 specific gravity
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C123/C123M or ASTM C295/C295M

[Coal and Lignite, less than 2.00 specific gravity]
[_____]
[_____]
ASTM C123/C123M or ASTM C295/C295M

#### 2.2.4.3 Grading

**NOTE:** See DM for appropriate fine aggregate options.

---

**a.** Fine Aggregate - The grading of the fine aggregate as delivered to the mixer for the RCC shall be such that the individual percent retained on any sieve shall not vary more than 3 percent from the percent retained on that sieve in a fixed grading selected by the Contractor after the first 30 days of concrete placement. The minimum percent retained on each of the 2.36 mm No. 8 through 75 µm No. 200 sieve sizes shall be 5 percent. In addition to the grading limits, the fine aggregate, as delivered to the mixer, shall have a fineness modulus of not less than 2.10 nor more than 2.75. The grading of the fine aggregate shall also be controlled so that the fineness moduli for at least four of five consecutive test samples of the fine aggregate as delivered to the mixer shall not vary more than 0.10 from the fineness modulus of the fixed grading selected by the Contractor, and approved. The fineness modulus shall be determined in accordance with COE CRD-C 104. At the option of the Contractor, fine aggregate may be separated into two or more sizes or classifications, but the uniformity of the grading of the separate sizes shall be controlled so that they may be


 Jackson and Williams 1979, Mohlin 1989, Corson and Lee 1990).

The concept with combined rejects and second stage main line refining that was performed with LC refiners...
in the early Bauer RMP installations, was also applied in HC refiner lines supplied by Sprout Waldron (Jones 1968, Ulander 1985, Fjerdingen et al. 1997). The main line consisted of two or three refiners in series and the screen rejects were introduced before the second refining stage, Figure 16. This process concept however is no longer in widespread use.

For printing paper, the most common rejects treatment today is single stage HC refining. Other approaches include two stage HC refining (Viljakainen et al. 1997, Amiri et al. 2016, Sandberg et al. 2017a) and a combination of HC and LC refining. The combination of HC and LC refining of rejects has been shown to improve pulp properties and efficiency (tensile index – specific energy) (Lansford 1979, Sandberg et al. 2017a). Viljakainen et al. (1997) evaluated LC-HC refining on rejects, but found no positive effects of the combined LC and HC refining. However, the applied specific energy in that LC refiner was low compared to the specific energy reported by Sandberg et al. (2017a).

HC-LC refining of rejects was also applied in some groundwood mills (e.g. Witherell 1968, Ferritsius and Ferritsius 1997).

As mentioned above, LC refining of rejects was common in the early RMP lines. Nowadays, this is rare and for printing paper, the TMP mill in Skogn, Norway, is the only mill in operation, to our knowledge, that utilises LC refiners for rejects refining (Imppola et al. 2013). However, in the Skogn mill, LC refining is carried out on mixed main line pulp and rejects. In Braviken, the same concept has been introduced recently, but the screen accepts are further fractionated in hydrocyclones with the rejects being refined in HC refiners.

In contrast to the established idea of mechanical pulping processes containing rejects separation and refining, Ferritsius et al. (2014) showed, based on thorough pulp quality comparisons of a large number of TMP lines, that the same pulp quality can be reached after single stage high intensity main line refining as final pulp from a TMP line with two stage SD refining, screening and rejects refining. Sandberg et al. (2017b) produced paper on a high-speed paper machine with a high efficiency TMP process without any fractionation. The produced paper performed even better in printing than the normal newsprint produced with a conventional SD TMP process.

**Post refining**

Post refining of groundwood pulp with pump through refiners was introduced during the 1960’s, mainly as a final adjustment of paper quality. An applied specific energy of 40 kWh/t gave a reduction in shives content of 50 % and increased burst and surface smoothness by 10–20 % (Richardson 1969, Kurdin 1974). Post refining was also a low-cost alternative to increase groundwood production (Hoholik 1958). It was also used to upgrade a newsprint furnish to higher quality grades (Brandal and Hauan 1970). Kilpper and Baumgartner (1977) showed in pilot scale that it was better to only post refine the longest fibres.

In some mills, news grade pulp is upgraded to lightweight coated (LWC) and super calandered (SC) quality by HC post-refining and peroxide bleaching (e.g. Asplund et al. 2009).

**Process design approaches**

Some process concepts can be distinguished from the most common process design shown in Figure 2. We have tried to group these designs according to, in our judgement, an intention or approach in the choice of process configuration. This is our subjective classification, and another grouping might of course be possible.

**Main line approach**

One idea is that the most economical process with good fibre development is attained by doing as much of the fibre development as possible in the main line refining and only having a low reject rate with LC refining on the reject. Such a process, with three CD82 HC refiners in series, was in operation for several years in the Port Hawkesbury Mill, Canada, Figure 17, (Mokvist et al. 2005). Nowadays, the mill has a more advanced two stage HC reject refining
Fractionation approach

Much research has been made on concepts where the refining is separated into a primary refining, after which the pulp is fractionated into a coarser fraction sent to further refining and a finer fraction that is fed directly to dewatering. Such a process concept was first suggested for refiner processes by Luhde (1966). However, it was used even earlier in groundwood production where a coarse groundwood pulp was produced, coarse-screened and fractionated using a vibrating screen, Figure 19. The screen rejects (roughly 50% of the bull screen accepts) were refined in three DD refiners (Hoholik 1958). The refined rejects were combined with the vibrating screen accepts and fed to the fine screens. The fine screen rejects were fed back to the vibrating screen feed.

The refining process is strongly heterogenic (Reyier Österling 2015), and the thought has been that it ought to be more energy efficient to do limited initial refining and separate the poorly developed fibres for additional refining (Gavelin 1966, St. Laurent et al. 1993, Corson et al. 1995). One major problem with this idea is how to achieve the fibre fractionation with high efficiency. Screens have a low ability to separate fibres with regard to fibrillation and bonding ability but can to some extent separate fibres according to coarseness (Ämmälä 2001). Hydrocyclones have higher separation efficiency, but they suffer from the large disadvantage that very low consistency is needed to achieve good fractionation and thereby much larger disc filter capacity is required. (Karnis 1982, Mohlin 1989, Sandberg et al. 1997, Kure et al. 1999, Wakelin et al. 1999, Sandberg et al. 2001, Ouellet et al. 2003).

One extreme example of this approach is the Noss Advanced Mechanical Pulping Process (NAMP), Figure 20, which was developed to maximize fractionation efficiency and optimize the refining conditions for different fibre fractions (Shagaev and Bergström 2005). The concept utilizes LC refining on the intermediate hydrocyclone fraction (enriched in transition wood fibres) which can withstand a high load in LC refining, whereas late wood fibres (third stage hydrocyclone rejects) and screen rejects are refined at HC. The process has been evaluated in mill scale, (Sandberg and Shagaev 2011) but is not in continuous operation.

Defibration/fibrillation approach

Another approach is the idea of performing defibration and fibrillation in separate machines using different conditions, as mentioned in the “Main line refining” section above. This concept was proposed by Neill and Beath (1963). Based on similar ideas, Valmet developed the Thermopulp process (Höglund et al. 1997) and later, Andritz developed the ATMP process, Figure 4, in cooperation with Norske Skog (Sabourin et al. 2003, Hill et al. 2009). The Thermopulp concept was difficult to run due to low disc gap in the second stage refiner operating at 7–8 bar pressure (authors experience from the Braviken mill) and there are unfortunately no reports, so far, from the only mill installation of a full ATMP process. However, the concept of separating the defibration and fibre development seems to be a good way to further reduce the specific refining energy. More mill experiences are however needed in this area.
System simplification approach

Reducing process complexity has, in some cases, represented a driving force for system development, motivated by reduced capital cost and easier process control (e.g. Ulander 1985). Some TMP and CTMP lines were built with the process configuration outlined in Figure 21. (Jussila et al. 1999). It is a simplified process with low capital cost since there is no separate rejects screening or rejects latency chest. Even though this process is compact, it is not easy to have an on-line pulp quality control of the two HC refiners.

The TMP process utilized in Skogn, Figure 18, is also an example of a design that simplifies the process. Sandberg et al. (2018a) have shown that it is preferable to utilize high intensity refining, such as DD or RTS, for this process concept. A process incorporating single stage HC refining and LC refining of primary stage pulp and screen rejects, Figure 22, reduces system complexity and refining energy as well as improves process control. Such a process was evaluated by Strand et al. (1993) and by Sandberg et al. (2018a), the latter involved single stage HC


, 06.28.11)

Section R109.1.5.1 EIFS Inspections Required. (R109.1.6.1 through P3002.2.3. were added by Ordinance 15-031, 05.26.15) A special inspection by the manufacturer's representative or other qualified 3rd party inspector is required for all EIFS installations. Inspections are required at the rough and final stages of installation. Reports must be submitted to the Building Division for approval prior to issuing an occupancy permit or certificate of completion.

Section R109.1.6.1 Failure to Schedule Final Inspection. If a contractor and/or applicant fails to schedule a final inspection within 12 months of receiving a building permit, or within 30 days of job completion whichever is less, the contractor is subject to fines of up to $1000 and revocation of contractor's registration. (Ordinance 15-031, 05.26.16)

Section R112 Appeals Board. Delete the section in its entirety.

Table R301.2(1) Climatic and Geographic Design Criteria.

Criteria
Value

Roof Snow Load
30 pounds per square foot

Wind Speed
90 miles per hour

Seismic Condition by Zone
B

Subject to Damage from Weathering
Severe

Frost Line Depth
42 inches

Termite
Moderate to Heavy

Winter Design Temperature
(-4 degrees)

Ice Barrier
Required

Flood Hazard
Chapter 33 of Bolingbrook Municipal Code

Air Freezing Index
1700

Mean Annual Temp
50 degrees

Section R305.2 Basement Ceiling Height. The minimum height measured from the surface of the basement floor to the lowest part of the floor joists above shall be (8'8") eight feet eight inches. The minimum height measured from the surface of the basement floor to the bottom of the lowest beam, girder or structural support shall be (7'8") seven feet eight inches. Exception: House designs where it is structurally infeasible as determined by the Building Commissioner, and/or locations where groundwater and soil conditions pose a significant risk of basement flooding, as determined by the Village of Bolingbrook.

Section R308.4 (5.1) Glazing, Hazardous Locations. Glazing must be safety or tempered glass or approved equivalent if any portion is located within 42 inches of the plumbing fixtures and areas identified in section R308.4 (5).

Section R309.2.1 Garage Separation. Attached garages shall be separated from the dwelling and attic areas by not less than 5/8 inch Type X gypsum board applied to the garage side of all walls and ceilings. Attic openings within the garage shall have panels of 5/8 inch Type X drywall or ¾ inch fire retardant treated plywood resting on a 1 x 4 or greater ledger nailed vertically into the framing. Panels are to be screwed in place or latched to prevent them from rising with heat in case of fire.

Section: R309.7 Gas curb. A minimum four-inch (4") gas curb shall be provided in and around the entire garage floor area in all attached garages. The garage floor pitch from back to front must not be less than .02 percent (.02%).
Section R309.8 Residential Garages, Interior Finishes. All interior walls and ceilings of garages in newly constructed single family and attached single family homes shall be finished with 5/8" Type X drywall, then taped, sanded and painted. The workmanship and quality of the finish shall be comparable to the interior walls of the home. (Ordinance 04-106, 08.24.04)

Section R310.1 Emergency escape windows. Change the first two (2) lines to read as follows; Emergency Escape and Rescue required. All basements and every sleeping room shall have at least one operable emergency escape and rescue opening. Basement egress windows must meet the requirements of section R310.1.4 of the 2006 IRC. The required opening size must be obtained by normal operation of the window.

Section R310.1.5 Basement Escape Window Location. Emergency escape windows in basements shall be located on a side elevation of a single family dwelling to prevent being covered by decks or other attached structures, unless otherwise approved by the Building Commissioner his/her designee.

Section R310.2.2 Window Well Covers. Window wells with a horizontal projection of more than twenty-four inches (24") shall be provided with covers that allow for the transmission of daylight and protect children from falling into the window well. These covers shall comply with Section R310.4 of the 2006 International Residential Code. (Ordinance 05-010, 01.25.05)

Section R312.2 Guard Opening Limitations: Add the following language; Required guards shall not be constructed with horizontal rails or balusters that result in an ornamental design creating a ladder effect.

Section R317.1 Separations In Two-Family Dwellings. Dwelling units in two-family dwellings shall be separated from each other by a masonry or concrete wall carrying a fire rating of not less than two (2) hours. Separation walls shall be continuous from the floor slab to the underside of the roof deck. The roof sheathing on each side of the wall shall be fire-retardant treated and shall extend from the wall to a point of least four feet (4’) away from the wall.

Section R317.2 Townhouses. Townhouses shall include as examples the following, but shall not be limited thereto: condominiums, attached single-family, townhouses, row houses, and any townhouse style construction.

Section R317.2.1 Fire walls. A firewall shall be provided continuously from the foundation to its termination at the underside of the roof deck of combustible roof decks in Type 3, 4, and 5 construction where all of the following conditions are met: (Ordinance 92-021, 03.10.92)

a. The wall is properly firestopped at the deck.
b. The roof sheathing or deck is constructed of approved non-combustible materials or of fire-retardant treated wood, for a distance of four (4) feet on both sides of the wall.
c. Combustible material does not extend through the wall.
d. The roof covering has a minimum of a Class C rating.
e. The firewall shall be constructed of masonry or concrete and must be self-sustaining. (Ordinance 92-035; 04.14.92)

Section R317.2.1.1 Assemblies. There shall be provided two (2) hour fire resistive walls to be of masonry or concrete construction and free to all combustible materials without openings between all dwelling units, between dwelling units and the common areas within a building, between all guest rooms, between guest rooms and the common areas within a building. When
penetrations are absolutely necessary, the penetrated areas must be sealed in such a manner that the required rating will be maintained. Corridors constructed with one layer of drywall on each side of each corridor wall shall be considered in compliance with this requirement. (Ordinance 87-040, 05.27.87)

Section R325 Gutters. Gutters and downspouts shall be installed on all habitable dwellings with basements and/or crawlspaces.

Section R401.5 Sill plate gaps. Gaps between sill plates and foundations shall be sealed with mortar or a similar approved material.

Section R 402 Materials. Delete Sections R402.1 and 402.1.2.

Section R403.1.1 Footings. Shall be changed to the following: The minimum dimensions for spread footings shall be eight inches (8") deep and eighteen inches (18") wide, except that masonry veneer on frame walls placed on concrete foundations shall be supported by spread footings with minimum dimensions of ten inches (10") deep and twenty inches (20") wide. These dimensions are based on a soil bearing capacity of 3,000 pounds per square foot. Soils with a lesser bearing capacity or where unusual loading conditions exist, larger footings or reinforcement may be required. The design must be provided by an Illinois licensed architect or an Illinois licensed structural engineer.

Section R403.1.1.1 Keyway. A two-inch (2") by two-inch (2") keyway must be provided in the top of the footing underneath the centerline of the


compensation for such extra work will be allowed unless such report shall have been made.
The above-described methods of determining the payment for work and materials shall not apply to the performance of any work or the furnishing of any material, which, in the judgment of the Engineer administering the Contract, may properly be classified under items for which prices are established in the Contract.

D. Claims for Extra Work

If the Contractor claims that any instructions by drawings or otherwise, involve extra cost under this Contract, he/she shall give the City of Tacoma written notice thereof within 30 days after receipt of such instruction, and in any event before proceeding to execute the work, except in an emergency endangering life or property, and the procedures governing the same shall be as provided for immediately above in this paragraph. The method in these paragraphs is the only method available to the Contractor for payment of claims for extra work performed under the terms of this Contract.

3.11 CLEANING UP

The Contractor shall at all times, at his/her own expense, keep the premises free from accumulation of waste materials or debris caused by any workers or the work, at the completion of the work the Contractor shall remove all his waste materials from and about the site and all his/her equipment, sanitary facilities and surplus materials. In the case of dispute, the City of Tacoma may remove the debris and charge the cost to the Contractor as the City of Tacoma shall determine to be just. All material that is deposited or placed elsewhere than in places designated or approved by the Engineer administering the Contract will not be paid for and the Contractor may be required to remove such material and deposit or place it where directed.

3.12 PROGRESS PAYMENT

Progress payments will be made up to the amount of ninety-five percent (95%) of the actual work completed as shall be determined by the Engineer administering the Contract.

The Contractor may request that an escrow account be established as permitted by law, in which event the Contractor will earn interest on the retained funds.

When the time for construction, services and/or installation will exceed thirty (30) days, the Contractor may request, by invoice, to be paid a progress payment based on percentage of work completed. The Engineer will review and approve the progress payment request on a monthly basis.

3.13 FINAL PAYMENT

The final payment of five percent (5%) of the Contract price shall be approved on final acceptance of the work under this Contract by the Superintendent or his/her designee. In addition, before final payment is made, the Contractor shall be required to:

A. Provide a certificate from the Washington State Department of Revenue that all taxes due from the Contractor have been paid or are collectible in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 60.28 and Title 82 of the Revised Code of Washington;

B. Provide the General Release to the City of Tacoma on the form set forth in these Contract documents;

C. Provide a release of any outstanding liens that have been otherwise filed against any monies held or retained by the City of Tacoma;

D. File with the City Director of Finance, and with the Director of the Washington State Department of Labor and Industries, on the state form to be provided, an affidavit of wages paid;

E. File with the City Director of Finance, on the state form to be provided, a statement from the State of Washington, Department of Labor and Industries, certifying that the prevailing wage requirements have been satisfied.

F. File with the City Director of Finance, on the state form to be provided, a statement of release from the Public Works Contracts Division of the State of Washington, Department of Labor and Industries, verifying that all industrial insurance and medical aid premiums have been paid.

If there is a fee assessed to the City for any certificate, release or other form required by law, the contractor agrees that the fee amount may be passed on to the Contractor and deducted from the monies paid to the Contractor.
3.14  **FAILURE TO COMPLETE THE WORK ON TIME**

Should the completion of the work required under the Contract be delayed beyond the expiration of the period herein set for the completion of said work, or such extension of said period as may be allowed by reason of unavoidable delays, there shall be deducted from the total Contract price of work, for each calendar day by which such completion shall be delayed beyond said period of such extension thereof the sum of $300 or a sum of money as set forth hereinafter in these Specifications, as the amount of such deduction per calendar day.

Said sum shall be considered not as a penalty, but as liquidated damages, which the City will suffer by reason of the failure of the Contractor to perform and complete the work within the period, herein fixed or such extensions of said period as may be allowed by reason of unavoidable delays.

Any money due or to become due the Contractor may be retained by the City to cover said liquidated damages, and should such money not be sufficient to cover such damages, the City shall have the right to recover the balance from the Contractor or his/her Sureties.

The filing of any bid for the work herein contemplated shall constitute acknowledgment by the Respondent that he/she understands, agrees and has ascertained that the City will actually suffer damages to the amount hereinabove fixed for each and every calendar day during which the completion of the work herein required shall be delayed beyond the expiration of the period herein fixed for such completion or such extension of said period as may be allowed by reason of unavoidable delays.

3.15  **CITY RESERVES RIGHT TO USE FACILITIES PRIOR TO ACCEPTANCE**

The City of Tacoma hereby reserves the right to use the facilities herein contracted prior to final acceptance under this Contract. The use of said facilities, as mentioned herein, shall not be construed as a waiver or relinquishment of any rights that the City of Tacoma has under this Contract.

3.16  **LIST OF SUBCONTRACTORS**

Bid proposals for construction, alteration or repair of any building or other public works that may exceed $1,000,000 including tax shall satisfy the following requirement: Respondent shall submit as part of the bid, the names of the subcontractors, with whom the respondent, if awarded the contract, will subcontract performance of the work of heating, ventilation and air conditioning, plumbing as described in chapter 18.106 RCW, and electrical as described in chapter 19.28 RCW, or to name itself for the work. The respondent shall not list more than one subcontractor for each category of work identified, unless subcontractors vary with bid alternates, in which case the respondent must indicate which subcontractor will be used for which alternate. Failure to comply with this provision or the naming of two or more subcontractors to perform the same work shall require the City (pursuant to state law RCW 39.30.060) to determine that respondent's bid is nonresponsive; therefore, the bid will be rejected.<|endoftext|>Technique for cable laying and overhead line construction

- Energy cable laying up to 680 kV
- Fibre optic, mini and micro cables
- Cable winding and length measuring
- Overhead line construction up to 110 kV
- Seminars and product instructions

Cable drum disc brake

Cable drum disc brake without drum fork, to order separately, for controlled unwinding of cable or line drums from the hydraulic drum jacks THD 20/25 - 30/50. Suitable for all a.m. cable drum shafts. One complete set as shown left consists of:

- 1 steel shaft type KSDK, see above, to select acc. to capacity and width of the drum
- 1 disc brake STBT 400
- 1 drum fork suitable in diameter to the drum shaft, see below
- 2 clamps fitting the drum shaft see below
- 2 Centric cones fitting the drum shaft and the drum bore diameter, see below

Code
Type
Operation
Braking
At the cable
kg

350862
STBT 400
mechanic
3200 Nm
approx. 4.0 kN
37.00

<|endoftext|>VWB3500
Vibration Welder
Table Size 38" (965mm) by 18" (455mm)

FEATURES
- Electromechanical vibration head assembly (200-240Hz)
- Super rigid four rail table slide system
- Massive flame cut bridge
- Solid state 15hp digital vibration drive
- Hydraulic lift/clamp force max. 4500 lbs. (20,000 N), 20 gallon reservoir, (75.6 L)
- Allen-Bradley® SLC 5/03 controller with two available expansion slots
- Allen-Bradley Panel View 600 full color touch screen display
- Intuitive and interactive comprehensive help menu
- Part parameter monitoring with programmable limits
- Choice of either English or Spanish menu structure
- Automatic tuning
- Programmable amplitude 0.040" to 0.070" (1.0 to 1.8 mm)
- Weld by time and weld by distance (absolute or meltdown)
- Interior work light
- Optical zero force cycle activation switches
- Light Curtain for single switch activation
- Less than 80 db in operation (continuous measurement)
- Dual external utility outlets

SPECIFICATIONS
- Table size 38" x


 Heat Pumps, Final Rule”.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEM (EMCS) is an automated control system that regulates the energy consumption of a building by controlling the operation of energy consuming systems, and is capable of monitoring loads and adjusting operations in order to optimize energy usage and respond to demand response signals.

ENERGY OBTAINED FROM DEPLETABLE SOURCES is electricity purchased from a public utility, or any energy obtained from coal, oil, natural gas, or liquefied petroleum gases.

ENERGY OBTAINED FROM NONDEPLETABLE SOURCES is energy that is not energy obtained from depletable sources.

ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM (ESS) is one or more devices, assembled together, that are capable of storing energy used for safely supplying electrical energy to selected loads at a future time.

ENFORCEMENT AGENCY is the city, county, or state agency responsible for issuing a building permit.

ENTHALPY RECOVERY RATIO (ERR) is a ratio of the change in enthalpy of the outdoor air supply to the difference in enthalpy between the entering supply airflow and the entering exhaust airflow, with no adjustment to account for that portion of the psychometric change in the leaving supply airflow that is the result of leakage of entering exhaust airflow rather than exchange of heat or moisture between the airstreams.

ENTIRE BUILDING is the ensemble of all enclosed space in a building, including the space for which a permit is sought, plus all existing conditioned and unconditioned space within the structure.

ENVELOPE (See “building envelope”.)

ESS READY INTERCONNECTION EQUIPMENT is equipment, including but not limited to an ESS ready panelboard, that can accommodate the connection of a distributed energy resource or an ESS capable of either automatic or manual isolation from the utility power source.
ESS READY PANELBOARD is a panelboard that can accommodate either automatic or manual switching between a utility power source to a distributed energy resource or an energy storage system, such as a split bus panelboard.

EXFILTRATION is uncontrolled outward air leakage from inside a building, including leakage through cracks and interstices, around windows and doors, and through any other exterior partition or duct penetration.

EXTERIOR FLOOR/SOFFIT is a horizontal exterior partition, or a horizontal demising partition, under conditioned space. For low-rise residential occupancies, exterior floors also include those on grade.

EXTERIOR PARTITION is an opaque, translucent, or transparent solid barrier that separates conditioned space from ambient air or space. For low-rise residential occupancies, exterior partitions also include barriers that separate conditioned space from unconditioned space, or the ground.

EXTERIOR ROOF/CEILING is an exterior partition, or a demising partition, that has a slope less than 60 degrees from horizontal, that has conditioned space below, and that is not an exterior door or skylight.

EXTERIOR ROOF/CEILING AREA is the area of the exterior surface of exterior roof/ceilings.

EXTERIOR WALL is any wall or element of a wall, or any member or group of members, which defines the exterior boundaries or courts of a building and which has a slope of 60 degrees or greater with the horizontal plane. An exterior wall or partition is not an exterior floor/soffit, exterior door, exterior roof/ceiling, window, skylight, or demising wall.

EXTERIOR WALL AREA is the area of the opaque exterior surface of exterior walls.

FAÇADE is the contiguous exterior of a building surface, but not limited to fenestration products.

FACTORY is a building, structure, or space designated as Factory Group F that is used for assembling, disassembling, fabricating, finishing, manufacturing, packaging, repair or processing operations.

FACTORY ASSEMBLED COOLING TOWERS are cooling towers constructed from factory-assembled modules either shipped to the site in one piece or put together in the field.

FAN, EMBEDDED is a fan that is part of a manufactured assembly where the assembly includes functions other than air movement.

FAN ARRAYS are multiple fans in parallel and in a single enclosure between two plenum sections in an air distribution system, where plenum means a compartment or chamber that forms a part of the air distribution system, and that is not used for occupancy or storage.

FAN ELECTRICAL INPUT POWER (FAN kWdesign) is the electrical input power in kilowatts required to operate an individual fan or fan array at design conditions. It includes the power consumption of motor controllers, if present.

FAN ENERGY INDEX (FEI) is the ratio of the electric input power of a reference fan to the electric input power of the actual fan as calculated per ANSI/AMCA 208-18 at fan system design conditions.

FAN NAMEPLATE ELECTRICAL INPUT POWER (kW) is the nominal electrical input power rating stamped on a fan assembly nameplate.

FAN SYSTEM includes all the fans that contribute to the movement of air through a point of a common duct, plenum, or cabinet.

FAN SYSTEM, COMPLEX means a fan system that combines a single-cabinet fan system with other supply fans, exhaust fans, or both.

FAN SYSTEM, EXHAUST/RELIEF is a fan system dedicated to the removal of air from interior spaces to the outdoors.

FAN SYSTEM, MULTI-ZONE VARIABLE AIR VOLUME (VAV) is a fan system that serves three or more space-conditioning zones where airflow to each zone is individually controlled based on heating, cooling and/or ventilation requirements, indoor fan airflow varies as a function of load, and the sum of the minimum zone airflows is 40% or less of the fan system design conditions.

FAN SYSTEM, RETURN is a fan system dedicated to removing air from interior spaces where some or all of the air is to be recirculated except during economizer operation.
FAN SYSTEM, SINGLE-CABINET is a fan system where a single fan, single fan array, a single set of fans operating in parallel, or fans or fan arrays in series and embedded in the same cabinet, that both supplies air to a space and recirculates the air.

FAN SYSTEM, SUPPLY-ONLY is a fan system that provides supply air to interior spaces and does not recirculate the air.

FAN SYSTEM, TRANSFER is a fan system that exclusively moves air from one occupied space to another.

FAN SYSTEM AIRFLOW (cfm) is the sum of the airflow of all fans with fan electrical input power greater than 1 kW at fan system design conditions, excluding the airflow that passes through downstream fans with fan input power less than 1 kW.

FAN SYSTEM DESIGN CONDITIONS are operating conditions that can be expected to occur during normal system operation that result in the highest supply airflow rate to or from the conditioned spaces served by the fan system.

FAN SYSTEM ELECTRICAL INPUT POWER (Fan kWdesign,system) is the sum of the fan electrical input power (Fan kWdesign) in kilowatts of all fans that are required to operate at fan system design conditions to supply air from the heating or cooling source to the conditioned spaces, return it to the source, exhaust it to the outdoors, or transfer it to another space.

FENESTRATION: Includes the following:

ACE is an NFRC-Approved Calculation Entity that conducts calculations of fenestration product ratings for certification authorization using the NFRC Component Modeling approach and issues label certificates to Specifying Authorities for product certification authorization in accordance with NFRC requirements.

ALTERED COMPONENT is a new fenestration component that has undergone an alteration other than a repair and is subject to all applicable standards requirements.

BAY WINDOW is a combination assembly which is composed of three or more individual windows either joined side by side or installed within opaque assemblies and which projects away from the wall on which it is installed. Center windows, if used are parallel to the wall on which the bay is installed, the end panels or two side windows are angled with respect to the center window. Common angles are 30° and 45°, although other angles may be employed.

CHROMOGENIC GLAZING is a class of switchable glazing that includes active materials (e.g. electrochromic) and passive materials (e.g. photochromic and thermochromic) permanently integrated into the glazing assembly. Their primary function is to switch reversibly from a high transmission state to a low transmission state with associated changes in VT and SHGC.

CLERESTORY FENESTRATION is fenestration installed above a roofline greater than or equal to 60° from the horizontal, or any portion of exterior vertical glazing greater than eight feet per floor above the finished floor of a space.

CMA (component modeling approach) is a fenestration product certification program from the National Fenestration Rating Council (NFRC) that enables energy-related performance ratings for nonresidential fenestration products, including the thermal performance U-factor, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient, and Visible Transmittance.

CMAST (Component Modeling Approach Software Tool) is an NFRC approved software that allows a user to create a fenestration product “virtually,” and generate its energy-related performance ratings, including the thermal performance U-factor, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient, and Visible Transmittance.

CURTAIN WALL/STOREFRONT is an external non-bearing wall intended to separate the exterior nonconditioned and interior conditioned spaces. It also consists of any combination of framing materials, fixed glazing, opaque glazing, operable windows, or other in-fill materials. Note: Window wall is also included as part of the curtain wall/storefront fenestration category.

DUAL-GLAZED GREENHOUSE WINDOWS is a double glass pane separated by an air or other gas space that adds conditioned volume but not conditioned floor area to a building.

DYNAMIC GLAZING SYSTEMS are glazing systems that have the ability to reversibly change their performance properties, including U-factor, Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (