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should continue to be regularly assessed even after they’ve been diagnosed, as the level of care and support they need will depend on how severely each sense is affected. Find your local optometry practice Specialist assessment As soon as deafblindness has been identified, a specialist assessment should be arranged by the local authority. The assessment should only be carried out by a specially trained professional who is able to identify the deafblind person’s abilities and needs. The assessment should include assessing their needs in relation to: communication one-to-one human contact social interaction emotional wellbeing support with mobility assistive technology rehabilitation The assessment will also take into account the person’s current needs and those that develop in the future. A deafblind person should have access to services suitable to their level of hearing and sight and their individual needs. Mainstream services aimed mainly at blind or deaf people may not always be


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suitable to their level of hearing and sight and their individual needs. Mainstream services aimed mainly at blind or deaf people may not always be appropriate. Read more about the treatments and services available for deafblind people. Managing deafblindness It’s not always possible to treat the underlying causes of deafblindness, but a range of care and support services is available to help people with the condition. Most deafblind people will still have some hearing and/or vision. The level of care and support they need will depend on how severe their hearing and vision problems are. Individual care plan The individual abilities and needs of a deafblind person should be assessed soon after they’re diagnosed. This will allow a tailored care plan to be drawn up. The care plan will aim to: preserve and maximise any remaining sensory functions the person has teach alternative communication methods such as the deafblind manual alphabet (see below) help the person retain as much


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functions the person has teach alternative communication methods such as the deafblind manual alphabet (see below) help the person retain as much independence as possible – for example, by recommending they receive training to use a long cane or guide dog or through the provision of a communicator guide for young children, ensure their educational needs are met Read further information Sense: Benefits and money Sense: Support for disabled children and young people Communication systems As deafblindness can make communicating by speech and writing difficult, alternative forms of communication may be necessary. The main communication systems used by deafblind people include: clear speech – speaking clearly is one of the most effective and common ways of communicating with deafblind people who have some remaining vision and hearing deafblind manual alphabet – a tactile form of communication where words are spelt onto the deafblind person’s hand using set positions and movements block


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manual alphabet – a tactile form of communication where words are spelt onto the deafblind person’s hand using set positions and movements block alphabet – a simple tactile form of communication where a word is spelt out in capital letters that are drawn onto the deafblind person’s palm hands-on signing – an adapted version of British Sign Language (BSL) where the deafblind person feels what’s being signed by placing their hands on top of the signer’s hand visual frame signing – an adapted version of BSL where the signs are adapted to be signed in a smaller space to match the position and size of a deafblind person’s remaining sight braille – a system that uses a series of raised dots to represent letters or groups of letters moon – similar to Braille, but uses raised, adapted capital letters that are simpler to feel Read further information: Sense: Ways of communicating Vision aids For some deafblind people, it may be possible to improve vision using low vision aids, such as glasses,


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Sense: Ways of communicating Vision aids For some deafblind people, it may be possible to improve vision using low vision aids, such as glasses, magnifying lenses and task lights. Specially designed items, such as telephones and keyboards, may also help someone who is visually impaired. The Royal National Institute of Blind People (RNIB) has more information about everyday living with vision loss, including advice about the technology available to help with everyday tasks. Many libraries stock a selection of large-print books and ‘talking books’, where the text is read aloud and recorded onto a CD. The RNIB also offer a talking book subscription service, where books can be ordered and delivered directly to your home for a small annual fee. Read further information: RNIB: Assistive aids and technology Hearing aids and implants Some deafblind people may benefit from wearing a hearing aid. There are various hearing aid styles available to suit different types of hearing loss and personal


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people may benefit from wearing a hearing aid. There are various hearing aid styles available to suit different types of hearing loss and personal preference. Hearing aids use microphones to collect the sound from the environment, amplify it and deliver it into the ear canal of the wearer so that it can be processed by the auditory system. An audiologist (hearing specialist) will be able to recommend the most suitable type of aid after testing your hearing. For some people, hearing aids that deliver the sound into the ear canal are not appropriate. In these cases, hearing may be improved using a surgically implanted hearing system, such as a cochlea implant or bone conducting hearing implant. While these still use a microphone to collect the sound initially, they then covert that sound into either an electrical signal or vibration, passing it to the inner or middle ear for processing by the auditory system. Want to know more? Sense: Assistive technology for people with hearing loss


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it to the inner or middle ear for processing by the auditory system. Want to know more? Sense: Assistive technology for people with hearing loss RNID: Hearing aids One-to-one support Every deafblind person is entitled to help from a specially trained one-to-one support worker if they need it. Depending on the person’s situation, this may be a: communicator guide – someone who works with people who have become deafblind later in life, to offer the support the person needs to live independently interpreter – someone who acts as a communication link between the deafblind person and other people, using the deafblind person’s preferred method of communication intervenor – someone who works with children and adults who were born deafblind, to help them experience and join in the world around them as much as possible Treating underlying conditions Some conditions that affect hearing and vision can be treated using medication or surgery. For example: cataracts can often be treated by


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conditions Some conditions that affect hearing and vision can be treated using medication or surgery. For example: cataracts can often be treated by surgically implanting an artificial lens in the eye glaucoma can often be treated using eye drops or laser surgery – read more about treating glaucoma diabetic retinopathy can be treated in the early stages using laser surgery Some causes of temporary hearing loss are also treatable, such as a build-up of earwax or middle ear infections. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 19 November 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Hearing loss Other health sites Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID) British Deaf Association Hearing


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to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Hearing loss Other health sites Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID) British Deaf Association Hearing Link Services Royal National Institute of Blind People Sense National Deaf Children’s Society Sight Scotland Scottish Sensory Hub Scotland's Inclusive Communication Hub Deafblind Scotland Hearing Dogs for Deaf People NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Blood and lymph Deep vein thrombosis Deep vein thrombosis Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is a blood clot that develops within a vein, usually in the leg. Each year, DVT affects around 1 person in every 1000 in the UK. Symptoms of DVT Swelling is one of the main symptoms of DVT. It may not always be easy to notice. Swelling can happen in any part of your leg, but usually happens in the back of the leg. Other symptoms of DVT include: tenderness throbbing pain – if the clot is in your leg, pain is usually in the calf or thigh when walking or standing up, and pain may be worse when you bend your foot upwards towards your knee a heavy ache in the affected area red or darkened skin around the painful area – depending on your skin tone this may be difficult to see warm skin around the


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in the affected area red or darkened skin around the painful area – depending on your skin tone this may be difficult to see warm skin around the painful area swollen veins that are hard or sore when you touch them These symptoms can also happen in your arm or tummy if that’s where the blood clot is. Phone 999 or go to A&E if: You have symptoms of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), like pain and swelling, as well as: breathlessness chest pain Do not drive yourself to A&E. Ask someone to take you to A&E or phone 999 for an ambulance.Bring any medicines you take with you. Phone 111 or make an urgent appointment at your GP practice if: you think you have deep vein thrombosis (DVT) Risk factors for DVT Anyone can develop DVT, but the risk increases with age. You’re also more likely to get DVT if you: are inactive for long periods – for example, after an operation or during a long journey have had DVT, a pulmonary embolism or a blood clot before have a family history of DVT, pulmonary embolism or


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an operation or during a long journey have had DVT, a pulmonary embolism or a blood clot before have a family history of DVT, pulmonary embolism or blood clots you have damaged blood vessels – for example, due to injury or a condition like varicose veins are pregnant or have given birth in the last 6 weeks take the contraceptive pill or hormone replacement therapy (HRT) are receiving chemotherapy or radiotherapy have cancer have heart or lung disease smoke are overweight or obese Sometimes DVT can happen for no obvious reason. Diagnosing DVT If your doctor thinks that you have DVT, you will need to have some tests. These include a specific blood test called a D dimer, and/or an ultrasound. An ultrasound scan shows if blood is flowing normally through the veins or if there are any clots. You may also need an X-ray of the vein (venogram). For this, you’ll be injected with a dye to show where the clot is. Treatment for DVT There are a few ways to treat DVT. Your healthcare team will


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For this, you’ll be injected with a dye to show where the clot is. Treatment for DVT There are a few ways to treat DVT. Your healthcare team will decide the best way to treat your symptoms. Anticoagulant medicines Anticoagulant medicines are used to treat DVT. These can include warfarin or apixaban. Anticoagulants are often referred to as “blood-thinning” medicines, but they don’t actually thin the blood. They alter proteins within it, which prevents clots forming so easily. You may need to take an anticoagulant medicine like warfarin for at least 3 months. Compression socks You’ll be prescribed compression socks to treat DVT. These are knee-high elastic socks that help your blood circulation. Compression socks can improve the symptoms of DVT, including pain and swelling. They can also help to prevent complications of DVT. Once you’ve been prescribed compression socks, your healthcare team may advise you to walk regularly. This can help to prevent symptoms of DVT and reduce or prevent


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prescribed compression socks, your healthcare team may advise you to walk regularly. This can help to prevent symptoms of DVT and reduce or prevent complications. Surgery Some people may need surgery to treat DVT. You may need to be fitted with an inferior vena cava (IVC) filter to treat your symptoms. These are small mesh devices that can be placed in a vein. They can be used to help prevent blood clots developing. Raise your leg If you have DVT in your leg, you may be advised to raise it whenever you’re resting. This helps to relieve pressure in the veins of the calf and stops blood and fluid pooling in the calf. When raising your leg, make sure your foot is higher than your hip. To do this, you can put a cushion underneath your leg whilst you’re lying down. Preventing DVT You can help reduce your risk of getting DVT by making changes to your lifestyle. Do eat a healthy, balanced diet keep active stay a healthy weight Don’t do not smoke do not sit down for long periods do not drink


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to your lifestyle. Do eat a healthy, balanced diet keep active stay a healthy weight Don’t do not smoke do not sit down for long periods do not drink lots of alcohol do not cross your legs when you’re sitting down Find out more about healthy living Preventing DVT if you’re going into hospital If you need to go into hospital for surgery, your healthcare team will assess your risk of developing DVT. If you’re at risk of developing DVT, you may be given treatment to prevent it. For example, you may need to wear compression socks or take medicine. You may need to continue these treatments after you leave hospital as there’s still a risk that you could develop DVT. Whilst in hospital, try to move as much as you can. Your healthcare team may give you exercises to do. Preventing DVT if you’re going on a long journey If you need to travel a long distance, or for more than 3 hours, there are steps you can take to help avoid getting DVT. You should: drink plenty of water practice some leg


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long distance, or for more than 3 hours, there are steps you can take to help avoid getting DVT. You should: drink plenty of water practice some leg exercises, such as flexing your ankles take regular short walking breaks avoid drinking lots of alcohol wear compression socks Speak to a healthcare professional if you’re planning any long-distance travel and have had DVT in the past, or if you’re at risk of it. Complications of DVT DVT can be very serious as blood clots can travel to the lungs. This is called a pulmonary embolism. A pulmonary embolism can be life-threatening and needs to be treated quickly. If you’ve had a DVT, you can develop long-term symptoms like pain and swelling. This is known as post-thrombotic syndrome. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 26 July 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions.


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NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Warfarin NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/muscle-bone-and-joints/neck-and-back-problems-and-conditions/degenerative-cervical-myelopathy/


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Degenerative cervical myelopathy | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Muscle, bone and joints Neck and back problems and conditions Degenerative cervical myelopathy Degenerative cervical myelopathy This information may be useful for those who have been medically diagnosed with degenerative cervical myelopathy. People who are experiencing new or ongoing symptoms should visit their healthcare professional for assessment, diagnosis or treatment. Read about managing a neck problem What is degenerative cervical myelopathy Degenerative cervical myelopathy is a condition that is caused by age related changes to the bones, ligaments and discs of the neck. This can sometimes cause pressure on the spinal cord which can affect function of the nerves. Symptoms of degenerative cervical myelopathy It’s common to experience one or multiple symptoms.


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spinal cord which can affect function of the nerves. Symptoms of degenerative cervical myelopathy It’s common to experience one or multiple symptoms. The most common symptoms include: pain or stiffness in the neck tingling or numbness in the arms or legs (often starting in fingertips or toes) or less commonly in the body change or loss in the manual coordination or dexterity in the hands (e.g. fastening buttons or tying shoelaces) pain, weakness or heaviness in the arms or legs imbalance or feeling unsteady which may lead to falls difficulty walking change of bladder or bowel function, such as increased urgency or incontinence When to get professional help Many people have a combination of neck pain, arm pain, numbness and weakness. These symptoms can be distressing, but don’t necessarily require urgent medical attention. Sometimes symptoms can progress suddenly, early recognition and treatment can prevent further deterioration. If you feel that your symptoms are gradually worsening


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can progress suddenly, early recognition and treatment can prevent further deterioration. If you feel that your symptoms are gradually worsening over time you should contact your healthcare professional to discuss this. Call 111 if you have a new onset or significant worsening of the following symptoms: changing sensation in the arms, hands or legs and feet (e.g. numbness or pins and needles) clumsy hands (e.g. knocking things over) loss of dexterity (e.g. struggling with handwriting, buttons or zips) weakness or heaviness in the arms and legs or hands and feet (e.g. dropping things or tripping over) reduced balance causing unsteadiness or falls difficulty walking because the legs feel heavy, stiff or weak worsening pain in the arms or legs changing sensation around the bottom and/or genitalia recent changes to bladder function (e.g. urgency, difficulty passing urine or leaking) changes to bowel function (e.g. leaking or inability to control wind) sexual dysfunction (recent inability


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difficulty passing urine or leaking) changes to bowel function (e.g. leaking or inability to control wind) sexual dysfunction (recent inability to achieve orgasm or erection) Diagnosing degenerative cervical myelopathy In order for degenerative cervical myelopathy to be diagnosed you’ll need an assessment from a healthcare professional. They’ll ask you questions about your symptoms and then carry out a physical examination. This may include checking your strength, movement and nerve function. Depending on the examination you may then be offered an MRI scan. You may sometimes need to have a further examination to rule out other causes of these symptoms. Causes of degenerative cervical myelopathy Degenerative cervical mylopathy is a condition that causes pressure on the spinal cord which can affect function of the nerves. There are a number of reasons this pressure can happen including: age related narrowing significant changes to the bones, ligaments or discs in the neck As we get


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of reasons this pressure can happen including: age related narrowing significant changes to the bones, ligaments or discs in the neck As we get older, aging in the spine can cause narrowing and a reduction of space for the spinal nerves leading to compression. Treatment of degenerative cervical myelopathy The treatments for degenerative cervical myelopathy depend on your assessment and investigation by your healthcare professional. Some peoples symptoms are able to be managed with self-management and modifications to their activities. Your healthcare professional may discuss whether surgery is an option for you. Work A neck problem can sometimes mean you need to take some time off work to help recovery. How long you’re off will depend on the nature of your condition and your role at work. This is a long term condition and it’s a good idea to discuss with your employer or occupational health what support you need to return to or remain at work. Further support When dealing with any


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idea to discuss with your employer or occupational health what support you need to return to or remain at work. Further support When dealing with any health condition it’s important to also look after your mental wellbeing as this can impact your recovery. Source: NHS 24 MSK Clinical Advisory Group - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 06 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Dehydration | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Nutritional Dehydration Dehydration Dehydration is when your body loses more fluid than you take in. It can be serious if it isn’t treated. Drinking fluids (such as water, diluted squash or fruit juice) regularly can prevent dehydration. Symptoms of dehydration Symptoms of dehydration include: feeling thirsty having dark yellow, strong-smelling pee (urine) peeing less often than usual (less than 3 or 4 times a day) feeling dizzy or lightheaded headache feeling tired a dry mouth, lips and eyes sunken eyes A baby may be dehydrated if they have: a sunken soft spot (fontanelle) on their head sunken eyes few or no tears when they cry a dry mouth fewer wet nappies dark yellow pee drowsiness or are irritable fast breathing cold and blotchy-looking hands and feet When to get medical advice Speak


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fewer wet nappies dark yellow pee drowsiness or are irritable fast breathing cold and blotchy-looking hands and feet When to get medical advice Speak to your GP practice urgently if: you’re extremely thirsty you’re feeling unusually tired (or your child seems drowsy) you’re confused and disorientated you feel dizzy when you stand up and it does not go away after a few seconds you have dark yellow pee or you’re peeing less than normal (or your baby has fewer wet nappies) you or your child are breathing quickly or has a fast heart rate your baby or child has few or no tears when they cry your baby has a soft spot on their head that sinks inwards (sunken fontanelle) your baby has vomited 3 times or more in the past 24 hours your child has had 6 or more episodes of diarrhoea in the past 24 hours your symptoms continue even after drinking fluids you think your baby or toddler is dehydrated If your GP practice is closed, phone 111. Diagnosing dehydration If your GP suspects dehydration, you


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you think your baby or toddler is dehydrated If your GP practice is closed, phone 111. Diagnosing dehydration If your GP suspects dehydration, you may have a blood test or a urine test to check the balance of salts in your body. What causes dehydration? Dehydration is caused by not drinking enough fluid or by losing more fluid than you take in. Fluid is lost through sweat, vomit, pee or diarrhoea. Causes of dehydration include: illness – for example gastroenteritis, where you lose fluid through diarrhoea and vomiting sweating too much – for example due to a fever, exercise, or manual work in high temperatures drinking too much alcohol because it makes you pee more – a hangover headache is a sign you’re dehydrated diabetes – high levels of glucose in your blood makes you pee more Who is at risk of dehydration? Anyone can become dehydrated but those more at risk are: babies and infants – their low body weight makes them sensitive to even small amounts of fluid loss older people – they


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but those more at risk are: babies and infants – their low body weight makes them sensitive to even small amounts of fluid loss older people – they may be less aware they’re becoming dehydrated and need to drink fluids people with a long-term health condition – such as diabetes or alcoholism athletes – they can lose a large amount of body fluid through sweat when exercising for long periods Overhydration (hyponatremia) It’s possible to become overhydrated while exercising. Overhydration is caused by low salt levels in the blood. It can occur if you drink too much water over a short period of time. It sometimes affects athletes if salt is lost through sweat and diluted by drinking large amounts of water. Symptoms of overhydration include feeling sick, vomiting and headache. In serious cases, the brain can swell, causing confusion, seizures, coma and, in rare cases, death. If you’re worried that you may be overhydrated, seek medical advice. Treatment for dehydration If you’re


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seizures, coma and, in rare cases, death. If you’re worried that you may be overhydrated, seek medical advice. Treatment for dehydration If you’re dehydrated, drink plenty of fluids such as water, diluted squash or fruit juice. These are better than tea, coffee or fizzy drinks. If you’re finding it difficult to keep water down because you’re vomiting, try drinking small amounts more often. Oral rehydration solutions When you’re dehydrated, you lose sugar and salts, as well as water. Oral rehydration solutions can help treat this. These are powders that you mix with water and then drink. They contain a mixture of potassium and sodium salts, as well as glucose or starch. Ask your pharmacist or GP for advice about the right rehydration solution for you or your child. Find your nearest pharmacy Treatment for babies Give your baby plenty of liquids, such as breastmilk or formula. It can be better to give them smaller amounts of fluid more often. Don’t dilute your baby’s formula (if you use


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such as breastmilk or formula. It can be better to give them smaller amounts of fluid more often. Don’t dilute your baby’s formula (if you use it). Babies who are formula-fed and those on solids can be given extra water. Avoid giving your baby fruit juice, particularly if they have diarrhoea and vomiting, because it can make it worse. Giving your baby regular sips (a few times an hour) of oral rehydration solution as well as their usual feed (breastmilk, formula milk and water) will help to replace lost fluids, salts and sugars. Ask your pharmacist for advice. Treatment for infants and children Infants and children who are dehydrated shouldn’t only be given water. It can dilute the already low level of minerals in their body and make the problem worse. Instead, they should have diluted squash or oral rehydration solution. Ask your pharmacist for advice. If your child is finding it difficult to keep fluid down because of vomiting, take small amounts more often. You may find it easier


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for advice. If your child is finding it difficult to keep fluid down because of vomiting, take small amounts more often. You may find it easier to use a spoon or a syringe into their mouth to give your child small amounts of fluid. Treatment for severe dehydration If severe dehydration is not treated immediately, it can lead to serious complications. Severe dehydration needs hospital treatment. You’ll be put on a drip to quickly replace fluid in your body. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 10 January 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy


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About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Delirium | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Delirium Delirium Delirium (acute confusional state) is when someone’s mental function has a sudden change. It comes on quickly, often over hours or days. As well as showing confusion, people with delirium can be sleepy, agitated, have altered beliefs or see hallucinations. Delirium is often triggered by: illness the side affects of medication an injury having surgery Symptoms of delirium People with delirium may experience symptoms that include: being confused (or more confused than normal) being sleepy and less responsive being very agitated or restless a change in sleeping pattern (like being awake at night and sleeping during the day) suspiciousness or a loss of trust seeing or hearing things that aren’t real Sometimes these symptoms are worse in the evenings


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during the day) suspiciousness or a loss of trust seeing or hearing things that aren’t real Sometimes these symptoms are worse in the evenings or overnight. How long does delirium last? Most delirium lasts a few days but in some cases it can persist for weeks or even months. Delirium can continue even when all triggers have been addressed. In this situation, you should get ongoing supportive care and help. In other cases, the delirium will slowly improve. Unfortunately, not all patients recover to the same mental function they had before their delirium. Causes of delirium Delirium is caused by a change in the way the brain functions. There are many things that can trigger this, including: an infection – including urinary tract infections (UTIs) and chest infections prescription medicine – delirium can be a side effect or an effect of sudden withdrawal dehydration constipation injuries (for example hip fractures) low blood sugar level, for example in people with diabetes alcohol


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of sudden withdrawal dehydration constipation injuries (for example hip fractures) low blood sugar level, for example in people with diabetes alcohol withdrawal surgery severe psychological stress Increased risk of delirium Anyone can get delirium but some things can increase the risk, including: being over 65 having dementia being frail hearing or sight loss having had delirium before alcohol misuse Delirium is one of the most common medical emergencies. It’s found in around 1 in 7 adults in hospital and about half of patients in intensive care. Diagnosing delirium Relatives and carers are often the first to notice signs of delirium. The key change is in the person’s normal mental function. Healthcare staff identify delirium by assessing the core symptoms. They will often do this using the 4A’s test or 4AT.4AT is a quick test where a healthcare professional will ask their patient some orientation questions. For example, they could ask what year it is. They could also ask them to give


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professional will ask their patient some orientation questions. For example, they could ask what year it is. They could also ask them to give the months of the year in reverse order. The test helps to show if the patient has a different mental function to normal. Treatment of delirium There are different aspects to the treatment of delirium. Treating triggers Delirium is usually caused by one or more triggers. Treatment starts by working out what the triggers are. Healthcare professionals can then treat these as effectively as possible. For example, if the person has a chest infection then treating it would help the delirium. Often more than one trigger may cause delirium. For example a person with a chest infection may also be dehydrated or have a low blood oxygen level. These would also trigger or make the delirium worse. Treating symptoms Another important part of delirium care is treating the symptoms of delirium. Many people become distressed due to feeling disorientated. They


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Another important part of delirium care is treating the symptoms of delirium. Many people become distressed due to feeling disorientated. They may also have paranoia, hallucinations or feel like they’re losing control. These symptoms can improve with repeated reassurance and by explaining carefully what’s happening. Occasionally, healthcare professionals may use anti-psychotic drugs or other treatments. Recovery Once the triggers and symptoms have been managed, the next step is to help the patient recover. The aim is to get the person back to their usual self through: rehabilitation engagement with them hydration nutrition Complications of delirium Some complications of delirium can include: immobility falls pressure sores isolation How to support someone with delirium When caring for someone with delirium, it’s helpful to: ensure hearing aids, glasses and dentures are within reach have a gentle and friendly approach – smile and provide reassurance talk and keep the person informed in


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aids, glasses and dentures are within reach have a gentle and friendly approach – smile and provide reassurance talk and keep the person informed in short, simple sentences try to make sure someone the person knows well is with them keep a calendar or clock (or both) within view bring in some familiar objects from the person’s home to keep next to their bedside, for example photographs if it’s safe to do so, help the person to eat and drink (check with care staff if you have any doubts) Caring for someone else can be stressful. Try to ensure you are sleeping and eating and try to create a support network. What is the long term impact of having delirium? After recovering from delirium, there’s an increased risk of dementia. People living with dementia who develop delirium may be worse after delirium. People who have experienced distress during delirium may develop post traumatic stress symptoms. This includes intrusive memories of delirium and symptoms of anxiety and depression.


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during delirium may develop post traumatic stress symptoms. This includes intrusive memories of delirium and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Delirium when someone’s dying Delirium is very common in people in their last days of life, affecting up to half of people in this situation. It’s important to identify the delirium and, where possible, consider if there are easily treatable triggers. However, the main focus of care is in managing the symptoms. Read more about palliative care What is the difference between delirium and dementia? Delirium comes on over hours or days and, in most cases, it will get better in a few days. Dementia develops over months or years and is nearly always irreversible. Delirium and dementia symptoms can sometimes overlap, for example disorientation is usual in both conditions. However people with delirium are more likely to: be drowsy be agitated be paranoid have hallucinations The 2 conditions often co-exist, especially in older people. People with


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are more likely to: be drowsy be agitated be paranoid have hallucinations The 2 conditions often co-exist, especially in older people. People with dementia are much more likely to develop delirium. In hospital at least half of older people with delirium will also have dementia. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 24 May 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Other health sites SIGN Guidelines: Delirium NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Dementia | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Dementia Dementia Dementia Information, support and advice on dementia About dementia Dementia is an umbrella term for a range of conditions associated with damage to the brain or brain cells (neuron). This means the brain cannot work as well as it should. Dementia can affect your ability to remember, think and speak. It also affects how you feel and behave. Find out more about dementia Types of dementia There are many types of dementia. These are some of the most common. Alzheimer’s disease Find information on Alzheimer’s disease which is a common type of dementia. Dementia with Lewy bodies Find information on dementia with Lewy bodies which is a common type of dementia. Vascular dementia Find information on vascular dementia which is a common type of dementia.


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with Lewy bodies which is a common type of dementia. Vascular dementia Find information on vascular dementia which is a common type of dementia. Worried about memory loss? As you get older, you may find that memory loss becomes a problem. It’s normal for your memory to be affected by things like stress or tiredness. But, dementia is not a normal part of the ageing process. Get advice if you’re worried about dementia Speak to your GP practice if: Memory loss: affects your daily life is worrying you or someone you know Living with dementia People can, and do, live a good life with dementia for years. Because dementia is progressive and affects different people in different ways, it’s important to continue to do what matters to you. Advice if you’ve just had a dementia diagnosis Get advice and information if you’ve just had a dementia diagnosis. Living well with dementia Information and advice on living with dementia. Caring for someone with dementia Dementia can affect all aspects of a


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Living well with dementia Information and advice on living with dementia. Caring for someone with dementia Dementia can affect all aspects of a person’s life, as well as those around them. But, it’s important to remember that you’re not alone. There are many places to get advice and support. Daily living and dementia Advice on daily living and dementia if you’re living with or caring for someone with dementia. Personal care in dementia Advice on personal care in dementia if you’re caring for someone with dementia. Support if you’re caring for someone with dementia Get information and advice if you’re caring for someone with dementia. Support with dementia There are many organisations that can help if you or someone else is affected by dementia. This includes: Alzheimer Scotland Age Scotland Alzheimer’s Research UK Care Information Scotland Carers Trust You can get advice on dementia support groups through: Meeting Centres The Dementia Friendly Communities Network Age Scotland


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Scotland Carers Trust You can get advice on dementia support groups through: Meeting Centres The Dementia Friendly Communities Network Age Scotland Alzheimer Scotland Carers Scotland forum Mental health support Being diagnosed with dementia can be challenging for your mental health and wellbeing, and can impact those close to you. You can phone the Alzheimer Scotland dementia helpline for support on 0808 808 3000. This helpline is free and is open 24 hours a day. NHS inform has general advice on managing your mental health and wellbeing. This includes: breathing and relaxation exercises mindfulness for mental wellbeing getting help with your mental health You can also get support through mental health services at NHS 24 and Mind to Mind. Give feedback about this page Let us know what you liked, what you didn’t or what you think is missing by emailing nhs.inform@nhs24.scot.nhs.uk Please don’t include personal information like your name, location or any personal health conditions. NHS


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by emailing nhs.inform@nhs24.scot.nhs.uk Please don’t include personal information like your name, location or any personal health conditions. NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/dementia/types-of-dementia/dementia-with-lewy-bodies/


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Dementia with Lewy bodies | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Dementia Types of dementia Dementia with Lewy bodies Dementia with Lewy bodies Dementia is an an umbrella term for a range of diseases that affect different brain functions, including memory. Dementia with Lewy bodies is a common form of dementia. It’s also known as Lewy body dementia. Symptoms of dementia with Lewy bodies The symptoms of dementia with Lewy bodies usually develop gradually. They usually become more severe over the course of a few years. It causes problems with: thinking speed language understanding judgement memory (although significant memory loss may not occur until later on) Other symptoms of dementia with Lewy bodies People with dementia with Lewy bodies may also have other symptoms. These can help to distinguish it from


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Other symptoms of dementia with Lewy bodies People with dementia with Lewy bodies may also have other symptoms. These can help to distinguish it from other types of dementia. Dementia with Lewy bodies is closely related to Parkinson’s disease (PD). Because of this, people with dementia with Lewy bodies sometimes have symptoms like stiff limbs, tremors, slow movement and might shuffle when walking. Other symptoms include: extreme swings between alertness and confusion or drowsiness – can be unexpected and change from hour to hour, or day to day seeing or hearing things that aren’t real (hallucinations) – can range from pleasant to distressing fainting, unsteadiness and falls sleep disturbances – can cause sleep talking or acting out dreams loss of facial expression difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) depression These symptoms can make daily activities very difficult. Dementia with Lewy bodies can also lead to other health problems. This includes injuries from falls and chest infections.


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activities very difficult. Dementia with Lewy bodies can also lead to other health problems. This includes injuries from falls and chest infections. Chest infections may be caused by accidentally inhaling food instead of swallowing it. Causes of dementia with Lewy bodies In dementia with Lewy bodies, small proteins known as Lewy bodies appear in the nerve cells of the brain. They then build up in the parts of the brain responsible for memory and muscle movement. It’s not clear why this happens or how exactly the brain is damaged. But, it’s thought that the chemical signals between brain cells are disrupted. People who have Parkinson’s disease are more likely to go on to develop dementia with Lewy bodies. This is known as Parkinson’s disease dementia (PDD). Risk factors for dementia with Lewy bodies Dementia with Lewy bodies usually occurs in people with no family history of the condition. People with Parkinson’s disease might also develop dementia with Lewy bodies. When to speak to a


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in people with no family history of the condition. People with Parkinson’s disease might also develop dementia with Lewy bodies. When to speak to a healthcare professional If you’re worried about your memory or think you may have dementia, you should speak to your GP. If you’re worried about someone else, you should encourage them to make an appointment. You could suggest that you’ll go with them. More advice if you’re worried about dementia Diagnosing dementia with Lewy bodies Memory problems are not only caused by dementia. They can also be caused by depression, stress, medications or other health problems. Your GP can carry out some simple checks to try to find out what the cause may be. They can refer you to a specialist for more tests, if necessary. Treatment for dementia with Lewy bodies There’s currently no cure for dementia with Lewy bodies. But, there are treatments that can help manage the symptoms. Your GP or healthcare professional can discuss the best treatment options


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Lewy bodies. But, there are treatments that can help manage the symptoms. Your GP or healthcare professional can discuss the best treatment options for you. There are things you can do to live well for as long as possible with dementia. Read more about living well with dementia Your future health and social care needs will need to be assessed and a care plan drawn up. This is a way of ensuring you receive the right treatment for your needs. It involves identifying areas where you may need some help, like: what support you or your carer need for you to remain as independent as possible whether there are any changes that need to be made to your home to make it easier to live in whether you need any financial assistance Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 20 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health


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Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform About dementia NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Dental abscess | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Mouth Dental abscess Dental abscess A dental abscess is a collection of pus that can form inside the teeth, in the gums, or in the bone that holds the teeth in place. It’s caused by a bacterial infection. An abscess at the end of a tooth is called a periapical abscess. An abscess in the gum is called a periodontal abscess. Dental abscesses are often painful, but aren’t always. In either case, they should be looked at by a dentist. You should get help as soon as possible, because abscesses don’t go away on their own. They can sometimes spread to other parts of the face and neck and make you ill. Symptoms of a dental abscess Symptoms of an abscess in your tooth or gum may include: an intense, throbbing pain in the affected tooth or gum that may come on suddenly and gets gradually worse


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abscess in your tooth or gum may include: an intense, throbbing pain in the affected tooth or gum that may come on suddenly and gets gradually worse pain that spreads to your ear, jaw and neck on the same side as the affected tooth or gum pain that’s worse when lying down, which may disturb your sleep redness and swelling in your face a tender, discoloured and/or loose tooth shiny, red and swollen gums sensitivity to hot or cold food and drink bad breath and/or an unpleasant taste in your mouth If the infection spreads, you may also develop a high temperature (fever) and feel generally unwell. In severe cases, you may find it hard to fully open your mouth and have difficulty swallowing or breathing. Phone 999 if: you have difficulty breathing or swallowing Speak to your dentist if: you have any symptoms of a dental abscess Relieving your symptoms While you’re waiting to see a dentist, painkillers can help control your pain. Ibuprofen is the preferred painkiller for dental abscesses.


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symptoms While you’re waiting to see a dentist, painkillers can help control your pain. Ibuprofen is the preferred painkiller for dental abscesses. If you’re unable to take it for medical reasons, you can take paracetamol instead. Aspirin shouldn’t be given to children under 16. If one painkiller doesn’t relieve the pain, taking both paracetamol and ibuprofen at the doses shown in the medicine leaflet may help. This is safe for adults, but not for children under 16. It may also help to: avoid hot or cold food and drink if it makes the pain worse try eating cool, soft foods if possible, using the opposite side of your mouth use a soft toothbrush These measures can help relieve your symptoms temporarily, but you shouldn’t use them to delay getting help from a dentist. Treatments for a dental abscess Dental abscesses are treated by removing the source of the infection and draining away the pus. Depending on the location of the abscess and how severe the infection is, possible treatments


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the source of the infection and draining away the pus. Depending on the location of the abscess and how severe the infection is, possible treatments include: removing the affected tooth (extraction) – this may be necessary if root canal treatment isn’t possible root canal treatment – a procedure to remove the abscess from the root of an affected tooth before filling and sealing it incision and drainage – where a small cut (incision) is made in the gum to drain the abscess (this is usually only a temporary solution) Local anaesthetic will usually be used to numb your mouth for these procedures. More extensive operations may be carried out under general anaesthetic (where you’re asleep). Antibiotics aren’t routinely prescribed for dental abscesses, but may be used if the infection spreads or is particularly severe. Causes Your mouth is full of bacteria, which form a sticky film on your teeth called plaque. If you don’t keep your teeth clean, acids produced by the bacteria in plaque can


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of bacteria, which form a sticky film on your teeth called plaque. If you don’t keep your teeth clean, acids produced by the bacteria in plaque can damage your teeth and gums, leading to tooth decay or gum disease. The following can increase your chances of developing a dental abscess: poor oral hygiene – plaque can build-up on your teeth if you don’t brush and clean in between your teeth regularly too much sugary food and drink – these cause growth of bacteria in plaque and may lead to decay that can result in an abscess an injury or previous surgery to your teeth or gums – bacteria can get into any damaged parts of the teeth or gums having a weakened immune system – this includes people with certain underlying health conditions, such as diabetes, and those having treatment, including steroid medication or chemotherapy Preventing dental abscesses You can reduce your risk of developing dental abscesses by keeping your teeth and gums as healthy as possible. Do use an interdental brush


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abscesses You can reduce your risk of developing dental abscesses by keeping your teeth and gums as healthy as possible. Do use an interdental brush or floss at least once a day to clean between your teeth and under the gum line brush your teeth with a fluoride toothpaste twice a day – spending at least 2 minutes each time avoid rinsing your mouth with water or mouthwash after brushing because this washes the protective toothpaste away cut down on sugary food and drinks – particularly between meals or shortly before going to bed visit your dentist regularly – your dentist can suggest how often you should have a check-up, based on your oral health Read more on how to keep your teeth clean and dental check-ups. Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 14 November 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions.


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NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Depression | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Mental health Depression Depression What is depression? ​Symptoms and causes of depression ​Diagnosing and treating depression ​Living with depression ​Psychotic depression Depression self-help guide What is depression? Everyone has spells of feeling down, but depression is more than just spending a few days feeling sad or unhappy. Depression can make you feel persistently sad and down for weeks or months at a time. While some people believe that depression is trivial or not a genuine health problem, it’s actually a real condition that affects around one in 10 people over the course of their lives. It impacts people of all genders and ages – including children. Studies show that around 4% of children in the UK between the ages of five and 16 are depressed or anxious. With the right support


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children. Studies show that around 4% of children in the UK between the ages of five and 16 are depressed or anxious. With the right support and treatment, most people recover fully from depression. Do I have depression? Depression has a range of different symptoms, and it can affect everybody differently. The symptoms include feeling very tearful, feeling hopelessness and sadness, and losing interest in things you enjoyed before. It’s also common for people with depression to have symptoms of anxiety. Physical symptoms happen with depression too – these can include feeling tired all the time, getting poor sleep, losing your sex drive, losing your appetite, and feeling aches and pains. If the symptoms are mild, you might simply experience a persistent low mood. It’s common to feel stressed, sad or anxious during difficult times in your life, and a low mood can get better after a short time, rather than being a symptom of depression. Severe symptoms of depression can make people feel


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life, and a low mood can get better after a short time, rather than being a symptom of depression. Severe symptoms of depression can make people feel suicidal – as if life is no longer worth living. Read more about depression symptoms here. Seeing a doctor about depression Big changes in your life, like bereavement, losing a job, or even having a baby, can cause symptoms of depression. You’re also more likely to experience depression if you have a family history of depression. However, it’s also possible to become depressed without there being an obvious reason. You can learn more about depression causes here. ​Symptoms and causes of depression Symptoms of depression can be very different from person to person. However, as a general rule, if you are depressed you feel hopeless, sad and lacking interest in things that used to make you feel happy. Depression symptoms are bad enough to interfere with work, social life and family life, and can persist for weeks or months. Doctors describe


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happy. Depression symptoms are bad enough to interfere with work, social life and family life, and can persist for weeks or months. Doctors describe depression in one of three ways, depending on how serious it is: mild depression – it has some impact on daily life moderate depression – it has a significant impact on your daily life severe depression – this makes it nearly impossible to get through your life day to day A few people with severe depression may have symptoms of psychotic depression. Below is a list of depression symptoms – it’s unlikely that one person would have all of them. Psychological depression symptoms include: continuous sadness or low mood losing interest in things losing motivation not getting any enjoyment in life feeling tearful feeling guilty feeling anxious feeling irritable finding it hard to make decisions feeling intolerant of other people feeling helpless feeling hopeless low self-esteem feeling worried thinking about suicide thinking about harming


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feeling intolerant of other people feeling helpless feeling hopeless low self-esteem feeling worried thinking about suicide thinking about harming yourself Physical symptoms include: speaking or moving slower than usual aches and pains that can’t be explained losing, or sometimes gaining, appetite or weight constipation loss of interest in sex disturbed sleep (having trouble falling asleep, for example, or waking up very early) loss of energy changes in your menstrual cycle (the time of the month when you get your period) Social symptoms are common too. These include: avoiding talking to or spending time with your friends taking part in fewer social activities neglecting interests and hobbies doing poorly at work difficulties with your family or home life It’s not always possible to tell that you’re having symptoms of depression right away – it can start and progress gradually. A lot of people don’t realise they’re ill and try to carry on and cope with their symptoms. Sometimes it


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away – it can start and progress gradually. A lot of people don’t realise they’re ill and try to carry on and cope with their symptoms. Sometimes it takes a friend or family member to notice that there’s a problem. Depression and grief Depression and grief have a lot of the same features, and it can be hard to tell them apart. However, they’re different in many important ways. Depression is an illness – grief is a completely natural response to loss. If you’re grieving, you may find your feelings of sadness and loss come and go, but it’s still possible to enjoy things in life and look forward to the future. People with depression feel sad persistently, find it difficult to be positive about the future, and don’t get enjoyment from anything. Different types of depression There are different types of depression, and there are some conditions where depression is a symptom. These conditions include: Bipolar disorder – people with bipolar disorder, which is also known as “manic


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conditions where depression is a symptom. These conditions include: Bipolar disorder – people with bipolar disorder, which is also known as “manic depression”, experience times of depression, where the symptoms are similar to clinical depression. They also go through phases when they have excessively high moods (known as “mania”). Bouts of mania can include harmful behaviour like unsafe sex, spending sprees and gambling. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is also called “winter depression”. It’s depression that is related to weather, usually winter, so it happens seasonally. Postnatal depression happens to some women after they’ve had a baby. It’s treated similarly to other types of depression, with antidepressant medication and talking therapy. Learn more about how depression is diagnosed here. Causes of depression Depression doesn’t have one single cause – it can have a range of triggers, and there are many different reasons a person can develop the condition. Some people are


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have one single cause – it can have a range of triggers, and there are many different reasons a person can develop the condition. Some people are affected after a stressful life event, like a bereavement or divorce. Other people experience depression related to illness, job loss, or money worries. Different reasons can combine and trigger depression. If you’re feeling low after a job loss or health issues, and then experience something traumatic, like a bereavement, you can develop depression. It’s common to hear about depression being brought on by a “downward spiral” – one thing causing other problems that combine to cause depression. For example, losing your job could make you feel sad, so you spend less time with family and friends and maybe drink more alcohol. These things all make you feel worse, which triggers depression. There are studies that suggest people are more likely to become depressed when they get older. There’s also evidence that depression is more common for people


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studies that suggest people are more likely to become depressed when they get older. There’s also evidence that depression is more common for people whose economic and social circumstances are difficult. Depression and illness Long-lasting or life-threatening conditions like cancer or coronary heart disease can put you at higher risk of developing depression. Many people don’t know that head injuries can cause depression, and a severe head injury can lead to emotional problems and mood swings. Underactive thyroid (hypothyroidism) can happen as a result of immune system problems. It’s also possible, although rare, for a minor head injury to damage the pituitary gland. This is a gland the size of a pea which sits at the base of the brain and produces hormones that stimulate the thyroid. Damage to the pituitary gland can cause symptoms, including severe tiredness and a lack of interest in sex, which can then cause people to develop depression. Depression and drugs and alcohol “Drowning


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severe tiredness and a lack of interest in sex, which can then cause people to develop depression. Depression and drugs and alcohol “Drowning your sorrows” is actually a bad idea when it comes to depression. Alcohol is categorised as a “strong depressant” which can make depression worse, and drinking or taking drugs to cope can lead to a downward spiral by having a negative affect on other parts of your life. There’s evidence that cannabis can cause depression, particularly in teenagers, even if it helps you relax. Other causes of depression There are a number of things that can lead to developing depression. Stressful events – big changes in your life, like bereavement, the end of a relationship or the loss of a job, can be difficult to deal with. When these things happen, it’s important to keep seeing friends and family instead of trying to deal with problems alone – this increases your risk of developing depression. Giving birth – pregnancy and birth can make some people vulnerable


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to deal with problems alone – this increases your risk of developing depression. Giving birth – pregnancy and birth can make some people vulnerable to depression. Postnatal depression can happen as the result of physical changes, hormonal changes, and the responsibility of taking care of a new baby. Loneliness – your risk of depression gets higher if you aren’t in contact or spending time with family and friends. Personality – some personality traits can put you at a higher risk of developing depression. These include low-self esteem or a habit of criticising yourself too much. These personality traits can come from your genes, which you get from your parents, or they can be as a result of experiences in your early life. Family history – it’s more likely for someone to develop depression if a family member, like a sibling or parent, has experienced it before. ​Diagnosing and treating depression There’s no physical test for depression. If you experience depression symptoms most of the


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experienced it before. ​Diagnosing and treating depression There’s no physical test for depression. If you experience depression symptoms most of the day, every day, for more than two weeks, you should visit your GP. This is especially important if: you have symptoms of depression that aren’t getting any better you have thoughts of self-harm or suicide your work, relationships with friends and family, or interests are affected by your mood It can be hard for people with depression to imagine that anything can help them – but the sooner you seek help, the sooner the symptoms start to get better. Your GP may examine you and perform blood or urine tests to make sure there isn’t another condition causing your depression symptoms, like an underactive thyroid. When you see your GP, they’ll try to find out if you have depression by asking you questions. These are likely to be about your health, how you’re feeling, and how that is affecting you mentally and physically. Telling your doctor


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questions. These are likely to be about your health, how you’re feeling, and how that is affecting you mentally and physically. Telling your doctor your symptoms and the affect they are having on you will help your GP to tell if you have depression, and how severe the condition is. It’s important to be as open as possible. Your conversation with your GP will be confidential. This rule can only be broken if your GP thinks there is a significant risk of harm to you or others, and that telling a family member or carer would make that risk lower. Treating depression The first place to go is your GP – they will refer to you local talking treatments for depression that are available on the NHS. You may also have the option to self-refer, depending on where you live, so you can go directly to a professional therapist if you’d rather not talk to your GP. Talking treatments for depression There are a number of talking therapies for depression. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) CBT helps you


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your GP. Talking treatments for depression There are a number of talking therapies for depression. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) CBT helps you make sense of your thoughts and behaviour and the affect they have on you. Part of it’s recognising that past events may have played a part in making you who you are, but the main focus is changing how you feel, behave and think now. You can use CBT to learn how to overcome negative thoughts – this can help you to tackle feelings of hopelessness, for example. Most people have a course of six to eight CBT sessions that goes over 10 to 12 weeks. Sessions are one-to-one, between you and a CBT-trained counsellor. You might also be offered group CBT. Computerised CBT (CCBT) This type of CBT is done using a computer instead of face-to-face with the counsellor. It should be supported by a healthcare professional – your GP may prescribe it, and you might have to use the computer in the GP surgery to access it. CCBT involves a series of weekly


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professional – your GP may prescribe it, and you might have to use the computer in the GP surgery to access it. CCBT involves a series of weekly sessions. Interpersonal Therapy (IPT) IPT is focused on your relationships with people around you, and problems that you might be having with them. These can include problems communicating, or dealing with a bereavement. There’s evidence that suggests IPT can be as effective for depression as CBT or medication, but more research needs to be done. Psychodynamic psychotherapy This is also known as psychoanalytic psychotherapy. You’ll work with a therapist who encourages you to say whatever you’re thinking. This helps you to find hidden patterns and meanings in your words and behaviour that could be contributing to your depression. Read more about psychotherapy here. Counselling Counselling is a type of therapy that works really well if you have good mental wellbeing overall but need help coping with a crisis that’s currently going on in your


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type of therapy that works really well if you have good mental wellbeing overall but need help coping with a crisis that’s currently going on in your life. These can include anger, bereavement, infertility, relationship problems, job loss and serious illness. On the NHS, counselling usually takes place over six to 12 sessions, each an hour long. The sessions are confidential. A counsellor helps you to think about what’s going on in your life and find new ways of dealing with the problems. They’ll offer practical advice, support you, and help you find solutions, but they don’t tell you what to do. Antidepressants Antidepressants are medicines that treat depression symptoms. There are almost 30 different types of antidepressant that can be prescribed to you. Most people who have moderate or severe depression notice improvement when they take antidepressants, but this isn’t the case for everyone. One type of antidepressant might not work for you, but another one could. It can take two or


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antidepressants, but this isn’t the case for everyone. One type of antidepressant might not work for you, but another one could. It can take two or more different treatments to find the right one for you. Side effects vary between different people and different antidepressants, but the different types of antidepressant all work around as well as each other. If you’re prescribed antidepressants, you should see your GP or specialist nurse regularly while you first start taking the medication – every week or two for at least four weeks. This is so your treatment provider can see how the antidepressants are working. If the medication is working for you, you should continue taking them at the same dose for at least four to six months after the depression symptoms have eased. People who have had depression in the past might have to take antidepressants for up to five years, maybe longer. Antidepressants aren’t addictive. However, you might have withdrawal symptoms if you stop taking them


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for up to five years, maybe longer. Antidepressants aren’t addictive. However, you might have withdrawal symptoms if you stop taking them suddenly or miss a dose. You can read more about withdrawal symptoms below. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) If your GP thinks you would benefit from taking an antidepressant, you’ll usually be prescribed a modern type called a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). Examples of commonly used SSRI antidepressants are Seroxat (paroxetine), Prozac (fluoxetine) and Cipramil (citalopram). They help increase the level of a natural chemical in your brain called serotonin, which is thought to be a “good mood” chemical. SSRIs work just as well as older antidepressants and have fewer side effects. They can, however, cause nausea and headaches, as well as a dry mouth and problems having sex. However, all these negative effects usually improve over time. Some SSRIs aren’t suitable for children under the age of 18. Research shows that the


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However, all these negative effects usually improve over time. Some SSRIs aren’t suitable for children under the age of 18. Research shows that the risk of self-harm and suicidal behaviour may increase if they’re taken by under-18s. Fluoxetine is the only SSRI that can be prescribed for under-18s, and even then only when a specialist has given the go-ahead. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) This group of antidepressants is used to treat moderate to severe depression. TCAs, which includes Imipramil (imipramine) and amitriptyline, have been around for longer than SSRIs. They work by raising the levels of the chemicals serotonin and noradrenaline in your brain. These both help lift your mood. They’re generally quite safe, but it’s a bad idea to smoke cannabis if you are taking TCAs because it can cause your heart to beat rapidly. Side effects of TCAs may include a dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, problems passing urine, sweating, light-headedness and excessive drowsiness, but vary


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of TCAs may include a dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation, problems passing urine, sweating, light-headedness and excessive drowsiness, but vary from person to person. The side effects usually ease after seven to 10 days, as your body gets used to the medication. Other antidepressants New antidepressants, such as Efexor (venlafaxine), Cymbalta or Yentreve (duloxetine) and Zispin Soltab (mirtazapine), work in a slightly different way from SSRIs and TCAs. Venlafaxine and duloxetine are known as SNRIs (serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors). Like TCAs, they change the levels of serotonin and noradrenaline in your brain. Studies have shown that an SNRI can be more effective than an SSRI, though they’re not routinely prescribed as they can lead to a rise in blood pressure. Withdrawal symptoms Antidepressants are not addictive in the same way that illegal drugs and cigarettes are, but when you stop taking them you may have some withdrawal symptoms, including: upset stomach


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in the same way that illegal drugs and cigarettes are, but when you stop taking them you may have some withdrawal symptoms, including: upset stomach flu-like symptoms anxiety dizziness vivid dreams at night sensations in the body that feel like electric shocks In most cases these are quite mild and last no longer than a week or two, but occasionally they can be quite severe. They seem to be most likely to occur with paroxetine (Seroxat) and venlafaxine (Efexor). Withdrawal symptoms occur very soon after stopping the tablets, so can easily be told apart from symptoms of depression relapse, which tend to occur after a few weeks. Other treatments for depression There is a range of other treatments that people are given for depression. St John’s Wort St John’s Wort is a herbal treatment that you can buy from pharmacies and health food shops. Some people take it for depression. There’s some evidence that it can help the symptoms of mild-to-moderate depression, but doctors don’t recommend


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Some people take it for depression. There’s some evidence that it can help the symptoms of mild-to-moderate depression, but doctors don’t recommend St John’s Wort because the amount of active ingredients change depending on the brand and batch. This means that you can never be sure what kind of effect it will have. If you take St John’s Wort with other medications, like anticonvulsants, anticoagulants, antidepressants and the contraceptive pill, it can cause serious problems. St John’s Wort can interact with the contraceptive pill and reduce its effectiveness at preventing pregnancy. You shouldn’t take St John’s Wort while pregnant or breastfeeding, as we can’t be certain that it’s safe. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) – electric shock treatment If you have severe depression and other treatments, like medication, haven’t worked, ECT might be recommended for you. When receiving ECT, you will be given an anaesthetic and medication that relaxes your muscles to begin with. Electrodes will


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be recommended for you. When receiving ECT, you will be given an anaesthetic and medication that relaxes your muscles to begin with. Electrodes will be placed on your head that give an electrical “shock” to your brain. ECT is given over a series of sessions, normally twice a week for three to six weeks. ECT can cause side effects including nausea, headaches, aches in the muscles and memory problems. Most people find that ECT is good for relieving severe depression, but the beneficial effects tend to wear off when several months have passed. Lithium If you’ve tried several different antidepressants and had no improvement, your doctor may offer you a type of medication called lithium in addition to your current treatment. There are two types of lithium: lithium carbonate and lithium citrate. Both are usually effective, but if you’re taking one that works for you, it’s best not to change. If the level of lithium in your blood becomes too high, it can become toxic. You’ll therefore need


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one that works for you, it’s best not to change. If the level of lithium in your blood becomes too high, it can become toxic. You’ll therefore need blood tests every three months to check your lithium levels while you’re on the medication. You’ll also need to avoid eating a low-salt diet because this can also cause the lithium to become toxic. Ask your GP for advice about your diet. ​Living with depression There’s a lot of advice available for living with depression and feeling better. Talking about depression You can find support and insight by talking about depression with another person or a group. According to research, talking can help you to recover and deal better with stress. If you don’t feel comfortable talking about your symptoms and feelings with other people, you can write about how you feel or use poetry or art to express yourself – doing this can also help you to feel better. Smoking, drugs, alcohol and depression It might feel like cigarettes and alcohol are helpful,


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yourself – doing this can also help you to feel better. Smoking, drugs, alcohol and depression It might feel like cigarettes and alcohol are helpful, but in the long run they can make you feel worse. If you have depression it’s especially important to be careful when it comes to cannabis. Research has shown there’s a strong connection between mental health problems and cannabis use. According to the evidence, if you smoke cannabis while dealing with depression: your symptoms get worse you feel less interested in things you’re more likely to have earlier and more frequent relapses of depression you’re less likely to recover fully from depression you feel more tired you won’t respond as well to antidepressants you’re more likely to stop taking antidepressants You can get advice and support from your GP on cutting down or stopping drinking, smoking, and drug use. Learn more about stopping smoking here Learn more about help to cut down or stop drinking alcohol here Work, money, and


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smoking, and drug use. Learn more about stopping smoking here Learn more about help to cut down or stop drinking alcohol here Work, money, and depression You might need to take time off work if your depression is caused by working too much, or if the symptoms are making it hard for you to do your job. However, research has shown that taking a long time off work can make depression worse, and that going back to work can help you to get better. When you’re dealing with depression it’s important to avoid as much stress, work-related and otherwise, as you can. If you’re working you might be able to change to shorter hours, or work more flexibly. This is especially true if pressure at work causes you to experience depression symptoms. The Equality Act means that employers need to make reasonable adjustments to make it possible to employ people with disabilities – this can include people who have been diagnosed with depression and other mental health conditions. You can find more


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people with disabilities – this can include people who have been diagnosed with depression and other mental health conditions. You can find more information about dealing with stress at work here. If your depression means you are unable to work, there are benefits you may be eligible to claim. These include: Attendance Allowance Carer’s Allowance Council Tax Benefit Personal Independence Payment (PIP) Housing Benefit Employment and Support Allowance (ESA) Statutory Sick Pay Bereavement and depression Your depression can be triggered by losing someone who is close to you. The emotional blow suffered when a person you care about dies is powerful – it might feel like you will never recover from the loss. Along with time, the right help and support can make it possible to start living your life again. Looking after someone who has depression If you’re close to someone with depression, their condition can affect you too. Your relationship, and family life in general, can be strained, and


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If you’re close to someone with depression, their condition can affect you too. Your relationship, and family life in general, can be strained, and you might not know what to do or how to help. Talking about the situation can help. Finding a support group, or talking to other people in a similar situation, can make it easier to cope. If the condition is causing difficulties in your relationship with your partner, you could contact a relationship counsellor who can talk things through with both of you. When suffering from depression, men are less likely to ask for help than women. They’re also more likely to turn to drugs and alcohol to cope with the symptoms. Depression and suicide The majority of suicide cases are linked with mental disorders, and most of them are triggered by severe depression. Warning signs that someone with depression may be considering suicide are: making final arrangements, like giving away their things, making a will or saying goodbye to friends talking about


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may be considering suicide are: making final arrangements, like giving away their things, making a will or saying goodbye to friends talking about death or suicide – this may be with direct statements, like “I wish I was dead”, but often depressed people talk about the subject indirectly, saying things like: “I think dead people must be happier than us” or “wouldn’t it be nice to go to sleep and never wake up” self-harm, like cutting their arms or legs, or burning themselves with cigarettes a sudden lifting of mood, which could mean that a person has decided to commit suicide and feels better because of this decision If you’re feeling suicidal or are in a crisis of depression, contact your GP as soon as possible. They will be able to help you. If you can’t or don’t want to contact your GP, call the Samaritans on 116 123, 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Alternatively, visit the Samaritans website or email jo@samaritans.org. Helping a suicidal friend or relative If you see any of the


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days a week. Alternatively, visit the Samaritans website or email jo@samaritans.org. Helping a suicidal friend or relative If you see any of the above warning signs: get professional help for the person let them know they’re not alone and that you care about them offer your support in finding other solutions to their problems If you feel there is an immediate danger, stay with the person or have someone else stay with them, and remove all available means of committing suicide, such as medication. Over-the-counter drugs such as painkillers can be just as dangerous as prescription medication. Also, remove sharp objects and poisonous household chemicals such as bleach. ​Psychotic depression Some people who have severe depression will also experience symptoms of psychosis – these are hallucinations and delusional thinking. Depression with psychosis is known as psychotic depression. Symptoms of severe depression People who have severe clinical depression feel sad and hopeless for most of


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is known as psychotic depression. Symptoms of severe depression People who have severe clinical depression feel sad and hopeless for most of the day, and feel no interest in anything. They feel this way practically every day, and getting through the day feels nearly impossible for them. Other symptoms include: fatigue (exhaustion) losing pleasure in things inability to concentrate difficulty making decisions sleep disturbance appetite changes feeling guilty feeling that they’re worthless having thoughts about suicide, or death Read more about the different types of depression symptoms here. Symptoms of psychosis Moments of psychosis are known as psychotic episodes. The person experiencing a psychotic episode will have: Delusions – beliefs or thoughts that are likely to be false. Hallucinations – hearing, seeing or sometimes smelling, feeling or tasting things that aren’t there. Hearing voices is a common type of hallucination. Hallucinations and delusions almost always reflect the


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feeling or tasting things that aren’t there. Hearing voices is a common type of hallucination. Hallucinations and delusions almost always reflect the deeply depressed mood of the person experiencing them. They may believe they have committed a crime or that they are to blame for something. People with psychosis also commonly experience something called psychomotor agitation. People experiencing this cannot sit still or relax, and fidget all the time. The opposite symptom can also happen – psychomotor retardation can cause a person’s thoughts and the movement of their body to slow down. People who have psychotic depression are at a higher risk of thinking about suicide. Causes and treatments of psychotic depression We don’t fully understand what causes psychotic depression yet. However, we know that depression doesn’t have one single cause, and that the condition has a lot of different triggers. Causes of psychotic depression Big, stressful events like divorce, serious illness,


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cause, and that the condition has a lot of different triggers. Causes of psychotic depression Big, stressful events like divorce, serious illness, financial worries, or bereavement can trigger depression for some people. Severe depression can run in families, which suggests genes might play a role in depression, but the reason some people develop psychosis as part of severe depression is not known. Many people who have psychotic depression have experienced a difficult time in childhood, like a traumatic event. Learn more about causes of clinical depression Treating psychotic depression Treatment for psychotic depression has three main parts: medication – taking a combination of antipsychotics and antidepressants can help to relieve psychosis symptoms psychological therapies – cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is a talking therapy done one-to-one with a trained counsellor, and it has succeeded in helping some people with psychosis social support – support with social needs like


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done one-to-one with a trained counsellor, and it has succeeded in helping some people with psychosis social support – support with social needs like employment, education and accommodation People with psychotic depression may have to spend some time in hospital to receive treatment. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT, or electric shock treatment) is sometimes recommended if other treatments, including antidepressants, haven’t worked for severe depression. Although treatment for psychotic depression is usually very effective, people with the condition still need follow-up appointments with their treatment team so they can be continuously monitored. Getting help for someone with psychotic depression Often friends, relatives, or carers have to seek help for a person with psychotic depression. This is because people with psychosis often don’t know they’re acting and thinking strangely. If you’re worried about someone you know and think they may be experiencing psychosis, and they’ve been


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know they’re acting and thinking strangely. If you’re worried about someone you know and think they may be experiencing psychosis, and they’ve been diagnosed with a mental health condition before, contact their community mental health team or social worker. If they’ve never shown signs of a mental health condition and you think they may be experiencing psychotic depression, contact their GP or take them to Accident and Emergency (A&E). If you think the person’s symptoms are putting them at risk, you can: take them to the nearest A&E, if they agree phone their GP phone the local out-of-hours GP phone 999 and ask for an ambulance Advice and support Visit the SANE website or the Mind website for more information, support and advice about psychotic depression. Learn more about psychosis here Depression self-help guide Part of treating and living with depression is learning healthy thought patterns and coping skills that can help when you’re feeling depressed. Our mental health self-help


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with depression is learning healthy thought patterns and coping skills that can help when you’re feeling depressed. Our mental health self-help guides are based on Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and have proven highly successful in helping people with depression and other mental health issues. Depression self-help guideWork through a self-help guide for depression that uses Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT).Depression self-help guide Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 19 November 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Mind to Mind Other health sites Choice and Medication: Depression NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS


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to Mind Other health sites Choice and Medication: Depression NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Dermatitis herpetiformis | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Skin, hair and nails Dermatitis herpetiformis Dermatitis herpetiformis Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) is an autoimmune skin condition that can be linked to coeliac disease. How many people have dermatitis herpetiformis? DH affects around 1 in 10,000 people. DH can appear at any age, but is most commonly diagnosed in those between the ages of 15 and 40. It’s more common in men than women and is rare in children. Symptoms of dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) People with DH can have: red, raised patches often with blisters that burst with scratching severe itching and often stinging The rash can affect any area of the skin but is most commonly seen on the: elbows knees buttocks The rash usually occurs on both sides of the body, for example on both elbows. Dermatitis herpetiformis


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commonly seen on the: elbows knees buttocks The rash usually occurs on both sides of the body, for example on both elbows. Dermatitis herpetiformis often affects the knees.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/ Gut symptoms Most people with DH will have the same kind of gut damage seen with coeliac disease, but may not complain of gut symptoms like: diarrhoea constipation stomach pain bloating Just over half (60%) of people with DH don’t have gut symptoms. Causes of dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) DH is caused by the body’s immune system reacting to a protein called gluten in foods containing wheat, barley and rye. This reaction causes a skin rash to develop. Diagnosing dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) A diagnosis of DH is confirmed by a skin test called a skin biopsy. A skin biopsy is a procedure where a sample of skin is removed to be tested. As DH is strongly linked to coeliac disease, blood tests may be taken for this condition as well. What happens during a skin biopsy test? During a skin


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DH is strongly linked to coeliac disease, blood tests may be taken for this condition as well. What happens during a skin biopsy test? During a skin biopsy test, a specialist skin doctor called a dermatologist will take a small sample of skin from an area without the rash. Samples of skin taken from the area with the rash don’t always give an accurate result. The skin sample is then tested. If you test positive for DH you’ll be referred to a specialist gut doctor called a gastroenterologist to be tested for coeliac disease. Diet before and during diagnosis To ensure an accurate skin test is taken first time, it’s important to keep eating foods with gluten before and during diagnosis. If you’ve already removed gluten from your diet, you must reintroduce it in more than one meal every day. You should do this for at least 6 weeks before having the tests. Treating dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) The treatment for DH is a lifelong gluten-free diet. A gluten-free diet is when all


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before having the tests. Treating dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) The treatment for DH is a lifelong gluten-free diet. A gluten-free diet is when all gluten-containing foods are removed from your diet Gluten is found in wheat, barley and rye and sometimes people are sensitive to oats too. A gluten free diet should only start once the diagnosis of DH is given and a referral to a dietitian has been made. Find out how to live with a gluten-free diet How long does treatment take to work? The length of time it takes for the skin to heal varies from person to person but it can take up to 2 years or more. Medication during treatment Some patients will be given medication to help them over this period of recovery. Medication will only be given to control the skin itching and blisters and doesn’t treat any other symptoms. The drug most likely to be used is called Dapsone. Dapsone Dapsone is taken in tablet form and must be swallowed. It helps ease the itching and controls the development of


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be used is called Dapsone. Dapsone Dapsone is taken in tablet form and must be swallowed. It helps ease the itching and controls the development of blisters. It should work within a few days. If you stop taking Dapsone before the gluten-free diet has taken effect, the rash will return. Side effects of Dapsone The most common side effect of Dapsone is anaemia. Less common side effects are headaches and depression, while nerve damage is rare. You’ll always be prescribed the lowest effective dose to help prevent these side effects. DH should be monitored once the drug dose has been reduced. Alternatives to Dapsone Some people can’t tolerate Dapsone. If you’re one of these people, the following drugs can also be taken to clear the rash: Sulphapyridine Sulphamethoxypyridazine Complications of dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) DH can cause the same conditions and complications as coeliac disease. Some potential complications of DH include: osteoporosis certain kinds of gut cancer an increased


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conditions and complications as coeliac disease. Some potential complications of DH include: osteoporosis certain kinds of gut cancer an increased risk of other autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes and thyroid disease As with coeliac disease, the risk of developing these is reduced by following a gluten-free diet. Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 17 January 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Coeliac disease Gluten-free diet Other health sites Coeliac UK: Dermatitis herpetiformis NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of


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Diabetic retinopathy | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Diabetes Diabetic retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy About diabetic retinopathy Stages of diabetic retinopathy Treating diabetic retinopathy Preventing diabetic retinopathy About diabetic retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy is a complication of diabetes, caused by high blood sugar levels damaging the back of the eye (retina). It can cause blindness if left undiagnosed and untreated. However, it usually takes several years for diabetic retinopathy to reach a stage where it could threaten your sight. To minimise the risk of this happening, people with diabetes should: ensure they control their blood sugar levels, blood pressure and cholesterol attend diabetic eye screening appointments – annual screening is offered to all people with diabetes aged 12 and over to pick up and treat any


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attend diabetic eye screening appointments – annual screening is offered to all people with diabetes aged 12 and over to pick up and treat any problems early on How diabetes can affect the eyes The retina is the light-sensitive layer of cells at the back of the eye that converts light into electrical signals. The signals are sent to the brain and the brain turns them into the images you see. The retina needs a constant supply of blood, which it receives through a network of tiny blood vessels. Over time, a persistently high blood sugar level can damage these blood vessels in three main stages: tiny bulges develop in the blood vessels, which may bleed slightly but don’t usually affect your vision – this is known as background retinopathy more severe and widespread changes affect the blood vessels, including more significant bleeding into the eye – this is known as pre-proliferative retinopathy scar tissue and new blood vessels, which are weak and bleed easily, develop on the retina –


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the eye – this is known as pre-proliferative retinopathy scar tissue and new blood vessels, which are weak and bleed easily, develop on the retina – this is known as proliferative retinopathy and it can result in some loss of vision However, if a problem with your eyes is picked up early, lifestyle changes and/or treatment can stop it getting worse. Read about the stages of diabetic retinopathy Am I at risk of diabetic retinopathy? Anyone with type 1 diabetes or type 2 diabetes is potentially at risk of developing diabetic retinopathy. You’re at a greater risk if you: have had diabetes for a long time have a persistently high blood sugar (blood glucose) level have high blood pressure have high cholesterol are pregnant are of Asian or Afro-Caribbean background By keeping your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels under control, you can reduce your chances of developing diabetic retinopathy. Symptoms of diabetic retinopathy You won’t usually notice diabetic retinopathy in


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you can reduce your chances of developing diabetic retinopathy. Symptoms of diabetic retinopathy You won’t usually notice diabetic retinopathy in the early stages, as it doesn’t tend to have any obvious symptoms until it’s more advanced. However, early signs of the condition can be picked up by taking photographs of the eyes during diabetic eye screening. Contact your optician immediately if you experience: gradually worsening vision sudden vision loss shapes floating in your field of vision (floaters) blurred or patchy vision eye pain or redness These symptoms don’t necessarily mean you have diabetic retinopathy, but it’s important to get them checked out. Don’t wait until your next screening appointment. Diabetic eye screening Everyone with diabetes who is 12 years old or over is invited for eye screening once a year. Screening is offered because: diabetic retinopathy doesn’t tend to cause any symptoms in the early stages the condition can cause permanent blindness if not diagnosed


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because: diabetic retinopathy doesn’t tend to cause any symptoms in the early stages the condition can cause permanent blindness if not diagnosed and treated promptly screening can detect problems in your eyes before they start to affect your vision if problems are caught early, treatment can help prevent or reduce vision loss The screening test involves examining the back of the eyes and taking photographs. Depending on your result, you may be advised to return for another appointment a year later, attend more regular appointments, or discuss treatment options with a specialist. Read more about diabetic eye screening Reduce your risk of diabetic retinopathy You can reduce your risk of developing diabetic retinopathy, or help prevent it getting worse, by: controlling your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels taking your diabetes medication as prescribed attending all your screening appointments getting medical advice quickly if you notice any changes to your vision


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diabetes medication as prescribed attending all your screening appointments getting medical advice quickly if you notice any changes to your vision maintaining a healthy weight, eating a healthy, balanced diet, exercising regularly and stopping smoking Read more about how to prevent diabetic retinopathy. Treatments for diabetic retinopathy Treatment for diabetic retinopathy is only necessary if screening detects significant problems that mean your vision is at risk. If the condition hasn’t reached this stage, the above advice on managing your diabetes is recommended. The main treatments for more advanced diabetic retinopathy are: laser treatment injections of medication into your eyes an operation to remove blood or scar tissue from your eyes Read more about the treatment of diabetic retinopathy Stages of diabetic retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy develops in stages over time. If you’re diagnosed with diabetic retinopathy after diabetic eye screening, lifestyle changes and/or treatment


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develops in stages over time. If you’re diagnosed with diabetic retinopathy after diabetic eye screening, lifestyle changes and/or treatment can reduce the chances of the problem progressing. The main stages of diabetic retinopathy are described below. You won’t necessarily experience all of these. Stage one: background retinopathy This means that tiny bulges (microaneurysms) have appeared in the blood vessels in the back of your eyes (retina), which may leak small amounts of blood. This is very common in people with diabetes. At this stage: your sight isn’t affected, although you’re at a higher risk of developing vision problems in the future you don’t need treatment, but you’ll need to take care to prevent the problem getting worse – read more about preventing diabetic retinopathy the chances of it progressing to the stages below within three years is over 25% if both of your eyes are affected Stage two: pre-proliferative retinopathy This means that more severe and widespread


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within three years is over 25% if both of your eyes are affected Stage two: pre-proliferative retinopathy This means that more severe and widespread changes are seen in the retina, including bleeding into the retina. At this stage: there’s a high risk that your vision could eventually be affected you’ll usually be advised to have more frequent screening appointments every three or six months to monitor your eyes Stage three: proliferative retinopathy This means that new blood vessels and scar tissue have formed on your retina, which can cause significant bleeding and lead to retinal detachment (where the retina pulls away from the back of the eye). At this stage: there’s a very high risk you could lose your vision treatment will be offered to stabilise your vision as much as possible, although it won’t be possible to restore any vision you’ve lost Diabetic maculopathy In some cases, the blood vessels in the part of the eye called the macula (the central area of the retina) can also


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you’ve lost Diabetic maculopathy In some cases, the blood vessels in the part of the eye called the macula (the central area of the retina) can also become leaky or blocked. This is known as diabetic maculopathy. If this is detected: there’s a high risk that your vision could eventually be affected you may be advised to have more frequent specialised testing to monitor your eyes you may be referred to a hospital specialist to discuss treatments that can help stop the problem getting worse Read more about treating diabetic retinopathy Treating diabetic retinopathy Diabetic retinopathy usually only requires specific treatment when it reaches an advanced stage and there’s a risk to your vision. It’s typically offered if diabetic eye screening detects stage three (proliferative) retinopathy, or if you have symptoms caused by diabetic maculopathy. At all stages, managing your diabetes is crucial. Read about the stages of diabetic retinopathy for more information about what these terms


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At all stages, managing your diabetes is crucial. Read about the stages of diabetic retinopathy for more information about what these terms mean. Managing your diabetes The most important part of your treatment is to keep your diabetes under control. In the early stages of diabetic retinopathy, controlling your diabetes can help prevent vision problems developing. In the more advanced stages, when your vision is affected or at risk, keeping your diabetes under control can help stop the condition getting worse. Read about what you can do to reduce the risk of diabetic retinopathy progressing Treatments for advanced diabetic retinopathy For diabetic retinopathy that is threatening or affecting your sight, the main treatments are: laser treatment – to treat the growth of new blood vessels at the back of the eye (retina) in cases of proliferative diabetic retinopathy, and to stabilise some cases of maculopathy eye injections – to treat severe maculopathy that’s threatening your sight eye


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diabetic retinopathy, and to stabilise some cases of maculopathy eye injections – to treat severe maculopathy that’s threatening your sight eye surgery – to remove blood or scar tissue from the eye if laser treatment isn’t possible because retinopathy is too advanced Laser treatment Laser treatment is used to treat new blood vessels at the back of the eyes in the advanced stages of diabetic retinopathy. This is done because the new blood vessels tend to be very weak and often cause bleeding into the eye. Treatment can help stabilise the changes in your eyes caused by your diabetes and stop your vision getting any worse, although it won’t usually improve your sight. Laser treatment: involves shining a laser into your eyes – you’ll be given local anaesthetic drops to numb your eyes; eye drops are used to widen your pupils and special contact lenses are used to hold your eyelids open and focus the laser onto your retina normally takes around 20-40 minutes is usually carried out on an


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lenses are used to hold your eyelids open and focus the laser onto your retina normally takes around 20-40 minutes is usually carried out on an outpatient basis, which means you won’t need to stay in hospital overnight may require more than one visit to a laser treatment clinic isn’t usually painful, although you may feel a sharp pricking sensation when certain areas of your eye are being treated Side effects After treatment, you may have some side effects for a few hours. These can include: blurred vision – you won’t be able to drive until this passes, so you’ll need to arrange for a friend or relative to drive you home, or take public transport increased sensitivity to light – it might help to wear sunglasses until your eyes have adjusted aching or discomfort – over-the-counter painkillers, such as paracetamol, should help Possible complications You should be told about the risks of treatment in advance. Potential complications include: reduced night or peripheral (side) vision –


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You should be told about the risks of treatment in advance. Potential complications include: reduced night or peripheral (side) vision – some people may have to stop driving as a result of this bleeding into the eye or objects floating in your vision (floaters) being able to “see” the pattern made by the laser on the back of your eye for a few months a small, but permanent, blind spot close to the centre of your vision Get medical advice if you notice that your sight gets worse after treatment. Eye injections In some cases of diabetic maculopathy, injections of a medicine called anti-VEGF may be given directly into your eyes to prevent new blood vessels forming at the back of the eyes. The main medicines used are called ranibizumab (Lucentis) and aflibercept (Eylea). These can help stop the problems in your eyes getting worse, and may also lead to an improvement in your vision. During treatment: the skin around your eyes will be cleaned and covered with a sheet small clips will be


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also lead to an improvement in your vision. During treatment: the skin around your eyes will be cleaned and covered with a sheet small clips will be used to keep your eyes open you’ll be given local anaesthetic drops to numb your eyes a very fine needle is carefully guided into your eyeball and the injection is given The injections are usually given once a month to begin with. Once your vision starts to stabilise, they’ll be stopped or given less frequently. Injections of steroid medication may sometimes be given instead of anti-VEGF injections, or if the anti-VEGF injections don’t help. Risks and side effects Possible risks and side effects of anti-VEGF injections include: eye irritation or discomfort bleeding inside the eye floaters or a feeling of having something in your eye watery or dry, itchy eyes There’s also a risk that the injections could cause blood clots to form, which could lead to a heart attack or stroke. This risk is small, but it should be discussed with you before


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could cause blood clots to form, which could lead to a heart attack or stroke. This risk is small, but it should be discussed with you before you give your consent to treatment. The main risk with steroid injections is increased pressure inside the eye. Eye surgery Surgery may be carried out to remove some of the vitreous humour from the eye. This is the transparent, jelly-like substance that fills the space behind the lens of the eye. The operation, known as vitreoretinal surgery, may be needed if: a large amount of blood has collected in your eye there’s extensive scar tissue that’s likely to cause, or has already caused, retinal detachment During the procedure, the surgeon will make a small incision in your eye before removing some of the vitreous humour, removing any scar tissue and using a laser to prevent a further deterioration in your vision. Vitreoretinal surgery is usually carried out under local anaesthetic and sedation. This means you will not experience any pain or have


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your vision. Vitreoretinal surgery is usually carried out under local anaesthetic and sedation. This means you will not experience any pain or have any awareness of the surgery being performed. After the procedure You should be able to go home on the same day or the day after your surgery. For the first few days, you may need to wear a patch over your eye. This is because activities such as reading and watching television can quickly tire your eye to begin with. You will probably have blurred vision after the operation. This should improve gradually, although it may take several months for your vision to fully return to normal. Your surgeon will advise you about any activities you should avoid during your recovery. Risks and side effects Possible risks of vitreoretinal surgery include: developing a cataract further bleeding into the eye retinal detachment fluid build-up in the cornea (outer layer at the front of the eye) infection in the eye There’s also a small chance that you will


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retinal detachment fluid build-up in the cornea (outer layer at the front of the eye) infection in the eye There’s also a small chance that you will need further retinal surgery afterwards. Your surgeon will explain the risks to you. Preventing diabetic retinopathy You can reduce your risk of developing diabetic retinopathy, or help stop it getting worse, by keeping your blood sugar levels, blood pressure and cholesterol levels under control. This can often be done by making healthy lifestyle choices, although some people will also need to take medication. Healthy lifestyle Adopting a few lifestyle changes can improve your general health and reduce your risk of developing retinopathy. These include: eating a healthy, balanced diet – in particular, try to cut down on salt, fat and sugar losing weight if you’re overweight – you should aim for a BMI of 18.5-24.9 exercising regularly – aim to do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity activity, such as walking or cycling, a week; doing


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a BMI of 18.5-24.9 exercising regularly – aim to do at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity activity, such as walking or cycling, a week; doing 10,000 steps a day can be a good way to reach this target stopping smoking if you smoke not exceeding the recommended alcohol limits – men and women are advised not to regularly drink more than 14 alcohol units a week You may also be prescribed medication to help control your blood sugar level (such as insulin or metformin), blood pressure (such as ACE inhibitors) and/or cholesterol level (such as statins). Know your blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels It can be easier to keep your blood sugar levels, blood pressure and cholesterol levels under control if you know what level they are and monitor them regularly. The lower you can keep them, the lower your chances of developing retinopathy are. Your diabetes care team can let you know what your target levels should be. Blood sugar If you check your blood sugar level at home, it


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are. Your diabetes care team can let you know what your target levels should be. Blood sugar If you check your blood sugar level at home, it should be 4 to 10mmol/l. The level can vary throughout the day, so try to check it at different times. The check done at your GP surgery is a measure of your average blood sugar level over the past few weeks. You should know this number, as it is the most important measure of your diabetes control. It’s called HbA1c, and for most people with diabetes it should be around 48 mmol/l or 6.5%. Read about treating type 1 diabetes and treating type 2 diabetes Blood pressure You can ask for a blood pressure test at your GP surgery, or you can buy a blood pressure monitor to use at home. Blood pressure is measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg) and is given as two figures. If you have diabetes, you’ll normally be advised to aim for a blood pressure reading of no more than 140/80mmHg, or less than 130/80mmHg if you have diabetes complications, such as


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be advised to aim for a blood pressure reading of no more than 140/80mmHg, or less than 130/80mmHg if you have diabetes complications, such as eye damage. Read more about high blood pressure Cholesterol Your cholesterol level can be measured with a simple blood test carried out at your GP surgery. The result is given in millimoles per litre of blood (mmol/l). If you have diabetes, you’ll normally be advised to aim for a total blood cholesterol level of no more than 4 mmol/l. Read more about high cholesterol Regular screening Even if you think your diabetes is well controlled, it’s still important to attend your annual diabetic eye screening appointment, as this can detect signs of a problem before you notice anything is wrong. The earlier that retinopathy is detected, the greater the chance of effectively treating it and stopping it getting worse. You should also contact your optician immediately if you develop any problems with your eyes or vision, such as: gradually worsening vision


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worse. You should also contact your optician immediately if you develop any problems with your eyes or vision, such as: gradually worsening vision sudden vision loss shapes floating in your field of vision (floaters) blurred vision eye pain or redness These symptoms don’t necessarily mean you have diabetic retinopathy, but it’s important to get them checked out straight away. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 21 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/diarrhoea/


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Diarrhoea | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Stomach, liver and gastrointestinal tract Diarrhoea Diarrhoea Return to Symptoms Enter age Last Updated: Next Review Date: Review my answers Find your local services Search for a service near you by entering your postcode below. Please input your postcode in the following format: A12 1BC GP Practices Dental Services Pharmacies Opticians Postcode Search NHS inform has more information on this condition. Read more Previous Start guide Review my answers × You told us your credentials were: : You said: Based on the information you gave us, we made the following recommendation: Close Keep a copy View PDF Diarrhoea is passing looser, watery or more frequent poo (stools) than is normal for you. It affects most people from time to time and is usually nothing to worry about. It can be distressing and


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poo (stools) than is normal for you. It affects most people from time to time and is usually nothing to worry about. It can be distressing and unpleasant. It normally clears up in a few days to a week. Diarrhoea self-help guide Complete our self-help guide to check your symptoms and find out what to do next. Phone 999 or got to A&E if you or your child: might have swallowed something poisonous have a stiff neck and pain when looking at bright lights have a sudden, severe headache or stomach ache Speak to your GP if: You or your child has diarrhoea and: it’s particularly frequent or severe it lasts for more than 7 days you’re concerned poo with blood on it persistent vomiting and are unable to keep fluid down a severe or continuous stomach ache weight loss have passed a large amount of very watery diarrhoea it occurs at night and is disturbing sleep have recently taken antibiotics or been treated in hospital have signs of dehydration – including drowsiness, peeing less than usual, and


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sleep have recently taken antibiotics or been treated in hospital have signs of dehydration – including drowsiness, peeing less than usual, and feeling lightheaded or dizzy have poo that’s dark or black – this may be a sign of bleeding inside your stomach Your child: has had 6 or more episodes of diarrhoea in the past 24 hours has diarrhoea and vomiting at the same time has stopped drinking fluids while they’re ill is a baby and has vomited 3 times or more in the past 24 hours is under 12 months with diarrhoea and you’re worried If your GP is closed, phone 111. What causes diarrhoea? There are many different causes of diarrhoea. A bowel infection (gastroenteritis) is a common cause in both adults and children. Gastroenteritis can be caused by: a virus – such as norovirus or rotavirus bacteria – such as campylobacter and Escherichia (E. coli), which are often picked up from contaminated food a parasite – such as the parasite that causes giardiasis, which is spread in contaminated water


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which are often picked up from contaminated food a parasite – such as the parasite that causes giardiasis, which is spread in contaminated water These infections can sometimes be caught during travelling abroad, particularly to areas with poor standards of public hygiene. This is known as travellers’ diarrhoea. Diarrhoea can also be the result of anxiety, a food allergy, medication, or a long-term condition, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). What to do if you have diarrhoea Most cases of diarrhoea clear up after a few days without treatment. You should drink plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration. Drink small sips of water often. It’s very important that babies and children do not become dehydrated. Your pharmacist may suggest you use an oral rehydration solution (ORS) if you or you child are particularly at risk of dehydration. You should eat solid foods as soon as you feel able to. If you’re breastfeeding or bottle feeding your baby and they have diarrhoea, you should try to


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should eat solid foods as soon as you feel able to. If you’re breastfeeding or bottle feeding your baby and they have diarrhoea, you should try to feed them as normal. Stay at home until at least 48 hours after the last episode of diarrhoea to prevent spreading any infection to others. Medications to reduce diarrhoea, such as loperamide, are available. However, these are not usually necessary. Most types of medication should not be given to children. Read further information about managing diarrhoea, including what to eat and drink Preventing diarrhoea Diarrhoea is often caused by an infection. You can reduce your risk by making sure you maintain high standards of hygiene. Do wash your hands thoroughly with soap and warm water after going to the toilet and before eating or preparing foodclean the toilet, including the handle and the seat, with disinfectant after each episode of diarrhoea avoid sharing towels, flannels, cutlery, or utensils with other household membersavoid potentially


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with disinfectant after each episode of diarrhoea avoid sharing towels, flannels, cutlery, or utensils with other household membersavoid potentially unsafe tap water and undercooked food when travelling abroad Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 29 May 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Self-help guide: Abdominal pain Dehydration Gastroenteritis Other health sites IBS Network: what is IBS? Lab Tests Online UK: stool sample fitfortravel: Travellers' diarrhoea Find your nearest pharmacy Enter a place or postcode NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of


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Discoid eczema | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Skin, hair and nails Discoid eczema Discoid eczema About discoid eczema Symptoms of discoid eczema Causes of discoid eczema Treating discoid eczema About discoid eczema Discoid eczema is a long-term skin condition that causes skin to become itchy, reddened, swollen and cracked in circular or oval patches. It’s also known as discoid dermatitis. The patches can be a few millimetres to a few centimetres in size and can affect any part of the body, although they don’t usually affect the face or scalp. The patches are often swollen, blistered (covered with small fluid-filled pockets) and ooze fluid at first, but become dry, crusty, cracked and flaky over time. The patches may clear up on their own eventually, but this can take weeks, months or even years if not treated, and they can recur.


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flaky over time. The patches may clear up on their own eventually, but this can take weeks, months or even years if not treated, and they can recur. Read more about the symptoms of discoid eczema. Discoid eczema caused the skin to become dry, red and itchy. The rash is circular or oval shape.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/ Discoid eczema can appear as swollen and blistered patches.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/ Seeking medical advice You should see your pharmacist or GP if you think you may have discoid eczema. Your GP should be able to make a diagnosis just by examining the affected areas of skin. In some cases they may also ask questions or arrange some tests to rule out other conditions. Your GP may refer you to a dermatologist (a doctor who specialises in managing skin conditions) if they are unsure of the diagnosis or if you need patch testing. Your GP or specialist can recommend suitable treatments. What causes discoid eczema? The cause of discoid eczema is unknown, although it


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testing. Your GP or specialist can recommend suitable treatments. What causes discoid eczema? The cause of discoid eczema is unknown, although it is often accompanied by dry skin and is thought to be triggered by irritation of the skin. Discoid eczema tends to affect adults and is rare in children. It is more common among men aged from 50 to 70 and women in their teens or twenties. Some people with discoid eczema may also have other types of eczema, such as atopic eczema. Read more about the causes of discoid eczema. How discoid eczema is treated Discoid eczema is usually a long-term problem, but medications are available to help relieve the symptoms and keep the condition under control. Treatments used include: emollients – moisturisers applied to the skin to stop it becoming dry topical corticosteroids – ointments and creams applied to the skin that can help relieve severe symptoms antihistamines – medications that can reduce itching and help you sleep better There are also things


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the skin that can help relieve severe symptoms antihistamines – medications that can reduce itching and help you sleep better There are also things you can do yourself to help, such as avoiding all the irritating chemicals in soaps, detergents, bubble baths and shower gels. Additional medication can be prescribed if your eczema is infected or particularly severe. Read more about treating discoid eczema. Symptoms of discoid eczema Discoid eczema causes distinctive circular or oval patches of eczema. The patches can appear anywhere on the body, including the: lower legs forearms trunk (torso) hands feet The face and scalp are not normally affected. The first sign of discoid eczema is usually a group of small red spots or bumps on the skin. These then quickly join up to form larger pink, red or brown patches that can range from a few millimetres to several centimetres in size. Initially, these patches are often swollen, blistered (covered with small fluid-filled pockets) and ooze fluid.


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to several centimetres in size. Initially, these patches are often swollen, blistered (covered with small fluid-filled pockets) and ooze fluid. They also tend to be very itchy, particularly at night. Over time, the patches may become dry, crusty, cracked and flaky. The centre of the patch also sometimes clears, leaving a ring of discoloured skin that can be mistaken for ringworm. You may just have one patch of discoid eczema, but most people have several patches. The skin between the patches is often dry. Patches of discoid eczema can last for weeks, months or even years if not treated, and they can keeping recurring – often in the same area that was affected previously. Occasionally, areas of skin affected by discoid eczema can be left permanently discoloured after the condition has cleared up. Discoid eczema can occur anywhere on the body, including the ankles.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/ Signs of an infection Patches of discoid eczema can sometimes become infected. Signs of an


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body, including the ankles.Source: https://dermnetnz.org/ Signs of an infection Patches of discoid eczema can sometimes become infected. Signs of an infection can include: the patches oozing a lot of fluid a yellow crust developing over the patches the skin around the patches becoming red, hot, swollen, and tender or painful feeling sick chills a general sense of feeling unwell When to seek medical advice You should see your GP or pharmacist if you think you may have discoid eczema, as the condition can take a long time to improve without treatment and it may keep recurring. You should also seek medical advice if you think your skin may be infected, as you may need to use antibiotic cream or, in very severe cases, take antibiotics tablets. Read more about diagnosing discoid eczema. Causes of discoid eczema The cause of discoid eczema is unknown, although it may occur as a result of having particularly dry skin. Dry skin means your skin cannot provide an effective barrier against


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is unknown, although it may occur as a result of having particularly dry skin. Dry skin means your skin cannot provide an effective barrier against substances that come into contact with it, which could allow a previously harmless substance, such as soap, to irritate (damage) your skin. It’s important to look carefully at all the chemicals in cosmetics and toiletries that may have come into contact with your skin. Contact dermatitis, a type of eczema caused by coming into contact with a particular irritant, may therefore have a role in discoid eczema. Some people with discoid eczema also have a history of atopic eczema, which often occurs in people who are prone to asthma and hay fever. However, unlike atopic eczema, discoid eczema does not seem to run in families. Other possible triggers An outbreak of discoid eczema may sometimes be triggered by a minor skin injury, such as an insect bite or a burn. Some medicines may also be associated with discoid eczema, as patches of eczema can


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by a minor skin injury, such as an insect bite or a burn. Some medicines may also be associated with discoid eczema, as patches of eczema can appear in people taking: interferon and ribavirin – when they are used together to treat hepatitis C tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) blockers – which are used to treat some types of arthritis statins (cholesterol-lowering medication), which can cause dry skin and rashes Dry environments and cold climates can make discoid eczema worse and sunny or humid (damp) environments may make your symptoms better. Treating discoid eczema There is no simple cure for discoid eczema, but there are medications that can help ease the symptoms. These include: emollients – to use all the time soap substitutes – to replace irritating soaps and cleaning products topical corticosteroids – for flare-ups oral corticosteroids – for severe flare-ups antibiotics – for infected eczema antihistamines – for severe itching There are many different preparations for


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– for severe flare-ups antibiotics – for infected eczema antihistamines – for severe itching There are many different preparations for each type of medication and it is worth taking time with your pharmacist to find the best one for you. A range of emollient products, soap substitutes and some topical corticosteroids can be bought from pharmacies without a prescription. Some of them are cheaper to buy this way than with a prescription. Ask your pharmacist for advice on the different products and how to use them. See your GP if your eczema does not improve after using an over-the-counter preparation. Self-help There are also some self-help tips that may help to control symptoms of discoid eczema, such as: avoiding soaps and detergents, including liquid soaps, bubble bath, shower gels and wet wipes – even if these do not obviously irritate your skin; you should use an emollient soap substitute instead protecting your skin from minor cuts (for example, by wearing gloves) as they may


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your skin; you should use an emollient soap substitute instead protecting your skin from minor cuts (for example, by wearing gloves) as they may trigger discoid eczema taking daily lukewarm baths or showers – using an emollient when washing may reduce your symptoms, and remember to apply your treatments soon afterwards not scratching the patches – keeping your hands clean and your fingernails short may help reduce the risk of skin damage or infection from unintentional scratching making sure you use and apply your treatments as instructed by your GP or pharmacist If you suspect your skin is infected, for example because there is excessive weeping or tenderness in the patches of eczema, see your GP. Infection can spread quickly, and the use of topical corticosteroid creams can mask or further spread the infection. Emollients Emollients are moisturising treatments applied directly to the skin to reduce water loss and cover it with a protective film. They are often used to help manage


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are moisturising treatments applied directly to the skin to reduce water loss and cover it with a protective film. They are often used to help manage dry or scaly skin conditions such as eczema. Choice of emollient Several different emollients are available. You may need to try a few to find one that works for you. You may also be advised to use a mix of emollients, such as: an ointment for very dry skin a cream or lotion for less dry skin an emollient to use instead of soap an emollient to add to bath water or use in the shower one emollient to use on your face and hands, and a different one to use on your body The difference between lotions, creams and ointments is the amount of oil they contain. Ointments contain the most oil so they can be quite greasy, but are the most effective at keeping moisture in the skin. Lotions contain the least amount of oil so are not greasy, but can be less effective. Creams are somewhere in between. Creams and lotions tend to be more suitable for red,


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amount of oil so are not greasy, but can be less effective. Creams are somewhere in between. Creams and lotions tend to be more suitable for red, inflamed (swollen) areas of skin. Ointments are more suitable for areas of dry skin that are not inflamed. If you have been using a particular emollient for some time, it may eventually become less effective or may start to irritate your skin. If this is the case, your GP will be able to prescribe another product. How to use emollients Use your emollient all the time, even if you are not experiencing symptoms as they can help limit the return of your condition. Many people find it helpful to keep separate supplies of emollients at work or school. To apply the emollient: use a large amount don’t rub it in, smooth it into the skin in the same direction that the hair grows instead for very dry skin, apply the emollient every two to three hours after a bath or shower, gently dry the skin and then immediately apply the emollient while the skin is


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apply the emollient every two to three hours after a bath or shower, gently dry the skin and then immediately apply the emollient while the skin is still moist If you are exposed to irritants at work, make sure you apply emollients regularly during and after work. Don’t share emollients with other people. Side effects Occasionally, some emollients can irritate the skin. If you have discoid eczema, your skin will be sensitive and can react to certain ingredients in over-the-counter emollients. If your skin reacts to the emollient, stop using it and speak to your GP, who can recommend an alternative product. Emollients added to bath water can make your bath very slippery, so take care getting in and out of the bath. Topical corticosteroids To treat the patches of discoid eczema, your GP may prescribe a topical corticosteroid (corticosteroid medication that is applied directly to your skin) to reduce the inflammation. You may be concerned about using medication that contains steroids.


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medication that is applied directly to your skin) to reduce the inflammation. You may be concerned about using medication that contains steroids. However, corticosteroids are not the same as anabolic steroids, which are sometimes used by bodybuilders and athletes. When used as instructed by your pharmacist or doctor, corticosteroids are a safe and effective treatment for discoid eczema. Choice of topical corticosteroid There are different strengths of topical corticosteroids that can be prescribed depending on the severity of your eczema. Discoid eczema usually needs a stronger type of corticosteroid than other types of eczema. You might be prescribed a cream to be used on visible areas, such as face and hands, and an ointment to be used at night or for more severe flare-ups. How to use topical corticosteroids When using corticosteroids, apply the treatment accurately to the affected areas. Unless instructed otherwise by your doctor, you should follow directions on the patient


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apply the treatment accurately to the affected areas. Unless instructed otherwise by your doctor, you should follow directions on the patient information leaflet that comes with the corticosteroid. Do not apply the corticosteroid more than twice a day. Most people will only have to apply it once a day. To apply the topical corticosteroid, take the following steps: apply your emollient first and ideally wait around 30 minutes before applying the topical corticosteroid, until the emollient has soaked into your skin apply a good amount of the topical corticosteroid to the affected area use the topical corticosteroid until the inflammation has cleared up, unless otherwise advised by your GP Speak to your prescriber if you have been using a topical corticosteroid and your symptoms have not improved. Side effects Topical corticosteroids may cause a mild and short-lived burning or stinging sensation as you apply them. In rare cases, they may also cause: thinning of the skin changes in skin


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a mild and short-lived burning or stinging sensation as you apply them. In rare cases, they may also cause: thinning of the skin changes in skin colour acne (spots) increased hair growth Most of these side effects will improve once treatment stops. Generally, using a stronger topical corticosteroid, or using a large amount of topical corticosteroid, will increase your risk of getting side effects. For this reason, you should use the weakest and smallest amount possible to control your symptoms. Corticosteroid tablets If you have a severe flare-up, your doctor may prescribe corticosteroid tablets to take for up to a week. If corticosteroid tablets are taken often or for a long time, they can cause a number of side effects, such as: reduced growth rate in children high blood pressure (hypertension) osteoporosis (brittle bones) diabetes For this reason, your doctor is unlikely to prescribe repeat courses of corticosteroid tablets without referring you to a specialist. Antibiotics If your


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this reason, your doctor is unlikely to prescribe repeat courses of corticosteroid tablets without referring you to a specialist. Antibiotics If your eczema becomes infected, you may also be prescribed an antibiotic. Oral antibiotics If you have an extensive area of infected eczema, you may be prescribed an antibiotic to take by mouth. This is most commonly flucloxacillin, which is usually taken for one week. If you are allergic to penicillin, you might be given an alternative such as clarithromycin. Topical antibiotics If you have a small amount of infected eczema, you will normally be prescribed a topical antibiotic, such as fusidic acid. This means the medicine is applied directly to the affected area of skin, in the form of an ointment or cream. Some topical antibiotics are available in creams or ointments that also contain topical corticosteroids. Topical antibiotics should normally be used for up to 2 weeks as necessary. Antihistamines Antihistamines are a type of medicine that


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Topical antibiotics should normally be used for up to 2 weeks as necessary. Antihistamines Antihistamines are a type of medicine that work by stopping the effects of a substance in the blood called histamine. Your body often releases histamine when it comes into contact with an irritant. Histamine can cause a wide range of symptoms, including sneezing, watery eyes and itching. Antihistamines may be prescribed during flare-ups of discoid eczema to cope with the symptom of itching, particularly if it is interfering with your sleep. However, they will not treat the damaged skin. Many older types of antihistamines can make you drowsy, which can be useful if your symptoms affect the quality of your sleep. Otherwise, ask your pharmacist or GP to recommend one of the more modern “non-sedating” antihistamines. Further treatments If the treatments prescribed by your GP are not successfully controlling your symptoms, they may refer you for assessment and treatment by a dermatologist (specialist


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prescribed by your GP are not successfully controlling your symptoms, they may refer you for assessment and treatment by a dermatologist (specialist in treating skin conditions). Further treatments that may be available from your dermatologist include: phototherapy – where the affected area of skin is exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light to help reduce inflammation bandaging – where medicated dressings are applied to your skin immunosuppressant therapy – medicines that reduce inflammation by suppressing your immune system Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 17 January 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Varicose eczema Atopic eczema Other health sites National Eczema Society:


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characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Varicose eczema Atopic eczema Other health sites National Eczema Society: Discoid eczema BAD: Discoid eczema BAD: Atopic eczema Allergy UK NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/diverticular-disease-and-diverticulitis/


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Diverticular disease | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Stomach, liver and gastrointestinal tract Diverticular disease and diverticulitis Diverticular disease and diverticulitis About diverticular disease and diverticulitis Symptoms of diverticular disease and diverticulitis Causes of diverticular disease and diverticulitis Diagnosing diverticular disease and diverticulitis Treating diverticular disease and diverticulitis Complications of diverticular disease and diverticulitis Preventing diverticular disease and diverticulitis About diverticular disease and diverticulitis Diverticular disease and diverticulitis are related digestive conditions that affect the large intestine (colon). In diverticular disease, small bulges or pockets (diverticula) develop in the lining of the intestine. Diverticulitis is when these pockets become


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In diverticular disease, small bulges or pockets (diverticula) develop in the lining of the intestine. Diverticulitis is when these pockets become inflamed or infected. Symptoms of diverticular disease include: lower abdominal pain feeling bloated The majority of people with diverticula will not have any symptoms; this is known as diverticulosis. Symptoms of diverticulitis tend to be more serious and include: more severe abdominal pain, especially on the left side high temperature (fever) of 38C (100.4F) or above diarrhoea or frequent bowel movements Read more about the symptoms of diverticular disease and diverticulitis. Diverticulosis, diverticular disease and diverticulitis Diverticula ‘Diverticula’ is the medical term used to describe the small bulges that stick out of the side of the large intestine (colon). Diverticula are common and associated with ageing. The large intestine becomes weaker with age, and the pressure of hard stools passing through the large intestine is thought


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associated with ageing. The large intestine becomes weaker with age, and the pressure of hard stools passing through the large intestine is thought to cause the bulges to form. Read more about the causes of diverticula. It’s estimated that 5% of people have diverticula by the time they are 40 years old, and at least 50% of people have them by the time they are 80 years old. Diverticular disease 1 in 4 people who develop diverticula will experience symptoms, such as abdominal pain. Having symptoms associated with diverticula is known as diverticular disease. Diverticulitis Diverticulitis describes infection that occurs when bacteria becomes trapped inside one of the bulges, triggering more severe symptoms. Diverticulitis can lead to complications, such as an abscess next to the intestine. Read more about the complications of diverticulitis. Treating diverticular disease and diverticulitis A high-fibre diet can often ease symptoms of diverticular disease, and paracetamol can be used to


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Treating diverticular disease and diverticulitis A high-fibre diet can often ease symptoms of diverticular disease, and paracetamol can be used to relieve pain – other painkillers such as aspirin or ibuprofen are not recommended for regular use, as they can cause stomach upsets. Speak to your GP if paracetamol alone is not working. Mild diverticulitis can usually be treated at home with antibiotics prescribed by your GP. More serious cases may need hospital treatment to prevent and treat complications. Surgery to remove the affected section of the intestine is sometimes recommended if there have been serious complications, although this is rare. Read more about treating diverticular disease and diverticulitis. Who is affected Diverticular disease is one of the most common digestive conditions. Both sexes are equally affected by diverticular disease and diverticulitis, although the condition is more likely to appear at a younger age (under 50) in men than in women. Overall, symptoms of


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disease and diverticulitis, although the condition is more likely to appear at a younger age (under 50) in men than in women. Overall, symptoms of diverticulitis are most likely to occur in people over 70 years old. Diverticular disease is often described as a ‘Western disease’ because the rates are high in European and North American countries, and low in African and Asian countries. A combination of genetics and diet is thought to be the reason for this and the fact that people in Western countries tend to eat less fibre. People aged 50 to 70 who eat a high-fibre diet (25g a day) have a 40% lower chance of admission to hospital with complications of diverticular disease – compared to others in their age range with the lowest amount of dietary fibre. Symptoms of diverticular disease and diverticulitis Symptoms of diverticular disease and diverticulitis include abdominal pain, bloating and a change in normal bowel habits. Diverticulosis If diverticula have been discovered during a


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and diverticulitis include abdominal pain, bloating and a change in normal bowel habits. Diverticulosis If diverticula have been discovered during a camera test for another reason (colonoscopy) or during a CT scan, you may be worried about what this means. However, if you have never had abdominal pain or bouts of diarrhoea, there is a 70% to 80% chance that you will never have any symptoms from them. Diverticula are extremely common over the age of 70 and they do not increase your risk of cancer. It’s thought that a high-fibre diet is likely to reduce the risk of any symptoms developing. Diverticular disease The most common symptom of diverticular disease is intermittent (stop-start) pain in your lower abdomen (stomach), usually in the lower left-hand side. The pain is often worse when you are eating, or shortly afterwards. Passing stools and breaking wind (flatulence) may help relieve the pain. Other long-term symptoms of diverticular disease include: a change in your normal bowel


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and breaking wind (flatulence) may help relieve the pain. Other long-term symptoms of diverticular disease include: a change in your normal bowel habits, such as constipation or diarrhoea, or episodes of constipation that are followed by diarrhoea – a classic pattern is multiple trips to the toilet in the morning to pass stools like ‘rabbit pellets’ bloating Another possible symptom of diverticular disease is bleeding dark purple blood from your rectum (back passage). This usually occurs after diarrhoea-like cramping pain, and often leads to hospital admission, but fortunately this is an uncommon complication. Diverticular disease does not cause weight loss, so if you are losing weight, seeing blood in your stools or experiencing frequent bowel changes, see your GP. Diverticulitis Diverticulitis shares most of the symptoms of diverticular disease (see above). However, the pain associated with diverticulitis is constant and severe, rather than intermittent. It is most likely to occur


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disease (see above). However, the pain associated with diverticulitis is constant and severe, rather than intermittent. It is most likely to occur if you have previously had symptoms of diverticular disease, and develops over a day or 2. Other symptoms of diverticulitis can include: a high temperature (fever) of 38C (100.4F) or above a general feeling of being tired and unwell feeling sick (nausea) or being sick (vomiting) The pain usually starts below your belly button, before moving to the lower left-hand side of your abdomen. In Asian people, the pain may move to the lower right-hand side of your abdomen. This is because East Asian people tend to develop diverticula in a different part of their colon for genetic reasons. When to seek medical advice Contact your GP as soon as possible if you think you have symptoms of diverticulitis. If you have symptoms of diverticular disease and the condition has previously been diagnosed, you do not usually need to contact your GP as the


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If you have symptoms of diverticular disease and the condition has previously been diagnosed, you do not usually need to contact your GP as the symptoms can be treated at home. Read more about the treatment of diverticular disease. If you have not been diagnosed with the condition, contact your GP so they can rule out other conditions with similar symptoms, such as: a stomach ulcer pancreatitis cholecystitis bowel cancer Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) can also cause similar symptoms to diverticular disease. Causes of diverticular disease and diverticulitis Diverticular disease is caused by small bulges in the large intestine (diverticula) developing and becoming inflamed. If any of the diverticula become infected, this leads to symptoms of diverticulitis. The exact reason why diverticula develop is not known, but they are associated with not eating enough fibre. Fibre makes your stools softer and larger, so less pressure is needed by your large intestine to push them out of your body.


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not eating enough fibre. Fibre makes your stools softer and larger, so less pressure is needed by your large intestine to push them out of your body. The pressure of moving hard, small pieces of stools through your large intestine creates weak spots in the outside layer of muscle. This allows the inner layer (mucosa) to squeeze through these weak spots, creating the diverticula. There is currently no clinical evidence to fully prove the link between fibre and diverticula. However, diverticular disease and diverticulitis are both much more common in Western countries, where many people do not eat enough fibre. Diverticular disease It is not known why only 1 in 4 people with diverticula go on to have symptoms of diverticulitis. Diverticular disease may be chronic low-level diverticulitis. The symptoms are very similar to irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and may overlap. However, factors that appear to increase your risk of developing diverticular disease include: smoking being overweight


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(IBS) and may overlap. However, factors that appear to increase your risk of developing diverticular disease include: smoking being overweight or obese having a history of constipation use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) painkillers, such as ibuprofen or naproxen having a close relative with diverticular disease, especially if they developed it under the age of 50 Exactly how these lead to developing diverticular disease is unclear. Diverticulitis Diverticulitis is caused by an infection of one or more of the diverticula. It is thought an infection develops when a hard piece of stool or undigested food gets trapped in one of the pouches. This gives bacteria in the stool the chance to multiply and spread, triggering an infection. Diagnosing diverticular disease and diverticulitis Diverticular disease can be difficult to diagnose from the symptoms, alone because there are other conditions that cause similar symptoms, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). As a first


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diagnose from the symptoms, alone because there are other conditions that cause similar symptoms, such as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). As a first step, your GP may recommend blood tests to rule out other conditions such as coeliac disease (a condition caused by an abnormal immune response to gluten) or bowel cancer. In some cases, you may be offered treatment for IBS and diverticular disease at the same time. Colonoscopy To make sure there is not a more serious cause of your symptoms, your GP may refer you for a colonoscopy, where a thin tube with a camera at the end (a colonoscope) is inserted into your rectum and guided into your colon. Before the procedure begins, you will be given a laxative to clear out your bowels. A colonoscopy is not usually painful, but it can feel uncomfortable. You may be offered painkilling medication and a sedative beforehand to make you feel more relaxed and help reduce any discomfort. CT pneumocolon or colonography Another technique for confirming


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a sedative beforehand to make you feel more relaxed and help reduce any discomfort. CT pneumocolon or colonography Another technique for confirming the presence of diverticula is a computerised tomography (CT scan). A CT scan uses X-rays and a computer to create detailed images of the inside of the body. As with a colonoscopy, you will be given a laxative to clear out your bowels before you have the CT scan. Unlike a regular CT scan, the colonography scan involves a tube being inserted into your rectum, which is used to pump some air up into your rectum. The CT scan is then taken with you lying on your front, and again lying on your back. You may need to have an injection of contrast dye before the scan, but this is not always necessary. Diverticulitis If you have had a previous history of diverticular disease, your GP will usually be able to diagnose diverticulitis from your symptoms and a physical examination. A blood test may be taken, because a high number of white blood cells


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able to diagnose diverticulitis from your symptoms and a physical examination. A blood test may be taken, because a high number of white blood cells indicates infection. If your symptoms are mild, your GP will treat it at home and you should recover within 4 days. Further tests will be needed if you have no previous history of diverticular disease. If you are unwell, your GP may refer you to hospital for blood tests and investigations. This is to look for complications of diverticulitis and to rule out other possible conditions, such as gallstones or a hernia. An ultrasound scan may be used, as well as a CT scan. A CT scan may also be used if your symptoms are particularly severe. This is to check whether a complication, such as a perforation or an abscess, has occurred. Treating diverticular disease and diverticulitis Treatment options for diverticular disease and diverticulitis depend on how severe your symptoms are. Diverticular disease Most cases of diverticular disease can be


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for diverticular disease and diverticulitis depend on how severe your symptoms are. Diverticular disease Most cases of diverticular disease can be treated at home. The over-the-counter painkiller paracetamol is recommended to help relieve your symptoms. Painkillers known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are not recommended because they may upset your stomach and increase your risk of internal bleeding. Eating a high-fibre diet may initially help to control your symptoms. Some people will notice an improvement after a few days, although it can take around a month to feel the benefits fully. Read more advice about using diet to improve the symptoms of diverticular disease. If you have constipation, you may be given a bulk-forming laxative. These can cause flatulence (wind) and bloating. Drink plenty of fluids to prevent any obstruction in your digestive system. Heavy or constant rectal bleeding occurs in about 1 in 20 cases of


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Drink plenty of fluids to prevent any obstruction in your digestive system. Heavy or constant rectal bleeding occurs in about 1 in 20 cases of diverticular disease. This can happen if the blood vessels in your large intestine (colon) are weakened by the diverticula, making them vulnerable to damage. The bleeding is usually painless, but losing too much blood can be potentially serious and may need a blood transfusion. Signs that you may be experiencing heavy bleeding (aside from the amount of blood) include: feeling very dizzy mental confusion pale clammy skin shortness of breath If you suspect that you (or someone in your care) is experiencing heavy bleeding, seek immediate medical advice. Contact your GP at once. If this is not possible then phone NHS 24 111 service or your local out-of-hours service. Diverticulitis Treatment at home Mild diverticulitis can often be treated at home. Your GP will prescribe antibiotics for the infection and you should take paracetamol for the pain.


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Mild diverticulitis can often be treated at home. Your GP will prescribe antibiotics for the infection and you should take paracetamol for the pain. It’s important that you finish the complete course of antibiotics, even if you are feeling better. Some types of antibiotics used to treat diverticulitis can cause side effects in some people, including vomiting and diarrhoea. Your GP may recommend that you stick to a fluid-only diet for a few days until your symptoms improve. This is because trying to digest solid foods may make your symptoms worse. You can gradually introduce solid foods over the next 2 or 3 days. For the 3 to 4 days of recovery, a low-fibre diet is suggested, until you return to the preventative high-fibre diet. This is to reduce the amount of faeces (poo) your large bowel has to deal with while it is inflamed. If you have not been diagnosed with diverticular disease before, your GP may refer you for a test such as a colonoscopy or CT colonography after the symptoms


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not been diagnosed with diverticular disease before, your GP may refer you for a test such as a colonoscopy or CT colonography after the symptoms have settled. Treatment at hospital If you have more severe diverticulitis, you may need to go to hospital, particularly if: your pain cannot be controlled using paracetamol you are unable to drink enough fluids to keep yourself hydrated you are unable to take antibiotics by mouth your general state of health is poor you have a weakened immune system your GP suspects complications your symptoms fail to improve after 2 days of treatment at home If you are admitted to hospital for treatment, you are likely to receive injections of antibiotics and be kept hydrated and nourished using an intravenous drip (a tube directly connected to your vein). Most people start to improve within 2 to 3 days. Surgery In the past, surgery was recommended as a preventative measure for people who had 2 episodes of diverticulitis as a precaution to prevent


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Surgery In the past, surgery was recommended as a preventative measure for people who had 2 episodes of diverticulitis as a precaution to prevent complications. This is no longer the case, as studies have found that in most cases, risks of serious complications from surgery (estimated to be around 1 in 100) usually outweigh the benefits. However, there are exceptions to this, such as: if you have a history of serious complications arising from diverticulitis if you have symptoms of diverticular disease from a young age (it is thought the longer you live with diverticular disease, the greater your chances of having a serious complication) if you have a weakened immune system or are more vulnerable to infections If surgery is being considered, discuss both benefits and risks carefully with the doctor in charge of your care. In rare cases, a severe episode of diverticulitis can only be treated with emergency surgery. This is when a hole (perforation) has developed in the bowel. This is


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a severe episode of diverticulitis can only be treated with emergency surgery. This is when a hole (perforation) has developed in the bowel. This is uncommon, but causes very severe abdominal pain, which needs an emergency trip to hospital. Colectomy Surgery for diverticulitis involves removing the affected section of your large intestine. This is known as a colectomy. There are 2 ways this operation can be performed: an open colectomy – where the surgeon makes a large incision (cut) in your abdomen (stomach) and removes a section of your large intestine laparoscopic colectomy – a type of ‘keyhole surgery’ where the surgeon makes a number of small incisions in your abdomen and uses special instruments guided by a camera to remove a section of large intestine Open colectomies and laparoscopic colectomies are thought equally effective in treating diverticulitis, and have a similar risk of complications. People who have laparoscopic colectomies tend to recover faster and have less pain


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treating diverticulitis, and have a similar risk of complications. People who have laparoscopic colectomies tend to recover faster and have less pain after the operation. Emergency surgery when the bowel has perforated is more likely to be open and may result in a stoma being formed. Stoma surgery (‘having a bag’) In some cases, the surgeon may decide your large intestine needs to heal before it can be reattached, or that too much of your large intestine has been removed to make reattachment possible. In such cases, stoma surgery provides a way of removing waste materials from your body without using all of your large intestine. It is known as ‘having a bag’ as a bag is stuck to the skin on your belly and the faeces (poo) are collected in the bag. Stoma surgery involves the surgeon making a small hole in your abdomen – known as a stoma. There are 2 ways this procedure can be carried out. An ileostomy – where a stoma is made in the right-hand side of your abdomen. Your small intestine


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There are 2 ways this procedure can be carried out. An ileostomy – where a stoma is made in the right-hand side of your abdomen. Your small intestine is separated from your large intestine and connected to the stoma, and the rest of the large intestine is sealed. You will need to wear a pouch connected to the stoma to collect waste material (poo). A colostomy – where a stoma is made in your lower abdomen and a section of your large intestine is removed and connected to the stoma. As with an ileostomy, you will need to wear a pouch to collect waste material. In most cases, the stoma will be temporary and can be removed once your large intestine has recovered from the surgery. This will depend on the situation when you had the operation. If it was an emergency operation, you may need a few months to recover before having surgery to reverse the stoma. If a large section of your large intestine is affected by diverticulitis and needs to be removed, or if you have multiple other conditions


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the stoma. If a large section of your large intestine is affected by diverticulitis and needs to be removed, or if you have multiple other conditions that make major surgery a risk, you may need a permanent ileostomy or colostomy. Results of surgery In general terms, elective (non-emergency) surgery is usually successful, although it does not achieve a complete cure in all cases. Following surgery, an estimated 1 in 12 people will have a recurrence of symptoms of diverticular disease and diverticulitis. In an emergency setting, the success rate depends on how unwell you are when you require the operation. Complications of diverticular disease and diverticulitis Complications of diverticulitis affect 1 in 5 people with the condition. Those most at risk are aged under 50. Bleeding Around 15% of people with diverticular disease or diverticulitis experience bleeding, which is usually painless, quick and resolves itself in 70% to 80% of cases. However, if the bleeding does not resolve


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experience bleeding, which is usually painless, quick and resolves itself in 70% to 80% of cases. However, if the bleeding does not resolve itself, an emergency blood transfusion may be required due to excessive bleeding. If the bleeding is severe, you may need to be admitted to hospital for monitoring. Urinary problems Diverticulitis can lead to the inflamed part of the bowel being in contact with the bladder. This may cause urinary problems, such as: pain when urinating (dysuria) needing to urinate more often than usual in rare cases, air in the urine Abscess The most common complication of diverticulitis is an abscess outside the large intestine (colon). An abscess is a pus-filled cavity or lump in the tissue. Abscesses are usually treated with a technique known as percutaneous abscess drainage (PAD). A radiologist (a specialist in the use of imaging equipment, such as computerised tomography (CT) scans) uses an ultrasound or CT scanner to locate the site of the abscess. A fine


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the use of imaging equipment, such as computerised tomography (CT) scans) uses an ultrasound or CT scanner to locate the site of the abscess. A fine needle connected to a small tube is passed through the skin of your abdomen (stomach) and into the abscess. The tube is then used to drain the pus from the abscess. A PAD is performed under a local anaesthetic. Depending on the size of the abscess, the procedure may need repeating several times before all the pus has been drained. If the abscess is very small – usually less than 4cm (1.5 inches) – it may be possible to treat it using antibiotics. Fistula A fistula is another common complication of diverticulitis. Fistulas are abnormal tunnels that connect 2 parts of the body together, such as your intestine and your abdominal wall or bladder. If infected tissues come into contact with each other, they can stick together. After the tissues have healed, a fistula may form. Fistulas can be potentially serious as they can allow bacteria in


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other, they can stick together. After the tissues have healed, a fistula may form. Fistulas can be potentially serious as they can allow bacteria in your large intestine to travel to other parts of your body, triggering infections, such as an infection of the bladder (cystitis). Fistulas are usually treated with surgery to remove the section of the colon that contains the fistula. Peritonitis In rare cases, an infected diverticulum (pouch in your colon) can split, spreading the infection into the lining of your abdomen (perforation). An infection of the lining of the abdomen is known as peritonitis. Peritonitis can be life-threatening, and requires immediate treatment with antibiotics. Surgery may also be required to drain any pus that has built up, and it may be necessary to perform a colostomy. Intestinal obstruction If the infection has badly scarred your large intestine, it may become partially or totally blocked. A totally blocked large intestine is a medical emergency because


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has badly scarred your large intestine, it may become partially or totally blocked. A totally blocked large intestine is a medical emergency because the tissue of your large intestine will start to decay and eventually split, leading to peritonitis. A partially blocked large intestine is not as urgent, but treatment is still needed. If left untreated, it will affect your ability to digest food and cause you considerable pain. Intestinal blockage from diverticular disease is very rare. Other causes, such as cancer, are more common. This is one of the reasons your GP will investigate your symptoms. In some cases, the blocked part can be removed during surgery. However, if the scarring and blockage is more extensive, a temporary or permanent colostomy may be needed. Preventing diverticular disease and diverticulitis Eating a high-fibre diet may help prevent diverticular disease, and should improve your symptoms. Your diet should be balanced and include at least 5 portions of fruit and


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may help prevent diverticular disease, and should improve your symptoms. Your diet should be balanced and include at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables a day, plus whole grains. Adults should aim to eat 18g (0.6oz) to 30g (1.05oz) of fibre a day, depending on their height and weight. Your GP can provide a more specific target, based on your individual height and weight. It’s recommended that you gradually increase your fibre intake over the course of a few weeks. This will help prevent side effects associated with a high-fibre diet, such as bloating and flatulence (wind). Drinking plenty of fluids will also help prevent side effects. If you have established diverticular disease, it may be suggested that you avoid eating nuts, corn and seeds due to the possibility that they could block the diverticular openings and cause diverticulitis. People usually find out themselves if these foods cause symptoms. Probiotics have also been recommended, but evidence is lacking. Overall, there


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People usually find out themselves if these foods cause symptoms. Probiotics have also been recommended, but evidence is lacking. Overall, there is a lack of good quality scientific evidence on how to prevent diverticular disease. Sources of fibre Good sources of fibre include fruit vegetables nuts breakfast cereals – but check fibre content as some are very low starchy foods – such as brown bread, rice and pasta Once you have reached your fibre target, stick to it for the rest of your life, if possible. Fresh fruit Good sources of fibre in fresh fruit (plus the amount of fibre that is found in typical portions) include: avocado pear – a medium-sized avocado pear contains 4.9g of fibre pear (with skin) – a medium-sized pear contains 3.7g of fibre orange – a medium-sized orange contains 2.7g of fibre apple (with skin) – a medium-sized apple contains 2g of fibre raspberries – 2 handfuls of raspberries (80g) contain 2g of fibre banana – a medium-sized banana contains 1.7g of fibre tomato


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contains 2g of fibre raspberries – 2 handfuls of raspberries (80g) contain 2g of fibre banana – a medium-sized banana contains 1.7g of fibre tomato juice – 1 small glass of tomato juice (200ml) contains 1.2g of fibre Dried fruit Good sources of fibre in dried fruit (plus the amount of fibre found in typical portions) include: apricots – 3 whole apricots contain 5g of fibre prunes – 3 whole prunes contain 4.6g of fibre Vegetables Good sources of fibre in vegetables (plus the amount of fibre found in typical portions) include: baked beans (in tomato sauce) – a half can of baked beans (200g) contains 7.4g of fibre red kidney beans (boiled) – 3 tablespoons of red kidney beans contain 5.4g of fibre peas (boiled) – 3 heaped tablespoons of peas contain 3.6g of fibre French beans (boiled) – 4 heaped tablespoons of French beans contain 3.3g of fibre Brussel sprouts (boiled) – 8 Brussel sprouts contain 2.5g of fibre potatoes (old, boiled) – 1 medium-sized potato contains 2.4g of fibre spring


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fibre Brussel sprouts (boiled) – 8 Brussel sprouts contain 2.5g of fibre potatoes (old, boiled) – 1 medium-sized potato contains 2.4g of fibre spring greens (boiled) – 4 heaped tablespoons of Spring greens contain 2.1g of fibre carrots (boiled, sliced) – 3 heaped tablespoons of carrots contain 2g of fibre Nuts Good sources of fibre in nuts (plus the amount of fibre found in typical portions) include: almonds – 20 almonds contain 2.4g of fibre peanuts (plain) – a tablespoon of peanuts contains 1.6g of fibre mixed nuts – a tablespoon of mixed nuts contains 1.5g of fibre Brazil nuts – 10 Brazil nuts contain 1.4g of fibre Breakfast cereals Good sources of fibre in breakfast cereals (plus the amount of fibre found in typical portions) include: All-Bran – a medium-sized bowl of All-Bran contains 9.8g of fibre Shredded Wheat – 2 pieces of Shredded wheat contain 4.3g of fibre Bran Flakes – 1 medium-sized bowl of Bran flakes contains 3.9g of fibre Weetabix – 2 Weetabix contain 3.6g of fibre


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wheat contain 4.3g of fibre Bran Flakes – 1 medium-sized bowl of Bran flakes contains 3.9g of fibre Weetabix – 2 Weetabix contain 3.6g of fibre muesli (no added sugar) – 1 medium-sized bowl of muesli contains 3.4g of fibre porridge (milk or water) – 1 medium-sized bowl of porridge contains 2.3g of fibre Note – the ‘own-brand’ equivalents of the cereals mentioned should contain similar levels of fibre. Starchy foods Good sources of fibre in starchy food (plus the amount found in typical portions) include: crispbread – 4 crispbreads contain 4.2g of fibre pitta bread (wholemeal) – 1 piece (75g) contains 3.9g of fibre pasta (plain, fresh-cooked) – 1 medium portion of pasta (200g) contains 3.8g of fibre wholemeal bread – 2 slices of wholemeal bread contain 3.5g of fibre naan bread – 1 piece of naan bread contains 3.2g of fibre brown bread – 2 slices of brown bread contain 2.5g of fibre brown rice (boiled) – 1 medium portion of brown rice (200g) contains 1.6g of fibre Fibre supplements –


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2 slices of brown bread contain 2.5g of fibre brown rice (boiled) – 1 medium portion of brown rice (200g) contains 1.6g of fibre Fibre supplements – usually in the form of sachets of powder you mix with water – are also available from pharmacists and health food shops. Some contain sweetener. A tablespoon of fibre supplement contains around 2.5g of fibre. If you require long-term fibre supplements, your GP can prescribe them. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 09 January 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Health benefits of eating well Self-help guide: Abdominal pain NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool


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well Self-help guide: Abdominal pain NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/dizziness-lightheadedness/


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Dizziness (lightheadedness) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Dizziness (lightheadedness) Dizziness (lightheadedness) Dizziness (lightheadedness) is a common symptom. It’s not usually a sign of anything serious but it should still be investigated by a doctor. Dizziness can mean different things to different people. Some people use it to describe feeling lightheaded or off balance. Others use it to describe a feeling that their surroundings are spinning. Dizziness can be caused by a wide range of things. It may not always be easy to identify the underlying cause. When to get medical advice Speak to your GP practice if: You feel dizzy and: you’re worried about your dizziness or vertigo it will not go away or it keeps coming back you’re finding it harder to hear or speak there’s ringing or other sounds in


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your dizziness or vertigo it will not go away or it keeps coming back you’re finding it harder to hear or speak there’s ringing or other sounds in your ears (tinnitus) you have double vision, blurred vision or other changes in your eyesight your face, arms or legs feel numb or weak you have other symptoms like changes to your pulse, fainting or collapsing, headaches, feeling or being sick What happens at your GP appointment Your GP will ask about your symptoms and may check if you have vertigo. They’ll also want to know: whether the dizziness started for no reason, or if it followed an illness whether you have repeated episodes of dizziness and, if so, when you experience these how long the dizziness lasts If you’re dizzy when you’re lying down, it’s usually caused by a viral ear infection. This can’t be treated with antibiotics. If you feel dizzy when you’re upright, it’s probably not related to your ears. Treatments for dizziness Dizziness usually goes away on its own. But there are


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dizzy when you’re upright, it’s probably not related to your ears. Treatments for dizziness Dizziness usually goes away on its own. But there are things you can do to take care of yourself while you’re feeling dizzy. Things you can do to help your symptoms Do lie down until the dizziness passes, then get up slowly move slowly and carefully get plenty of rest drink plenty of fluids, especially water avoid coffee, cigarettes, alcohol and drugs Don’t do not bend down suddenly do not get up suddenly after sitting or lying down do not do anything that could be dangerous while you’re dizzy, like driving, climbing a ladder or using heavy machinery Common causes of dizziness The most common causes of dizziness are: an inner ear infection that affects your hearing and balance – labyrinthitis migraine stress or anxiety low blood sugar level (hypoglycaemia) – which usually happens in people with diabetes a sudden fall in blood pressure when you suddenly sit or stand (postural hypotension)


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(hypoglycaemia) – which usually happens in people with diabetes a sudden fall in blood pressure when you suddenly sit or stand (postural hypotension) dehydration or heat exhaustion decreased blood flow in the back of the brain, which may be caused by blocked blood vessels (vertebrobasilar insufficiency) Less common causes of dizziness Less common causes of dizziness are: having a severe illness or condition that affects the whole body using recreational drugs drinking too much alcohol (either binge drinking or long-term alcohol misuse) certain types of prescription medicine – like antidepressants or blood pressure medication having a heart rhythm problem – like atrial fibrillation (a fast, irregular heartbeat) carbon monoxide poisoning Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 26 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health


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Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Labyrinthitis Headaches Self-help guide: Headache Other health sites Brain and Spine Foundation: Dizziness and balance problems NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Down's syndrome | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Down’s syndrome Down’s syndrome A baby with Down’s syndrome is born with more of chromosome 21 in some or all of the cells that make up their DNA. It’s also known as Trisomy 21. People with Down’s syndrome may lead active, healthy and independent lives into their 60s, 70s and beyond. Most will have mild to moderate learning disabilities and some may have more complex needs. It cannot be known before birth if a person will need any additional help and support. Living with Down’s syndrome There are increasing opportunities and support in education, work and housing for people with Down’s syndrome. People with Down’s syndrome can live healthy and fulfilling lives as part of their families and communities. Some may: live independently have jobs be in relationships socialise with minimal


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and fulfilling lives as part of their families and communities. Some may: live independently have jobs be in relationships socialise with minimal support. Evidence suggests most families of people with the condition feel satisfied with their lives. Many children with Down’s syndrome attend mainstream school and receive additional support if they need it. Congenital and rare condition register Babies with Down’s syndrome are included in the secure congenital and rare condition (CARDRISS) register. The register is maintained by Public Health Scotland. The register records how many babies have this condition, and some relevant personal information. It’s also used to support the planning and improvement of health, care, and other public services. Read more about CARDRISS Down’s syndrome and health Many children with Down’s syndrome have similar health conditions to all children. Some health conditions can be more common in people with Down’s syndrome, but some are less common. Around half


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health conditions to all children. Some health conditions can be more common in people with Down’s syndrome, but some are less common. Around half of all children with Down’s syndrome will have heart issues, although fewer than 1 in 5 of those may need surgery. They’re more likely to have muscle tone and digestion issues and may have reduced hearing or vision. However, they’re less likely to develop some cancers and types of heart disease. Regular health checks can make sure any health conditions are picked up early and managed. Down’s syndrome is not a life-limiting condition. People with the condition can lead active, healthy and fairly independent lives into their 60s, 70s and beyond. Screening for Down’s syndrome During your pregnancy you’ll be offered a screening test to detect if your baby might have Down’s syndrome. All pregnant women, no matter what age, can be tested. A blood test and nuchal translucency (NT) scan can be used to screen for this condition. Further information


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no matter what age, can be tested. A blood test and nuchal translucency (NT) scan can be used to screen for this condition. Further information You can get more information about Down’s syndrome and find out about life with a child with the condition at Down’s Syndrome Scotland. Source: Down's Syndrome Scotland - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 26 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Dry mouth | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Mouth Dry mouth Dry mouth It’s normal to occasionally have a dry mouth if you’re dehydrated or feeling nervous. A persistently dry mouth can be a sign of an underlying problem though. Contact your dentist or GP if: You have a dry mouth and: your mouth is still dry after trying home or pharmacy treatments for a few weeks you have difficulty chewing, swallowing or talking you’re struggling to eat regularly you’re having problems with your sense of taste that are not going away your mouth is painful, red, swollen or bleeding you have sore white patches in your mouth you think a prescribed medicine might be causing your dry mouth you have other symptoms, like needing to pee a lot or dry eyes The GP can check what the cause might be and recommend treatment for it. What can cause a dry mouth? A


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like needing to pee a lot or dry eyes The GP can check what the cause might be and recommend treatment for it. What can cause a dry mouth? A dry mouth can happen when the salivary glands in your mouth do not produce enough saliva. This is often the result of dehydration. This means you do not have enough fluid in your body to produce the saliva you need. It’s also common for your mouth to become dry if you’re feeling anxious or nervous. A dry mouth can sometimes be caused by an underlying problem or medical condition, such as: medication – many different medications can cause a dry mouth including antidepressants, antihistamines and diuretics a blocked nose – breathing through your mouth while you sleep can cause it to dry out diabetes – a lifelong condition that causes a person’s blood sugar level to become too high radiotherapy to the head and neck – this can cause the salivary glands to become inflamed (mucositis) Sjögren’s syndrome – a condition where the immune system attacks and


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and neck – this can cause the salivary glands to become inflamed (mucositis) Sjögren’s syndrome – a condition where the immune system attacks and damages the salivary glands If you contact your dentist or GP, tell them about any other symptoms you’re experiencing. Also tell them about any treatments you’re having. This will help them work out why your mouth is dry. What problems can a dry mouth cause? Saliva plays an important role in keeping your mouth healthy. If you have a dry mouth, you may experience some other problems, such as: a burning sensation or soreness in your mouth dry lips bad breath (halitosis) a reduced or altered sense of taste mouth infections that keep coming back, such as oral thrush tooth decay and gum disease difficulty speaking, eating or swallowing It’s important to maintain good oral hygiene if you have a dry mouth. This can reduce the risk of dental problems. You should also see a dentist regularly, so they can identify and treat any problems early on.


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mouth. This can reduce the risk of dental problems. You should also see a dentist regularly, so they can identify and treat any problems early on. Treating a dry mouth If your doctor or dentist is able to find out what’s causing your dry mouth, treating this may help your symptoms. If medication is suspected as a cause, for example, your doctor may lower your dose or suggest trying a different treatment. Some of the conditions mentioned have specific treatments, like: nasal decongestants for a blocked nose insulin for diabetes Things to try yourself There are things you can do to help relieve your symptoms. Do drink plenty of cold water – take regular sips during the day and keep some water by your bed at night suck on ice cubes or ice lollies sip on cold unsweetened drinks chew sugar-free gum or suck on sugar-free sweets use lip balm if your lips are also dry brush your teeth twice a day and use alcohol-free mouthwash – you’re more likely to get tooth decay if you have a dry mouth


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if your lips are also dry brush your teeth twice a day and use alcohol-free mouthwash – you’re more likely to get tooth decay if you have a dry mouth Don’t do not drink lots of alcohol, caffeine (such as tea and coffee) or fizzy drinks do not eat foods that are acidic (like lemons), spicy, salty or sugary do not smoke do not sleep with dentures in do not use acidic artificial saliva products if you have your own teeth do not stop taking a prescribed medicine without getting medical advice first – even if you think it might be causing your symptoms Saliva substitutes and stimulants If the measures above don’t help, your dentist, GP or specialist may suggest using an artificial saliva substitute. An artificial saliva substitute will help keep your mouth moist. This may come in the form of a spray, gel or lozenge. Use it as often as you need to, including before and during meals. If your dry mouth is caused by radiotherapy or Sjögren’s syndrome, a medication called pilocarpine may be


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need to, including before and during meals. If your dry mouth is caused by radiotherapy or Sjögren’s syndrome, a medication called pilocarpine may be prescribed. This is taken as a tablet several times a day. It helps to stimulate your salivary glands to produce more saliva. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 13 December 2022 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/muscular-dystrophy/duchenne-muscular-dystrophy-dmd/


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Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Muscular dystrophy Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a muscle wasting condition that causes progressive muscle weakness. It usually only affects boys and those assigned male at birth. It’s caused by a lack of a protein called dystrophin. This causes muscle fibres to break down. They’re replaced by fibrous or fatty tissues that cause the muscle to gradually weaken. DMD is a severe type of MD and often shortens life expectancy. Most people with DMD will reach adulthood. They are, however, more likely to die from heart or respiratory failure before or during their 30’s. Symptoms of Duchenne muscular dystrophy It’s unusual for symptoms to be present from birth. Often signs


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failure before or during their 30’s. Symptoms of Duchenne muscular dystrophy It’s unusual for symptoms to be present from birth. Often signs will appear between 1 and 2 years of age. Someone with DMD might experience: difficulties running, jumping and climbing stairs difficulty getting up from the floor a waddling gait (walking on their toes with an arched lower back) difficulty walking as fast or as far as other children a tendency to fall more than other children learning and behavioural difficulties learning to speak later than usual Your child might find it difficult to stand up from a seated position. Your child might use the Gowers’ manoeuvre to stand up by: facing the floor placing their feet wide apart lifting their bottom first walking their hands from their knees to their thighs to a standing position Speak to your GP if you or your child has symptoms of: Speak to your GP if you or your child has symptoms of: muscle weakness mobility problems Causes of DMD DMD is a type of


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your child has symptoms of: Speak to your GP if you or your child has symptoms of: muscle weakness mobility problems Causes of DMD DMD is a type of sex linked (X-linked) muscular dystrophy. Males have one X and one Y chromosome (long threadlike structures of DNA). Females have two X chromosomes. A sex linked disorder is caused by a mutation in a gene on the X chromosome. As males only have one copy of the gene on the X chromosome, they’ll be affected if one of those genes is mutated. Because females have 2 copies of the X chromosome, they’re less likely to develop an X-linked condition. This is because the healthy copy of the chromosome can usually compensate for (mask) the mutated version. This means that although females can still be affected by X-linked disorders, the symptoms are likely to be less severe. Diagnosing DMD There are different methods used to diagnose muscular dystrophy. Diagnosis might involve: investigating your symptoms family history physical exam blood tests


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different methods used to diagnose muscular dystrophy. Diagnosis might involve: investigating your symptoms family history physical exam blood tests electrical tests on the nerves and muscles muscle biopsy (where a sample of tissue is removed for testing) A blood test will normally be enough to confirm a diagnosis of DMD. Read more about how muscular dystrophy will be diagnosed Treatment of DMD Treatment is available to help with many of the symptoms of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Steroids If you have Duchenne MD, corticosteroid medicine (steroids) can help improve your muscle strength and function. This can slow down the progress of muscle weakness. Steroids are available in tablet or liquid form. Read more about steroids and their possible side effects Ataluren (Translarna) Ataluren (Translarna) is used to treat some children with Duchenne MD that can still walk. It’s only effective for children with MD with a specific gene mutation. Ataluren can help slow down the progress of


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Duchenne MD that can still walk. It’s only effective for children with MD with a specific gene mutation. Ataluren can help slow down the progress of muscle weakness. It’s prescribed as a sachet of granules which can be mixed into liquids or food like yoghurt and eaten. Mobility A child with DMD could need a wheelchair by the time they’re 11 years old. At first, it might only be for long distances. Later it’s likely to be needed full time. At this stage, they might experience difficulties with other muscles like raising their arms above shoulder height. Orthotics Your child might benefit from splints or a spinal brace to help with their posture and mobility. Corrective surgery Duchenne MD can cause scoliosis. Surgery might be used to correct or to prevent scoliosis getting worse. Heart problems Many people with DMD develop dilated cardiomyopathy. This affects the heart muscles. The faulty gene also affects the heart muscles and causes the heart’s chambers to enlarge and the heart


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This affects the heart muscles. The faulty gene also affects the heart muscles and causes the heart’s chambers to enlarge and the heart muscle to get thinner. If you have Duchenne MD, you’ll have regular electrocardiograms (ECGs) to examine your heart rhythm. You’ll also need to have an echocardiogram. An MRI scan might be carried out to check for heart problems. You’ll see a cardiologist (heart specialist) for further tests and monitoring. The cardiologist will prescribe medication to help improve your heart function. You might have a ICD (implantable cardioverter defibrillator) inserted to help with your heart function. Breathing problems It’s likely your child will have breathing problems and will require a machine to help them breathe at night and sometimes during the day. With older children, cough assist machines can help them cough up and remove secretions (phlegm). Using an Ambu bag can help to preserve their chest wall muscle strength. There’s a risk of frequent chest


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cough up and remove secretions (phlegm). Using an Ambu bag can help to preserve their chest wall muscle strength. There’s a risk of frequent chest infections in children with DMD. These might be treated with antibiotics. Swallowing problems Your child might have difficulty feeding. They might have a nasogastric tube or gastrostomy tube inserted to help with feeding. Palliative care You might want to consider hospice care to help you or your child cope with their condition. The hospice can offer help like: counselling pain management Read more about palliative care Last updated: 18 September 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Muscular dystrophy Becker muscular dystrophy Congenital muscular dystrophy


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characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Muscular dystrophy Becker muscular dystrophy Congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD) Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) Limb girdle muscular dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) Other health sites Muscular Dystrophy UK NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/dysphagia-swallowing-problems/


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Dysphagia (swallowing problems) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Stomach, liver and gastrointestinal tract Dysphagia (swallowing problems) Dysphagia (swallowing problems) About dysphagia Causes of dysphagia Diagnosing dysphagia Treating dysphagia Complications of dysphagia About dysphagia Dysphagia is the medical term for swallowing difficulties. Some people with dysphagia have problems swallowing certain foods or liquids, while others can’t swallow at all. Other signs of dysphagia include: coughing or choking when eating or drinking bringing food back up, sometimes through the nose a sensation that food is stuck in your throat or chest persistent drooling of saliva Over time, dysphagia can also cause symptoms such as weight loss and repeated chest infections. You should see your GP if you have swallowing difficulties. What causes


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can also cause symptoms such as weight loss and repeated chest infections. You should see your GP if you have swallowing difficulties. What causes dysphagia? Dysphagia is usually caused by another health condition, such as: a condition that affects the nervous system, such as a stroke, head injury, or dementia cancer – such as mouth cancer or oesophageal cancer gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – where stomach acid leaks back up into the oesophagus Dysphagia can also occur in children as the result of a developmental or learning disability. Dysphagia can be caused by problems with the: mouth or throat, known as oropharyngeal or ‘high’ dysphagia oesophagus (the tube that carries food from your mouth to your stomach), known as oesophageal or ‘low’ dysphagia Read more about the causes of dysphagia. Treating dysphagia Treatment usually depends on the cause and type of dysphagia. The type of dysphagia you have can usually be diagnosed after testing your swallowing ability and


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usually depends on the cause and type of dysphagia. The type of dysphagia you have can usually be diagnosed after testing your swallowing ability and examining your oesophagus. Many cases of dysphagia can be improved with treatment, but a cure isn’t always possible. Treatments for dysphagia include: speech and language therapy to learn new swallowing techniques changing the consistency of food and liquids to make them safer to swallow alternative forms of feeding, such as tube feeding through the nose or stomach surgery to widen the narrowing of the oesophagus by stretching it or inserting a plastic or metal tube (known as a stent) Read more about diagnosing dysphagia and treating dysphagia. Complications of dysphagia Dysphagia can sometimes lead to further problems. One of the most common problems is coughing or choking when food goes down the ‘wrong way’ and blocks your airway. If this occurs frequently, you may avoid eating and drinking because you fear choking, which can lead to


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down the ‘wrong way’ and blocks your airway. If this occurs frequently, you may avoid eating and drinking because you fear choking, which can lead to malnutrition and dehydration. Some people with dysphagia have a tendency to develop chest infections, such as aspiration pneumonia, which require medical treatment. Dysphagia can also affect your quality of life as it may prevent you enjoying meals and social occasions. Read more about the complications of dysphagia. Causes of dysphagia As swallowing is a complex process, there are many reasons why dysphagia can develop. Neurological causes The nervous system is made up of the brain, nerves and spinal cord. Damage to the nervous system can interfere with the nerves responsible for starting and controlling swallowing. This can lead to dysphagia. Some neurological causes of dysphagia include: a stroke neurological conditions that cause damage to the brain and nervous system over time, including Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis,


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a stroke neurological conditions that cause damage to the brain and nervous system over time, including Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, dementia, and motor neurone disease brain tumours myasthenia gravis – a rare condition that causes your muscles to become weak Congenital and developmental conditions The term ‘congenital’ refers to something you’re born with. Developmental conditions affect the way you develop. Congenital or developmental conditions that may cause dysphagia include: learning disabilities – where learning, understanding, and communicating are difficult cerebral palsy – a group of neurological conditions that affect movement and co-ordination a cleft lip and palate – a common birth defect that results in a gap or split in the upper lip or roof of the mouth Obstruction Conditions that cause an obstruction in the throat or a narrowing of the oesophagus (the tube that carries food from your mouth to the stomach) can make swallowing difficult. Some causes of


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the throat or a narrowing of the oesophagus (the tube that carries food from your mouth to the stomach) can make swallowing difficult. Some causes of obstruction and narrowing include: mouth cancer or throat cancer, such as laryngeal cancer or oesophageal cancer – once these cancers are treated, the obstruction may no longer be an issue pharyngeal (throat) pouches, also known as Zenker diverticulum – where a large sac develops in the upper part of the oesophagus, which reduces the ability to swallow both liquids and solids; it’s a rare condition that mainly affects older people eosinophilic oesophagitis – where a type of white blood cell known as an eosinophil builds up in the lining of the oesophagus as the result of a reaction to foods, allergens, or acid reflux; the build-up damages the lining of the oesophagus and causes swallowing difficulties radiotherapy treatment – this can cause scar tissue, which narrows the passageway in your throat and oesophagus gastro-oesophageal reflux


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radiotherapy treatment – this can cause scar tissue, which narrows the passageway in your throat and oesophagus gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) – stomach acid can cause scar tissue to develop, narrowing your oesophagus infections, such as tuberculosis or thrush – these can lead to inflammation of the oesophagus (oesophagitis) Muscular conditions Any condition that affects the muscles used to push food down the oesophagus and into the stomach can cause dysphagia, although such conditions are rare. 2 muscular conditions associated with dysphagia are: scleroderma – where the immune system (the body’s natural defence system) attacks healthy tissue, leading to a stiffening of the throat and oesophagus muscles achalasia – where muscles in the oesophagus lose their ability to relax and open to allow food or liquid to enter the stomach Other causes As you get older, the muscles used for swallowing can become weaker. This may explain why dysphagia is relatively common in elderly


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Other causes As you get older, the muscles used for swallowing can become weaker. This may explain why dysphagia is relatively common in elderly people. Treatment is available to help people with age-related dysphagia. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a collection of lung conditions that make it difficult to breathe in and out properly. Breathing difficulties can sometimes affect your ability to swallow. Dysphagia can also sometimes develop as a complication of head or neck surgery. Diagnosing dysphagia See your GP if you’re having any difficulty swallowing. They’ll carry out an initial assessment and may refer you for further tests and treatment. Tests will help determine whether your dysphagia is the result of a problem with your mouth or throat (oropharyngeal, or ‘high’ dysphagia), or your oesophagus, the tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach (oesophageal, or ‘low’ dysphagia). Diagnosing the specific type of dysphagia can make treatment more effective


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food from the mouth to the stomach (oesophageal, or ‘low’ dysphagia). Diagnosing the specific type of dysphagia can make treatment more effective and reduce your chances of developing complications of dysphagia, such as choking or pneumonia. Your GP will want to know: how long you’ve had dysphagia whether your symptoms come and go, or are getting worse whether dysphagia has affected your ability to swallow solids, liquids, or both whether you’ve lost weight Specialist referral Depending on the suspected cause, you may be referred for further tests with: an ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialist a speech and language therapist (SLT) a neurologist – a specialist in conditions that affect the brain, nerves, and spinal cord a gastroenterologist – a specialist in treating conditions of the gullet, stomach, and intestines a geriatrician – a specialist in the care of elderly people Water swallow test A water swallow test is usually carried out by a speech and language therapist, and can give


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in the care of elderly people Water swallow test A water swallow test is usually carried out by a speech and language therapist, and can give a good initial assessment of your swallowing abilities. You’ll be given 150ml of water and asked to swallow it as quickly as possible. The time it takes you to drink all of the water and the number of swallows required will be recorded. You may also be asked to swallow a soft piece of pudding or fruit. Videofluoroscopy A videofluoroscopy, or modified barium swallow, is one of the most effective ways of assessing your swallowing ability and finding exactly where the problem is. An X-ray machine records a continuous moving X-ray on to video, allowing your swallowing problems to be studied in detail. You’ll be asked to swallow different types of food and drink of different consistencies, mixed with a non-toxic liquid called barium that shows up on X-rays. A videofluoroscopy usually takes about 30 minutes. You may feel sick after the test, and the


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non-toxic liquid called barium that shows up on X-rays. A videofluoroscopy usually takes about 30 minutes. You may feel sick after the test, and the barium may cause constipation. Your stools may also be white for a few days as the barium passes through your system. Nasoendoscopy A nasendoscopy, sometimes also known as fibreoptic endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES), is a procedure that allows the nose and upper airways to be closely examined using a very small flexible tube known as an endoscope. The endoscope is inserted into your nose so the specialist can look down on to your throat and upper airways. It has a light and camera at the end so images of the throat can be viewed on a television screen. This allows any blockages or problem areas to be identified. FEES can also be used to test for oropharyngeal dysphagia after you’re asked to swallow a small amount of test liquid (usually coloured water or milk). Before the procedure, you may have local anaesthetic spray into your


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asked to swallow a small amount of test liquid (usually coloured water or milk). Before the procedure, you may have local anaesthetic spray into your nose, but because the camera doesn’t go as far as your throat, it doesn’t cause retching. The procedure is safe and usually only takes a few minutes. Manometry and 24-hour pH study Manometry is a procedure to assess the function of your oesophagus. It involves passing a small tube (catheter) with pressure sensors through your nose and into your oesophagus to monitor its function. The test measures the pressures within your oesophagus when you swallow, which determines how well it’s working. The 24-hour pH study involves inserting a tube into your oesophagus through your nose to measure the amount of acid that flows back from your stomach. This can help determine the cause of any swallowing difficulties. Diagnostic gastroscopy Diagnostic gastroscopy, also known as diagnostic endoscopy of the stomach, or oesophagogastroduodenoscopy (OGD),


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difficulties. Diagnostic gastroscopy Diagnostic gastroscopy, also known as diagnostic endoscopy of the stomach, or oesophagogastroduodenoscopy (OGD), is an internal examination using an endoscope. The endoscope is passed down your throat and into your oesophagus, and images of the inside of your body are transmitted to a television screen. It can often detect cancerous growths or scar tissue. Read more about treating dysphagia. Nutritional assessment If dysphagia has affected your ability to eat, you may need a nutritional assessment to check that you’re not lacking nutrients (malnourished). This could involve: measuring your weight calculating your body mass index (BMI) to check whether you’re a healthy weight for your height carrying out blood tests Treating dysphagia Most swallowing problems can be treated, although the treatment you receive will depend on the type of dysphagia you have. Treatment will depend on whether your swallowing problem is in the mouth or throat


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you receive will depend on the type of dysphagia you have. Treatment will depend on whether your swallowing problem is in the mouth or throat (oropharyngeal, or ‘high’ dysphagia), or in the oesophagus (oesophageal, or ‘low’ dysphagia). The cause of dysphagia is also considered when deciding on treatment. In some cases, treating the underlying cause, such as mouth cancer or oesophageal cancer, can help relieve swallowing problems. Treatment for dysphagia may be managed by a group of specialists known as a multidisciplinary team (MDT). Your MDT may include a speech and language therapist (SLT), a surgeon, and a dietitian. High (oropharyngeal) dysphagia High dysphagia is swallowing difficulties caused by problems with the mouth or throat. It can be difficult to treat if it’s caused by a condition that affects the nervous system. This is because these problems can’t usually be corrected using medication or surgery. There are 3 main treatments for high dysphagia: swallowing therapy dietary


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these problems can’t usually be corrected using medication or surgery. There are 3 main treatments for high dysphagia: swallowing therapy dietary changes feeding tubes Swallowing therapy You may be referred to a speech and language therapist (SLT) for swallowing therapy if you have high dysphagia. An SLT is a healthcare professional trained to work with people with feeding or swallowing difficulties. SLTs use a range of techniques that can be tailored for your specific problem, such as teaching you swallowing exercises. Dietary changes You may be referred to a dietitian (specialist in nutrition) for advice about changes to your diet to make sure you receive a healthy, balanced diet. An SLT can give you advice about softer foods and thickened fluids that you may find easier to swallow. They may also try to ensure you’re getting the support you need at meal times. Feeding tubes Feeding tubes can be used to provide nutrition while you’re recovering your ability to swallow. They may also


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you need at meal times. Feeding tubes Feeding tubes can be used to provide nutrition while you’re recovering your ability to swallow. They may also be required in severe cases of dysphagia that put you at risk of malnutrition and dehydration. A feeding tube can also make it easier for you to take the medication you may need for other conditions. There are 2 types of feeding tubes: a nasogastric tube – a tube that is passed down your nose and into your stomach a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube – a tube that is implanted directly into your stomach Nasogastric tubes are designed for short-term use. The tube will need to be replaced and swapped to the other nostril after about a month. PEG tubes are designed for long-term use and last several months before they need to be replaced. Most people with dysphagia prefer to use a PEG tube because it can be hidden under clothing. However, they carry a greater risk of complications compared with nasogastric tubes. Minor


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to use a PEG tube because it can be hidden under clothing. However, they carry a greater risk of complications compared with nasogastric tubes. Minor complications of PEG tubes include tube displacement, skin infection, and a blocked or leaking tube. 2 major complications of PEG tubes are infection and internal bleeding. Resuming normal feeding may be more difficult with a PEG tube compared with using a nasogastric tube. The convenience of PEG tubes can make people less willing to carry out swallowing exercises and dietary changes than those who use nasogastric tubes. You should discuss the pros and cons of both types of feeding tubes with your treatment team. Low (oesophageal) dysphagia Low dysphagia is swallowing difficulties caused by problems with the oesophagus. Medication Depending on the cause of low dysphagia, it may be possible to treat it with medication. For example, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) used to treat indigestion may improve symptoms caused by narrowing or scarring


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treat it with medication. For example, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) used to treat indigestion may improve symptoms caused by narrowing or scarring of the oesophagus. Botulinum toxin Botulinum toxin can sometimes be used to treat achalasia. This is a condition where the muscles in the oesophagus become too stiff to allow food and liquid to enter the stomach. It can be used to paralyse the tightened muscles that prevent food from reaching the stomach. However, the effects only last for around 6 months. Surgery Other cases of low dysphagia can usually be treated with surgery. Endoscopic dilatation Endoscopic dilation is widely used to treat dysphagia caused by obstruction. It can also be used to stretch your oesophagus if it’s scarred. Endoscopic dilatation will be carried out during an internal examination of your oesophagus (gastroscopy) using an endoscopy. An endoscope is passed down your throat and into your oesophagus, and images of the inside of your body are transmitted to a


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using an endoscopy. An endoscope is passed down your throat and into your oesophagus, and images of the inside of your body are transmitted to a television screen. Using the image as guidance, a small balloon or a bougie (a thin, flexible medical instrument) is passed through the narrowed part of your oesophagus to widen it. If a balloon is used, it will be gradually inflated to widen your oesophagus before being deflated and removed. You may be given a mild sedative before the procedure to relax you. There’s a small risk that the procedure could cause a tear or perforate your oesophagus. Inserting a stent If you have oesophageal cancer that can’t be removed, it’s usually recommended that you have a stent inserted instead of endoscopic dilatation. This is because, if you have cancer, there’s a higher risk of perforating your oesophagus if it’s stretched. A stent (usually a metal mesh tube) is inserted into your oesophagus during an endoscopy or under X-ray guidance. The stent then


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if it’s stretched. A stent (usually a metal mesh tube) is inserted into your oesophagus during an endoscopy or under X-ray guidance. The stent then gradually expands to create a passage wide enough to allow food to pass through. You’ll need to follow a particular diet to keep the stent open without having blockages. Congenital dysphagia If your baby is born with difficulty swallowing (congenital dysphagia), their treatment will depend on the cause. Cerebral palsy Dysphagia caused by cerebral palsy can be treated with speech and language therapy. Your child will be taught how to swallow, how to adjust the type of food they eat, and how to use feeding tubes. Cleft lip and palate Cleft lip and palate is a facial birth defect that can cause dysphagia. It’s usually treated with surgery. Narrowing of the oesophagus Narrowing of the oesophagus may be treated with a type of surgery called dilatation to widen the oesophagus. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) Dysphagia caused by


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may be treated with a type of surgery called dilatation to widen the oesophagus. Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) Dysphagia caused by gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) can be treated using special thickened feeds instead of your usual breast or formula milk. Sometimes medication may also be used. Breastfeeding or bottle feeding If you’re having difficulty bottle feeding or breastfeeding your baby, see your midwife, health visitor or GP. Complications of dysphagia The main complication of dysphagia is coughing and choking, which can lead to pneumonia. Coughing and choking If you have dysphagia, there’s a risk of food, drink or saliva going down the ‘wrong way’. It can block your airway, making it difficult to breathe and causing you to cough or choke. Read more information and advice about what to do if someone is choking. If you have dysphagia, you may also develop a fear of choking. However, it’s very important you don’t avoid eating and drinking, as it could cause


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If you have dysphagia, you may also develop a fear of choking. However, it’s very important you don’t avoid eating and drinking, as it could cause dehydration and malnutrition. If you often choke on your food because of dysphagia, you may also be at an increased risk of developing a condition called aspiration pneumonia. Aspiration pneumonia Aspiration pneumonia is a chest infection that can develop after accidentally inhaling something, such as a small piece of food. It causes irritation in the lungs, or damages them. Older people are particularly at risk of developing aspiration pneumonia. The symptoms of aspiration pneumonia include: a cough – this may be a dry cough, or you may produce phlegm that’s yellow, green, brown, or bloodstained a high temperature of 38C (100.4F) or over chest pain difficulty breathing – your breathing may be rapid and shallow and you may feel breathless, even at rest Contact your treatment team immediately if you’re being treated for dysphagia and you


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be rapid and shallow and you may feel breathless, even at rest Contact your treatment team immediately if you’re being treated for dysphagia and you develop these symptoms. If this isn’t possible, contact your local out-of-hours service or phone NHS 24 111 service. Symptoms of aspiration pneumonia can range from mild to severe, and it is usually treated with antibiotics. Severe cases will require hospital admission and treatment with intravenous antibiotics (through a drip). Read more about treating pneumonia. In particularly old or frail people, there’s a chance the infection could lead to their lungs becoming filled with fluid, preventing them working properly. This is known as acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Your chances of developing pneumonia as a result of dysphagia are higher if you have a weakened immune system, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or if your oral and dental hygiene is poor. Dysphagia in children If children with long-term dysphagia aren’t


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obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or if your oral and dental hygiene is poor. Dysphagia in children If children with long-term dysphagia aren’t eating enough, they may not get the essential nutrients they need for physical and mental development. Children who have difficulty eating may also find meal times stressful, which may lead to behavioural problems. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 29 May 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD) Other health sites The Stroke Association: Life after stroke NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy


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stroke NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Earache | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Ears, nose and throat Earache Earache Return to Symptoms Enter age Last Updated: Next Review Date: Review my answers Find your local services Search for a service near you by entering your postcode below. Please input your postcode in the following format: A12 1BC GP Practices Dental Services Pharmacies Opticians Postcode Search NHS inform has more information on this condition. Read more Previous Start guide Review my answers × You told us your credentials were: : You said: Based on the information you gave us, we made the following recommendation: Close Keep a copy View PDF Earache is a common problem, particularly in children. It can be worrying, but it’s usually only caused by a minor infection and will often get better in a few days without treatment. Earache can be a sharp, dull or


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but it’s usually only caused by a minor infection and will often get better in a few days without treatment. Earache can be a sharp, dull or burning ear pain that comes and goes or is constant. One or both ears may be affected. Earache self-help guide Complete our self-help guide to check your symptoms and find out what to do next. When to get medical advice You do not always need to see a GP as earache will usually get better on its own within a few days. Speak to your pharmacist for advice and treatment if you have earache. Your pharmacist may recommend that you speak to your GP practice if required. Find your nearest pharmacy Speak to your GP practice if: You or your child have earache and: a high temperature (fever) vomiting a severe sore throat hearing loss swelling around the ear discharge from the ear there is something stuck in your or your child’s ear the earache doesn’t improve within a few days your child is under 2 and has earache in both ears If your GP practice is


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in your or your child’s ear the earache doesn’t improve within a few days your child is under 2 and has earache in both ears If your GP practice is closed, phone 111. Speak to your GP practice if: You or your child: have earache for more than 3 days keep getting earache Treatment for earache Do ask your pharmacist about using over-the-counter painkillers such as paracetamol or ibuprofen, or eardrops to treat the pain place a warm flannel against the affected ear Don’t do not use eardrops or olive oil drops if the eardrum has burst If you or your child has an ear infection, you should avoid putting objects in the ear, such as cotton buds, or getting the affected ear wet. Common causes of earache Ear infections If the cause of earache is an ear infection, there may be a watery or pus-like fluid coming out of the ear. Outer ear infections (infections of the tube connecting the outer ear and eardrum) and middle ear infections (infections of the parts of the ear behind the eardrum) are


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(infections of the tube connecting the outer ear and eardrum) and middle ear infections (infections of the parts of the ear behind the eardrum) are very common causes of earache. Many ear infections clear up on their own without treatment in a few days or weeks, but in some cases your GP may prescribe eardrops or antibiotics. Glue ear Glue ear (also known as otitis media with effusion, or OME) is a build-up of fluid deep inside the ear, which commonly causes some temporary hearing loss. The condition tends to be painless, but sometimes the pressure of this fluid can cause earache. Glue ear will often clear up on its own, although this can take a few months. If the problem is persistent, a minor procedure to place small tubes called grommets in the ear may be recommended to help drain the fluid. Read more about glue ear Damage to the ear Earache can sometimes result from injury to the inside of the ear. For example, by scraping earwax from the ear canal using a cotton bud, or poking a


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Earache can sometimes result from injury to the inside of the ear. For example, by scraping earwax from the ear canal using a cotton bud, or poking a cotton bud too far into your ear, which can puncture the eardrum. The ear canal is very sensitive and can easily become damaged. The ear should heal on its own without treatment, but it can take up to 2 months for a perforated eardrum to heal. If you have a perforated eardrum, eardrops shouldn’t be used. Earwax or an object in the ear A build-up of earwax or an object stuck inside the ear can sometimes cause earache. If there is something in your or your child’s ear that seems be causing pain, don’t attempt to remove it yourself. You may push it further inside and you may damage the eardrum. If you have a build-up of earwax in your ear, your pharmacist will be able to recommend eardrops to soften it so it falls out naturally. In some cases, your GP will organise for removal of the wax (once softened with eardrops) by flushing the ear


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to soften it so it falls out naturally. In some cases, your GP will organise for removal of the wax (once softened with eardrops) by flushing the ear with water. This is known as ear irrigation. If there is an object in the ear, your GP may need to refer you or your child to a specialist to have it removed. Throat infections If you find it painful to swallow and you have a sore throat, your earache could be a symptom of a throat infection such as tonsillitis or quinsy. Quinsy is an abscess on the back of your throat, which can sometimes make it very difficult to swallow. Some types of tonsillitis will clear up after a few days without the need for antibiotics. But if you have quinsy, you will need to see your GP as soon as possible for treatment. You may have quinsy if your sore throat gets worse very quickly. A problem with your jaw Earache is occasionally caused by a problem with the joint of your jaw bone (where the jaw meets the skull). This is known as temporomandibular joint


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Earache is occasionally caused by a problem with the joint of your jaw bone (where the jaw meets the skull). This is known as temporomandibular joint pain and can be caused by problems such as arthritis or teeth grinding. Jaw pain can often be treated with painkillers, warm or cold compresses, and trying not to clench your jaw and grind your teeth. A dental abscess A dental abscess is a collection of pus that can form in your teeth or gums as a result of a bacterial infection. The main symptom is pain in your affected tooth, which can be intense and throbbing, although the pain can sometimes spread to your ear. If you think you may have a dental abscess, make a dentist appointment as soon as possible. They may need to remove the abscess and drain the pus. Read more about treating dental abscesses Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 30 March 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include


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window Last updated: 30 March 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Self-help guide: Earache Tonsillitis Otitis externa Middle ear infection (otitis media) NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/pregnancy-and-childbirth/losing-a-baby/early-miscarriage/


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Earwax build-up | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Ears, nose and throat Earwax build-up Earwax build-up Earwax is made inside your ears to keep them clean. It usually falls out on its own. Sometimes too much can build up and block the ears. A build-up of earwax is a common problem. It can often be treated using eardrops bought from a pharmacy. Symptoms of an earwax build-up A build-up of earwax in your ear can cause: earache hearing loss tinnitus (hearing sounds from inside your body) itchiness in or around the ear ear infections These problems will usually get better once the build up of earwax has been removed. What to do if you think your ear is blocked Do not try to remove a build-up of earwax yourself with your fingers, a cotton bud or any other object. This can damage your ear and push the wax further down. Try eardrops If the


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of earwax yourself with your fingers, a cotton bud or any other object. This can damage your ear and push the wax further down. Try eardrops If the earwax is only causing minor problems, you can try buying some eardrops from a pharmacy. Using drops may make your hearing or symptoms a little worse at first before getting better. These can help soften the earwax so that it falls out naturally. There are several different types of eardrops you can use, including drops containing: sodium bicarbonate olive oil almond oil Eardrops aren’t suitable for everyone and some can irritate the skin. You shouldn’t use eardrops if you have a hole or tear in your eardrum. Speak to your pharmacist about the right product for you and make sure you read the leaflet that comes with it. Find your nearest pharmacy When to get medical advice Speak to your GP practice if: you’re worried about your symptoms eardrops haven’t helped after 1 week Diagnosing earwax build up Your GP or practice nurse will look


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practice if: you’re worried about your symptoms eardrops haven’t helped after 1 week Diagnosing earwax build up Your GP or practice nurse will look inside your ears to check if they’re blocked. They might carry out some simple hearing tests. Treatments to remove earwax If pharmacy treatment doesn’t work, speak to your GP practice. Treatments may include: ear irrigation – a quick and painless procedure where an electric pump is used to push water into your ear and wash the earwax out microsuction – a quick and painless procedure where a small device is used to suck the earwax out of your ear (you may need to be referred for this) These treatments are not suitable for everyone. Your doctor can discuss this with you. If these treatments don’t help, your GP may refer you to an ear, nose and throat (ENT) specialist. What causes a build up of earwax? Some people regularly get blocked ears because they naturally produce a lot of earwax. Other causes include: producing naturally hard or dry


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earwax? Some people regularly get blocked ears because they naturally produce a lot of earwax. Other causes include: producing naturally hard or dry earwax having narrow or hairy ear canals (the tube between the opening of the ear and the eardrum) being elderly, as earwax becomes drier with age bony growths in the outer part of the ear canal Earwax can also block your ear if you often insert objects into your ear, such as cotton buds, ear plugs or hearing aids. Source: ENT Scotland - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 02 May 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Self-help guide: Earache Earache Tinnitus Other health sites British Tinnitus Association: Tinnitus and earwax Royal National Institute


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on NHS inform Self-help guide: Earache Earache Tinnitus Other health sites British Tinnitus Association: Tinnitus and earwax Royal National Institute for Deaf People (RNID): Protect your hearing Hearing Link: Your hearing Find your nearest pharmacy Enter a place or postcode NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Ebola virus disease | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Infections and poisoning Ebola virus disease Ebola virus disease Ebola virus disease is a serious illness that originated in Africa, where a large outbreak occurred in 2014 to 2015. In June 2016, the outbreak was officially declared over. The 2014 to 2015 outbreak of Ebola mainly affected 3 countries in west Africa: Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. Some cases also occurred in parts of central Africa. Around 28,000 cases and more than 11,000 deaths were reported by the World Health Organization. This was the largest known outbreak of Ebola. Is Ebola still a risk? There’s still a small chance occasional cases of Ebola may occur in Africa as the virus is present in several countries there, but the risk for people travelling to Africa is minimal. People who remain most at risk are


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as the virus is present in several countries there, but the risk for people travelling to Africa is minimal. People who remain most at risk are those who care for infected people or handle their blood or fluid, such as hospital workers, laboratory workers and family members. To find out what the health risks are for an area you’re planning to visit, check the NHS Fit for Travel destination guide, Travel Health Pro country information or GOV.UK foreign travel advice. The risk of an Ebola outbreak occurring in the UK remains negligible. Symptoms of Ebola A person infected with Ebola virus will typically develop: a high temperature (fever) a headache joint and muscle pain a sore throat severe muscle weakness These symptoms start suddenly between 2 and 21 days after becoming infected. Diarrhoea, vomiting, a rash, stomach pain and reduced kidney and liver function can follow. The person may then bleed internally, and may also bleed from the ears, eyes, nose or mouth. What to do if you


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kidney and liver function can follow. The person may then bleed internally, and may also bleed from the ears, eyes, nose or mouth. What to do if you become ill Get medical advice as soon as possible if you become ill while travelling abroad. Phone 111 or contact your GP if you become ill after returning to the UK. It’s extremely unlikely you have Ebola, but it could be another serious condition such as cholera or malaria, so it’s a good idea to get help in case you need tests or treatment. Always remember to mention your recent travel history, as this will help identify what the problem could be. Sometimes your doctor may want to take a sample of your blood, urine or stools so it can be checked for any infections. How Ebola virus is spread The Ebola virus is spread in the blood, body fluids or organs of a person or animal with the infection. For example, it can be spread by: directly touching the body of someone with the infection who has symptoms or recently died – the virus can


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For example, it can be spread by: directly touching the body of someone with the infection who has symptoms or recently died – the virus can survive for several days outside the body cleaning up body fluids (blood, stools, urine or vomit) or touching the soiled clothing of an infected person handling unsterilised needles or medical equipment used in the care of the infected person having sex with an infected person without using a condom – studies show traces of Ebola may remain in a man’s semen many months after he has recovered handling or eating raw or undercooked ‘bushmeat’ Ebola can’t be caught through routine social contact, such as shaking hands, with people who don’t have symptoms. Treatment for Ebola There’s currently no licensed treatment or vaccine for Ebola. Potential new vaccines and drug therapies are being developed and tested. Any area affected by an outbreak should be immediately quarantined, and people confirmed to have the infection should be treated in isolation in


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Any area affected by an outbreak should be immediately quarantined, and people confirmed to have the infection should be treated in isolation in intensive care. Dehydration is common, so fluids may be given directly into a vein. Blood oxygen levels and blood pressure also need to be maintained at the right level, and body organs supported while the person’s body fights the infection. Healthcare workers need to avoid contact with the bodily fluids of their infected patients by taking strict precautions, such as wearing protective equipment. Ebola virus disease is sometimes fatal. The sooner a person is given care, the better the chance they’ll survive. Preventing Ebola Follow these simple precautions to minimise your risk of picking up potentially serious infections. Do wash your hands frequently using soap and water – use alcohol hand rubs when soap isn’t availablemake sure fruit and vegetables are properly washed and peeled before you eat themavoid physical contact with anyone who


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rubs when soap isn’t availablemake sure fruit and vegetables are properly washed and peeled before you eat themavoid physical contact with anyone who has possible symptoms of an infection Don’t do not handle dead animals or their raw meatdo not eat ‘bushmeat’ You can check the advice for an area you’re planning to visit using the NHS Fit for Travel destination guide, Travel Health Pro country information or GOV.UK foreign travel advice. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 29 May 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Other health sites Fit For Travel: Viral Haemorrhagic Fever NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and


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Viral Haemorrhagic Fever NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/pregnancy-and-childbirth/losing-a-baby/ectopic-pregnancy/


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Edwards' syndrome | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Chromosomal conditions Edwards’ syndrome Edwards’ syndrome Edwards’ syndrome (also known as trisomy 18) is a genetic condition that begins to affect babies when they’re in the womb, and continues to impact their health throughout their life. It’s a rare but serious condition. In the UK, around 3 in every 10,000 births are affected by Edwards’ syndrome. What is Edwards’ syndrome? When a baby is conceived (made), they inherit genetic material from both their parents. This genetic material is called a chromosome. Humans normally have 23 pairs of chromosomes. In each pair, 1 of the chromosomes is inherited from the mother and 1 is inherited from the father. If a baby has Edwards’ syndrome, they have inherited an extra copy of chromosome 18. This extra copy can be present in some or all


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from the father. If a baby has Edwards’ syndrome, they have inherited an extra copy of chromosome 18. This extra copy can be present in some or all of the baby’s cells and can lead to health problems for the baby. There are 3 different forms of Edwards’ syndrome: Full form In full form Edwards’ syndrome, the baby has inherited a complete extra copy of chromosome 18. This extra copy is present in all of the baby’s cells. Around 94% of babies born with Edwards’ syndrome have the full form of the syndrome. Mosaic form In mosaic form Edwards’ syndrome, the baby has inherited a complete extra copy of chromosome 18, but the copy is only present in some of the baby’s cells. Partial form In partial form Edwards’ syndrome, the baby has only inherited part of an extra copy of chromosome 18. This is a very rare form of Edwards’ syndrome. Why does Edwards’ syndrome happen? Most cases result from a random change in the egg or sperm in healthy parents. This change is not caused by anything the


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Edwards’ syndrome happen? Most cases result from a random change in the egg or sperm in healthy parents. This change is not caused by anything the parents did before or during pregnancy. Effects of Edwards’ syndrome on pregnancy Screening for Edwards’ syndrome You’ll be offered screening for Edward’s syndrome when you’re between 11 and 14 weeks pregnant. The screening test will show if your baby has a high or low chance of having Edwards’ syndrome. If screening shows that there’s a high chance your baby has Edwards’ syndrome, you can choose to have a further diagnostic test if you wish. If you receive a very high chance result (between “1 in 2” and “1 in 10” for Edwards’ syndrome, this may affect your options for further screening. This is because NIPT is less accurate if you’ve received a very high chance result for Edwards’ syndrome or Patau’s syndrome. Your healthcare professional will discuss the next options with you. No test can tell if your baby has full, mosaic or partial


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or Patau’s syndrome. Your healthcare professional will discuss the next options with you. No test can tell if your baby has full, mosaic or partial Edward’s syndrome or how they’ll be affected. Risk of miscarriage and stillbirth Around 7 in 10 (70%) of pregnancies diagnosed with Edwards’ syndrome from screening tests will end in miscarriage or stillbirth. The risk of miscarriage decreases as the pregnancy progresses, but there’s still a risk of stillbirth. Effects of Edwards’ syndrome on babies If your baby is affected by Edwards’ syndrome, it is likely they will have associated health conditions (other conditions often found in babies with Edwards’ syndrome). Some of these may be serious. Exactly how your baby is affected will depend on the form of Edwards’ syndrome they have. Babies with full form Edwards’ syndrome Full form Edwards’ syndrome is considered to be a life-limiting condition. This means it can affect how long a baby can live. Around 5 in 10 (52.5%) will live longer than


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is considered to be a life-limiting condition. This means it can affect how long a baby can live. Around 5 in 10 (52.5%) will live longer than 1 week. Around 1 in 10 (12.3%) will live longer than 5 years. Babies born with full form Edwards’ syndrome will have a learning disability which may be severe. They’re also likely to have a wide range of health conditions, some of which can be serious. Statistically: around 9 in 10 (90%) will have heart issues around 5 in 10 (50%) will have seizures around 5 in 10 (50%) will have hearing loss around 5 in 10 (50%) will have joint contractures (shortening of muscle tissue that can cause a deformity) around 1 in 10 (10%) will have a cleft lip and/or palate Babies with mosaic form and partial form Edwards’ syndrome Currently we can’t predict how babies with mosaic or partial forms of Edwards’ syndrome will be affected. This is because it depends on: how many cells contain the extra chromosome (mosaic) how much of the extra chromosome they have


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will be affected. This is because it depends on: how many cells contain the extra chromosome (mosaic) how much of the extra chromosome they have (partial) Some babies may have severe health problems like those seen in full form Edwards’ syndrome. Other babies may have much less serious health issues. There are even cases where the baby seems to have no health issues at all. Many babies with the mosaic form of Edwards’ syndrome will have some form of learning disability and developmental delay (when a child takes longer to start doing certain activities, like walking and talking, than other children their age). The life expectancy for babies with mosaic or partial forms of Edwards’ syndrome is also very variable. Some will live long lives, while others will have a much shorter life expectancy. Living with Edwards’ syndrome Each child is unique, and Edwards’ syndrome will affect each child differently. Like all children they’ll have their own personalities, likes and dislikes, and


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is unique, and Edwards’ syndrome will affect each child differently. Like all children they’ll have their own personalities, likes and dislikes, and things that make them who they are. Babies with full form Edwards’ syndrome usually have a low birthweight and are considered “medically fragile”. This means they are at high risk of infections and complications that require treatment in hospital. They may also: have difficulty feeding and may need fed by a tube have difficulty breathing and have apnoea (pauses in their breathing) Despite their complex needs, children with Edwards’ syndrome can make progress with their development, although slowly. Many children are reported to be able to communicate their needs, show awareness of surroundings, and some can sit and stand supported. There are also cases of older children attending school. Feedback from many parents suggests that children with Edwards’ syndrome have a good quality of life and are valued members of the family. Congenital and


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from many parents suggests that children with Edwards’ syndrome have a good quality of life and are valued members of the family. Congenital and rare condition register Babies with Edwards’ syndrome are included in the secure congenital and rare condition (CARDRISS) register. The register is maintained by Public Health Scotland. The register records how many babies have this condition, and some relevant personal information. It’s also used to support the planning and improvement of health, care, and other public services. Read more about CARDRISS Further information and support You can find out more information about Edwards’ syndrome, including stories from parents of a child with the syndrome, at SOFT UK (Support Organisation for Trisomy 13/ 18) Source: SOFT UK - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 12 August 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any


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improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Screening for Down’s syndrome, Edwards’ syndrome and Patau’s syndrome Other health sites SOFT UK NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/muscle-bone-and-joints/arm-shoulder-and-hand-problems-and-conditions/elbow-radial-head-or-neck-fracture/


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/muscular-dystrophy/emery-dreifuss-muscular-dystrophy/


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Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Muscular dystrophy Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy The symptoms of Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy (EDMD) often start to develop during childhood or teenage years. Like other types of muscular dystrophy (MD), it’s a muscle wasting disease. Symptoms of EDMD The symptoms of EDMD are: early development of muscle contractures (muscle tightness) the spread of muscle weakness the effect on the heart spinal rigidity (lack of movement in the spine) Muscle tightening (contractures) might cause someone with EDMD to have problems straightening their elbows or bending their neck. Muscle contractures develop at an earlier stage in EDMD than in other types of MD. This can make it difficult to move. They can


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bending their neck. Muscle contractures develop at an earlier stage in EDMD than in other types of MD. This can make it difficult to move. They can cause the arms to be held in a semi-flexed (bent) way and result in limited movement in the elbows. Someone with EDMD might be likely to walk on their toes because of tightness across the ankles. Like other types of MD, Emery-Dreifuss MD causes progressive muscle weakness. This normally begins in the shoulders, upper arms and lower legs. Someone with this type of MD might find it difficult to lift heavy objects or lift their arms above their head. Eventually, the hip and thigh muscles might become weaker. This can make things like walking up stairs difficult. People with Emery-Dreifuss MD might need a wheelchair if they become unable to walk. This type of MD can also cause heart block, where it affects the heart’s electric signals. This can cause palpitations, or a slow heartbeat and may lead to periods of lightheadedness or fainting. You


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it affects the heart’s electric signals. This can cause palpitations, or a slow heartbeat and may lead to periods of lightheadedness or fainting. You might also experience tiredness or breathlessness. Life expectancy might be shortened but many people with EDMD reach middle age or later. Causes of Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy In many cases, Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy is inherited as a sex linked (X-linked) trait. This means it only affects males and is carried by females who are unaffected. Any male children of an affected male with EDMD will be unaffected, but any daughters will be carriers. This condition can also be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait which can affect all sexes. In all autosomal dominant disorders, each child of an affected parent has a 50:50 chance of having the condition. In the recessive form, both parents don’t have the condition but are carriers. There’s a 1 in 4 chance of any future children having EDMD. Sometimes in X-linked and dominant


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parents don’t have the condition but are carriers. There’s a 1 in 4 chance of any future children having EDMD. Sometimes in X-linked and dominant cases of EDMD there’s no family history of the disorder. In these cases, the disease is as a result of a new gene mutation. This can then be passed onto any future children. Diagnosis of Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy There are different methods used to diagnose muscular dystrophy. Diagnosis might involve: investigating your symptoms family history physical exam blood tests including genetic tests electrical tests on the nerves and muscles muscle biopsy (where a sample of tissue is removed for testing) Speak to your GP if you or your child has symptoms of: muscle weakness mobility problems Read more about how muscular dystrophy is diagnosed Treatment of Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy There is no cure for EDMD but there are treatments that can improve the symptoms. Muscle strength Regular gentle exercise can help maintain muscle


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There is no cure for EDMD but there are treatments that can improve the symptoms. Muscle strength Regular gentle exercise can help maintain muscle strength. You shouldn’t do hard physical exercise like weight training. Eating a healthy balanced diet and maintaining a healthy weight will help to minimise the burden and stress on your weakened muscles. Physiotherapy can help you work on muscle strength and flexibility. Surgery You might be offered surgery to divide your heel tendons to help with walking. You might be offered surgery for scoliosis. Heart problems EDMD is likely to cause heart problems. You’ll see a cardiologist (heart specialist) for tests and monitoring. You might have a pacemaker or an ICD (implantable cardioverter defibrillator) inserted to help with your heart function. This can be inserted below the skin in your chest. It helps your heart maintain a regular heartbeat. Breathing problems If your chest muscles become weak, you might need a machine to help with your


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It helps your heart maintain a regular heartbeat. Breathing problems If your chest muscles become weak, you might need a machine to help with your breathing. This can be particularly helpful while sleeping. Read more about Emery-Dreifuss MD Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 20 January 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Muscular dystrophy Becker muscular dystrophy Congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD) Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) Limb girdle muscular dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform


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dystrophy Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/healthy-living/womens-health/girls-and-young-women-puberty-to-around-25/periods-and-menstrual-health/endometriosis/


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Epilepsy | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Epilepsy Epilepsy Epilepsy is a condition that affects the brain and is defined by repeated seizures. Epilepsy affects more than 600,000 people in the UK. Almost one in every 100 people has the condition. Symptoms of epilepsy The main symptoms of epilepsy are repeated seizures. There are different types of seizure, depending on which part of the brain it affects. The cells in the brain, known as neurons, conduct electrical signals. They communicate with each other in the brain using chemical messengers. During a seizure, there are abnormal bursts of neurons firing off electrical impulses. This can cause the brain and body to behave strangely. The severity of seizures can differ from person to person. Some people experience an odd feeling with no loss of


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brain and body to behave strangely. The severity of seizures can differ from person to person. Some people experience an odd feeling with no loss of awareness, or may have a “trance-like” state for a few seconds or minutes. Others lose consciousness and have convulsions (uncontrollable shaking of the body). Some people might only have a single seizure. If they do not have a high risk of having further seizures, they would not be regarded as having epilepsy. Phone 999 if: the seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes the person has more than one seizure without recovering in between the person is having a seizure for the first time the person is injured, has breathing problems, or needs emergency medical attention for any other reason the person’s behaviour after a seizure means they’re violent, agitated, confused or are a danger to themselves What to do if someone has a seizure If you see someone having a seizure, there are some things you can do to help. It will not usually be necessary to


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to do if someone has a seizure If you see someone having a seizure, there are some things you can do to help. It will not usually be necessary to call an ambulance after a seizure. If you’re with someone who has a seizure: protect them from injury by removing any dangerous or potentially harmful objects nearby cushion their head with your hands or soft material do not restrain them or attempt to move them (unless they are in immediate danger) do not put anything in their mouth stay calm, and stay with them until they regain consciousness When the convulsions have stopped, put them into the recovery position until they’ve recovered. Status epilepticus Status epilepticus is the name for any seizure that lasts longer than 5 minutes, or a series of seizures where the person does not regain consciousness in between. This is a medical emergency and requires treatment as soon as possible. You can be trained to treat status epilepticus if you care for someone with epilepsy. It’s important to


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and requires treatment as soon as possible. You can be trained to treat status epilepticus if you care for someone with epilepsy. It’s important to phone 999 for an ambulance immediately if you suspect status epilepticus. If you’ve been trained to treat the condition, you’ll usually have been advised to use either: a medication called buccal midazolam that comes in liquid form and is given by trickling the liquid onto the inside of the person’s cheek or up their nose (this is the most common immediate treatment) a medication called diazepam that’s placed in the person’s rectum (less commonly used) If you’ve tried one of these treatments and the seizures are continuing, phone 999 for an ambulance. Types of seizures People with epilepsy can experience any type of seizure, although most people have a consistent pattern of symptoms. Seizures can occur when you’re awake or asleep. The type of seizure depends on how much of the brain it affects. There are: focal (or partial) seizures –


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can occur when you’re awake or asleep. The type of seizure depends on how much of the brain it affects. There are: focal (or partial) seizures – where only a small part of the brain is affected generalised seizures – where most or all of the brain is affected Some seizures do not fit into these categories and are known as unclassified seizures. Focal seizures There are two main types of focal seizure. Focal aware seizures Focal aware seizures are where you remain fully conscious throughout. Symptoms of a focal aware seizure can include: a general strange feeling that is hard to describe a “rising” feeling in your tummy – sometimes likened to the sensation in your stomach when on a fairground ride an intense feeling that events have happened before (déjà vu) experiencing an unusual smell or taste a tingling sensation, or “pins and needles”, in your arms and legs a sudden intense feeling of fear or joy stiffness or twitching in part of the body, such as an arm or hand These seizures are


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in your arms and legs a sudden intense feeling of fear or joy stiffness or twitching in part of the body, such as an arm or hand These seizures are sometimes known as “warnings” or “auras”, because they can be a sign that another type of seizure is on its way. This can give you time to warn people around you and make sure you’re in a safe place. Focal impaired awareness seizures Focal impaired awareness seizures are when you lose your sense of awareness. You won’t remember what happened after this type of seizure. The symptoms of a focal impaired awareness seizure can involve random bodily behaviour, like: smacking your lips rubbing your hands making random noises moving your arms around picking at clothes fiddling with objects adopting an unusual posture chewing or swallowing During a focal impaired awareness seizure, you’ll not be able to respond to anyone else. You’ll usually have no memory of it. Generalised seizures There are 6 main types of generalised seizure. Absences Absence


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to respond to anyone else. You’ll usually have no memory of it. Generalised seizures There are 6 main types of generalised seizure. Absences Absence seizures mainly affect children, but they also occur in adults. They cause the person to lose awareness of their surroundings, usually for up to 15 seconds. The person will seem to stare vacantly into space. Some people will flutter their eyes or smack their lips. The person will have no memory of the seizure. Absences can occur several times a day. They may affect a child’s performance at school. They can be dangerous if they occur at a critical time, like crossing a busy road. Myoclonic seizures These types of seizures cause your arms, legs or upper body to jerk or twitch, as if you have received an electric shock. They often only last for a fraction of a second, and you’ll normally remain conscious during this time. Myoclonic jerks often happen in the first few hours after waking up. They can occur in combination with other types of


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conscious during this time. Myoclonic jerks often happen in the first few hours after waking up. They can occur in combination with other types of generalised seizures. Clonic seizures These cause the same sort of twitching as myoclonic jerks, except the symptoms will last longer, normally up to 2 minutes. You might lose consciousness during a clonic seizure. Atonic seizures Atonic seizures cause all your muscles to relax suddenly. There’s a chance you may fall to the ground and you could injure yourself. Tonic seizures Tonic seizures cause all your muscles to suddenly become stiff. You might lose balance and fall over. Like atonic seizures, there’s a risk of injury. Tonic-clonic seizures Tonic-clonic seizures or convulsions have 2 stages. Your body will initially become stiff and then your arms and legs will begin twitching. You’ll lose consciousness and some people will wet themselves. The seizure normally lasts a minute, but can last longer. This type of seizure is what most people


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consciousness and some people will wet themselves. The seizure normally lasts a minute, but can last longer. This type of seizure is what most people think of as an epileptic fit. Myoclonic-tonic-clonic seizures and Myoclonic-atonic are seizures involving a combination of the generalised seizures above. Causes of epilepsy In some cases of epilepsy a cause cannot be found. If there’s an identifiable cause, it usually involves the brain being affected by a condition. The brain is a delicate mix of nerve cells, electrical impulses and chemicals, known as neurotransmitters. Any damage has the potential to disrupt the workings of the brain and cause seizures. The categories of epilepsy can be separated by their causes which might be: Structural Causes of structural epilepsy can include: cerebrovascular disease (problems with the blood vessels that supply the brain) – such as a stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage brain tumours severe head injuries Genetic A genetic abnormality can cause


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that supply the brain) – such as a stroke or subarachnoid haemorrhage brain tumours severe head injuries Genetic A genetic abnormality can cause epilepsy. Research has found more genetic causes of epilepsy. Sometimes epilepsy is hereditary (passed on from one or both parents) or it can be a new gene abnormality. Infectious Infections like meningitis can cause damage to the brain which can result in epilepsy. Viral infections like HIV can also cause epilepsy. Metabolic Sometimes epilepsy is caused by an imbalance of the bodies chemicals. This is very rare. Immune Autoimmune conditions that cause encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) can cause someone to develop epilepsy. Unknown In many cases, no cause of epilepsy is found. This may be because medical investigations are not advanced enough to identify the cause. Seizure triggers For many people with epilepsy, seizures can occur without any obvious trigger. However, certain circumstances or the use of certain substances can sometimes


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people with epilepsy, seizures can occur without any obvious trigger. However, certain circumstances or the use of certain substances can sometimes come before a seizure. These include: stress lack of sleep withdrawal from alcohol following heavy drinking some medications illegal drugs your menstrual cycle or period flashing lights (this is an uncommon trigger that affects less than 5% of people with epilepsy, and is known as photosensitive epilepsy) Keeping a seizure diary is a good way to help find out what might trigger your seizures. Every time you have a seizure, record it and make a note of what you were doing. Over time, you might notice some avoidable things that seem to trigger your symptoms. Diagnosing epilepsy Epilepsy is usually difficult to diagnose quickly. In most cases, it cannot be confirmed until you have had more than one seizure. It can be difficult to diagnose because many other conditions, like fainting, migraines and panic attacks, can cause similar symptoms. If


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seizure. It can be difficult to diagnose because many other conditions, like fainting, migraines and panic attacks, can cause similar symptoms. If you’ve had a seizure, you’ll be referred to a specialist in epilepsy. This will normally be a neurologist (a doctor who specialises in conditions affecting the brain and nervous system). Describing your seizures Some of the most important pieces of information needed to diagnose epilepsy are the details about your seizures. The doctor will ask you what you can remember and any symptoms you may have had before it happened – things like feeling strange before the seizure or experiencing any warning signs. It is extremely useful to talk to anyone who seen your seizure and ask them exactly what they saw, especially if you cannot remember. The doctor will also ask about your medical and personal history. They’ll ask whether you use any medicines, drugs or alcohol. The doctor may be able to make a diagnosis of epilepsy from the information you


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history. They’ll ask whether you use any medicines, drugs or alcohol. The doctor may be able to make a diagnosis of epilepsy from the information you give. They might run further tests like an electroencephalogram (EEG) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan. Even if these tests don’t show anything, it’s still possible that you have epilepsy based on your symptoms and description of your seizures. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan An MRI scan is a type of scan which uses strong magnetic fields to produce detailed images of the inside of your body. It can be useful in cases of suspected epilepsy. It can often detect possible causes of the condition, such as defects in the structure of your brain. Electroencephalogram (EEG) An EEG test can detect unusual brain activity associated with epilepsy. It measures the electrical activity of your brain through electrodes placed on your scalp. During the test, you may be asked to breathe deeply or close your eyes and you may be asked to


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of your brain through electrodes placed on your scalp. During the test, you may be asked to breathe deeply or close your eyes and you may be asked to look at a flashing light. The test will be stopped immediately if it looks like the flashing light could trigger a seizure. In some cases, an EEG may be carried out while you’re asleep (sleep EEG). Or you may be given a small, portable EEG recording device to monitor your brain activity over 24 hours (ambulatory EEG). You might be asked to come into the hospital for a few days to have a video telemetry and EEG. During this, an EEG and video will be used to monitor you. Treating epilepsy Most people with epilepsy can be successfully treated with anti-seizure medication (ASMs). ASMs do not cure epilepsy, but can prevent seizures from occurring. There are many different ASMs. They work by changing the levels of the chemicals in your brain that conduct electrical impulses. This reduces the chance of a seizure. The type of ASM recommended for


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the levels of the chemicals in your brain that conduct electrical impulses. This reduces the chance of a seizure. The type of ASM recommended for you will depend on a number of factors like: the type of seizures you have your age whether there are any concerns about a certain ASM interacting with other medicines (like the contraceptive pill) whether you’re thinking of having a baby Examples of commonly used ASMs include sodium valproate, carbamazepine, lamotrigine and levetiracetam. Taking ASMs ASMs are available in different forms, including tablets, capsules, liquids and syrups. It’s important you follow any advice about when to take ASMs and how much to take. Never suddenly stop taking an ASM because it could cause a seizure. You shouldn’t take any other medicines whilst taking ASMs without speaking to your GP or epilepsy specialist. This includes over-the-counter medicines or complementary medicines such as St John’s Wort. Other medicines could have a dangerous interaction with


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This includes over-the-counter medicines or complementary medicines such as St John’s Wort. Other medicines could have a dangerous interaction with your ASM and cause a seizure. Sodium valproate is not usually prescribed for women of childbearing age. This is because it could cause a baby to have physical defects or developmental problems. It can be used if there is no alternative, or if your specialist has assessed you and it’s unlikely you’ll respond to or tolerate other treatments. Your specialist or GP will also need to check you’re using a reliable form of contraception. Learn more about the risks of valproate medicines during pregnancy. Men taking sodium valproate or valproic acid should use effective contraception (condoms, plus contraception used by the female sexual partner) while taking it and for 3 months after stopping. There’s a risk these medicines might cause learning and behavioural problems in your child if your partner becomes pregnant while you’re taking them. Learn


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a risk these medicines might cause learning and behavioural problems in your child if your partner becomes pregnant while you’re taking them. Learn more about valproate use in men. Side effects are common when starting treatment with ASMs. They’re usually short-lived and pass in a few days. Speak to your healthcare team for more information on the side effects. Brain surgery If your epilepsy is still poorly controlled after trying treatment with ASMs, you may be referred to a specialist epilepsy centre. They’ll assess if you’re suitable for surgery. This involves having various types of brain scans to find out where the epilepsy is focused. Memory and psychological tests will assess how the surgery might affect you. Surgery is only recommended when: a single area of the brain is causing seizures (focal seizures) removing that part of the brain would not cause any significant loss of brain function Most people recover from the effects of surgery after a few days. But it could be


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of the brain would not cause any significant loss of brain function Most people recover from the effects of surgery after a few days. But it could be several months before you’re feeling fit and able to return to work. Alternative procedures Your doctor might suggest an alternative procedure if: your epilepsy is still poorly controlled after trying treatment with ASMs brain surgery is not suitable for you This might be vagus nerve stimulation (VNS). Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) VNS involves surgically implanting a small electrical device under your skin, near your collarbone. The device is like a pacemaker. The device has a wire that’s wrapped around one of the nerves in the left side of your neck, known as the vagus nerve. The device passes a regular dose of electricity to the nerve to stimulate it. This can help reduce the frequency and severity of seizures. If you feel the warning sign of a seizure coming on, you can activate an extra “burst” of stimulation. This might prevent the


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severity of seizures. If you feel the warning sign of a seizure coming on, you can activate an extra “burst” of stimulation. This might prevent the seizure from occurring. The stimulation normally occurs every five minutes and lasts for 30 seconds. How and why VNS works is not fully understood. It’s thought that stimulating the vagus nerve alters the chemical transmissions in the brain. Most people who undergo VNS still need to take ASMs. The battery for the VNS device typically lasts up to 10 years. After 10 years you’ll need another procedure to replace it. Ketogenic diet A ketogenic diet is a diet high in fats and low in carbohydrates and protein. It’s thought that it may make seizures less likely by altering the chemical composition of the brain. A ketogenic diet is sometimes advised for children with seizures that are difficult to control and have not responded to ASMs. This is because it’s reduces the number of seizures in some children. It should only be used under the


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to control and have not responded to ASMs. This is because it’s reduces the number of seizures in some children. It should only be used under the supervision of an epilepsy specialist with the help of a dietitian. It can also be effective in adults with certain types of epilepsy. Living with epilepsy Regular exercise and a healthy diet are recommended for everyone. They can help prevent many conditions, including heart disease and many forms of cancer. Try to eat a balanced diet, containing all the food groups, to give your body the nutrition it needs. Exercising regularly can increase the strength of your bones, relieve stress and reduce fatigue. Drinking Alcohol can also interact with anti-seizure medication (ASMs). ASMs can heighten the effects of alcohol. Alcohol also can make the side effects of ASMs worse and make the medication less effective. Heavy drinking can disrupt your sleep patterns. This increases your chances of having a seizure. Drinking no more than the recommended


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effective. Heavy drinking can disrupt your sleep patterns. This increases your chances of having a seizure. Drinking no more than the recommended daily limits may help reduce this risk. Read more about drinking and alcohol Contraception Some anti-seizure medication (ASMs) can reduce the effectiveness of some types of contraception. This includes: contraceptive injections contraceptive patches the combined oral contraceptive pill – often known as ‘the pill’ the progesterone-only pill (POP) or ‘mini pill’ contraceptive implants If you’re sexually active and do not want to become pregnant, ask your GP or epilepsy specialist if your ASMs could affect your contraception. You may need to ensure you or your partner use another form of contraception like a condom or intrauterine device (IUD). The effectiveness of the ASM lamotrigine may be reduced if you’re taking the combined oral contraceptive pill. Some ASMs can make the emergency contraceptive pill less effective. If you need emergency


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if you’re taking the combined oral contraceptive pill. Some ASMs can make the emergency contraceptive pill less effective. If you need emergency contraception, you may need an IUD. Your GP, family planning clinic or pharmacist should be able to help you. Pregnancy There’s no reason why women with epilepsy cannot have a healthy pregnancy. It’s better if the pregnancy is planned because there’s a slightly higher risk of complications. With forward planning, you can minimise these risks. The main risk is that some ASMs increase the chances of a serious birth defect, like spina bifida, cleft lip or congenital heart disease. The risks depend on the type of ASM and the dose you’re taking. The UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register can provide more information and advice about the use of ASMs during pregnancy. If you’re planning a pregnancy, talk to your epilepsy specialist. It may be possible to change the ASM you’re taking to minimise risks. Taking 400 micrograms (mcg) of a folic acid


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talk to your epilepsy specialist. It may be possible to change the ASM you’re taking to minimise risks. Taking 400 micrograms (mcg) of a folic acid supplement each day can also help reduce risks of birth defects. You might be recommended to take more than this by your healthcare team. If you discover you’re pregnant, do not stop taking your medicine. The risks to your baby from uncontrolled seizures are far higher than any risks associated with your medicines. If you’re breastfeeding or planned to breastfeed, discuss the medication you’re taking with your healthcare team or midwife. Children and epilepsy Many children with well-controlled epilepsy can learn and take part in their school’s activities unaffected by their condition. Others may need extra support to get the most out of their time at school. Make sure your child’s teachers know about their condition and the medication they need to control it. Epilepsy is more common among children with learning disabilities and special


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know about their condition and the medication they need to control it. Epilepsy is more common among children with learning disabilities and special educational needs. These children are entitled to extra help to overcome their difficulties. Driving You must tell the Driving and Vehicle Licence Authority (DVLA) if you’ve had any epileptic seizures or blackouts. You must stop driving right away. If you ignore these regulations, you might be prosecuted. The DVLA may wish to contact your GP or epilepsy specialist. The DVLA may issue a licence if your seizures have never caused you to lose awareness or affected your ability to safely control a vehicle. Your GP has a legal responsibility to inform the DVLA if they feel that your driving is putting both you and others at risk. Read about epilepsy and driving on the DVLA website Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP) When somebody with epilepsy dies and there’s no clear cause, it’s known as sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP).


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death in epilepsy (SUDEP) When somebody with epilepsy dies and there’s no clear cause, it’s known as sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP). The risk of SUDEP for someone with epilepsy is low. The exact causes of SUDEP are unknown. It’s not possible to predict who it will affect. One theory is that seizures could affect the person’s breathing and heartbeat. Things that may lead to SUDEP include: having seizures which cause loss of consciousness and the body to go stiff and jerk (tonic-clonic seizures) poorly controlled epilepsy, such as not using ASMs prescribed to control seizures having sudden and frequent changes to ASMs being a young adult (in particular male) having sleep seizures having seizures when alone drinking large amounts of alcohol If you’re worried that your epilepsy is poorly controlled, contact your epilepsy specialist. It may be possible to refer you to a specialist epilepsy centre for further treatment. A charity called SUDEP Action can offer advice and support


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It may be possible to refer you to a specialist epilepsy centre for further treatment. A charity called SUDEP Action can offer advice and support on SUDEP. They have a helpline for people who have lost a loved one as a result of epilepsy. Last updated: 10 March 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Febrile seizures Other health sites Epilepsy Society Epilepsy Research UK Epilepsy Action SUDEP Action UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register Brain and Spine Foundation: Epilepsy Epilepsy Scotland Choice and Medication NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI)


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Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/sexual-and-reproductive/erectile-dysfunction-impotence/


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/infections-and-poisoning/escherichia-coli-e-coli-o157/


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Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157 | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Infections and poisoning Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157 Escherichia coli (E. coli) O157 Escherichia coli O157, sometimes called STEC (Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli), is a bacterial infection. It can cause severe stomach pain, bloody diarrhoea and kidney failure. E. coli O157 is found in the gut and faeces of many animals, particularly cattle. It’s an uncommon cause of gastroenteritis but can be caught by: eating contaminated food, such as raw leafy vegetables or undercooked meat – always wash all vegetables, including salad leaves, that will be eaten raw, unless they have been pre-prepared and are labelled ‘ready to eat’ (washing may reduce the risk of infection, but will not eliminate any risk of infection completely) touching infected animals or accidentally


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to eat’ (washing may reduce the risk of infection, but will not eliminate any risk of infection completely) touching infected animals or accidentally coming into contact with their faeces contact with people who have the illness, particularly if you do not wash your hands thoroughly after using the toilet or before handling food drinking water from inadequately treated water supplies swimming or playing in contaminated water, such as ponds or streams When to get medical advice Contact your GP practice and ask for an urgent appointment or phone 111 if: you or your child has bloody diarrhoea Speak to your GP practice if: You or your child has diarrhoea and: it’s particularly frequent or severe it lasts for more than 7 days a severe or continuous stomach ache weight loss have passed a large amount of very watery diarrhoea have signs of dehydration – including drowsiness, peeing less than usual, and feeling lightheaded or dizzy You should contact your GP if you have a child under 12


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dehydration – including drowsiness, peeing less than usual, and feeling lightheaded or dizzy You should contact your GP if you have a child under 12 months and are concerned. Symptoms of E. coli O157 infection Symptoms include diarrhoea, stomach cramps and occasionally fever. About half of people with the infection will have bloody diarrhoea. People usually notice symptoms 3 to 4 days after they have been infected. But symptoms can start any time between 1 and 14 days afterwards. These symptoms can last up to 2 weeks. Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) A small number of people with E. coli O157 infection go on to develop a serious condition called haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS). Symptoms of HUS include: peeing less tiredness swelling bruising This can sometimes lead to kidney failure and death, although this is rare. The risk of HUS is highest in children aged under 5 years. Some people become infected but don’t develop symptoms. Further information about gastroenteritis Treatment


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highest in children aged under 5 years. Some people become infected but don’t develop symptoms. Further information about gastroenteritis Treatment and care at home There is no specific treatment for E. coli O157 infection. People who are infected can usually be cared for at home and most will get better without medical treatment. It’s important to drink plenty of fluids, as diarrhoea can lead to dehydration. Antibiotics are not recommended, and may increase the risk of complications. Anti-diarrhoea drugs such as loperamide (Imodium) are also not recommended as they may prolong your exposure to the toxin. Find out more about caring for a child with gastroenteritis and caring for an adult with gastroenteritis. How to prevent E. coli O157 from spreading at home Strict hygiene measures are essential to stop others getting infected. Do wash your hands thoroughly with soap in running water and dry them completely – use liquid soap and warm water if you can everyone must wash their hands


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your hands thoroughly with soap in running water and dry them completely – use liquid soap and warm water if you can everyone must wash their hands after contact with an infected person, particularly after handling their clothes or bedding always wash your hands after going to the toilet or changing babies’ nappies, and before preparing or serving food or eating meals if you’ve been infected, avoid cooking or preparing food until 48 hours after your symptoms have cleared up wash soiled clothing and bed linen separately from other clothes in a washing machine at the highest temperature possible (for example 60°C) wipe down the outside of the washing machine with hot water and detergent after any heavily soiled load clean toilet seats, toilet flush handles, basin taps, surfaces and toilet door handles at least daily, preferably more often, using hot water and detergent disinfection sprays and wipes or alcohol-based wipes may be used on toilet seats and other surfaces, but only after any


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using hot water and detergent disinfection sprays and wipes or alcohol-based wipes may be used on toilet seats and other surfaces, but only after any visible soiling has been removed thick household bleach is highly effective – dilute one part bleach to every 10 parts water for soiled surfaces and one part bleach to every 100 parts water for other hard surfaces ideally, use heavy-duty domestic rubber gloves and disposable cloths for cleaning dispose of cloths by placing them in a plastic bag, sealing the neck and placing in household waste thoroughly wash rubber gloves in hot water and detergent after use, then rinse and allow to dry deal with any spillage of faeces immediately – clean the soiled area with hot water and detergent using heavy-duty domestic rubber gloves then clean gloves and wash hands thoroughly Don’t do not share towels or nappy changing matsdo not clean soiled items in the kitchen Returning to work or school Anyone who has had an E. coli O157 infection should stay


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or nappy changing matsdo not clean soiled items in the kitchen Returning to work or school Anyone who has had an E. coli O157 infection should stay away from work or school until they have been completely free of symptoms for 48 hours. Most people are no longer infectious after about a week, although some people, particularly children, may carry E. coli O157 for several months after they have got better. Some people need to take special care before returning to work or school. If you work in health or social care, or your work involves handling food, you should ask your local authority environmental health officers about when it is safe to return to work. This advice applies to both people who have been infected and those who live in the same household as someone who has. If you have a child under 5 years of age who has had E. coli, or lives with someone who has, you should talk to your GP about when it is safe for your child to return to school or nursery. Children under 5 years of


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lives with someone who has, you should talk to your GP about when it is safe for your child to return to school or nursery. Children under 5 years of age who have had an E. coli O157 infection should not swim in public swimming pools, or share paddling pools with others, until they have had test results showing that they are no longer an infection risk to others. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 07 June 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-children/ewing-sarcoma-children/


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Ewing sarcoma: Children | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Cancer Cancer types in children Ewing sarcoma: Children Ewing sarcoma: Children Ewing sarcoma is a type of bone cancer in children and young people. This information describes Ewing sarcoma, its symptoms, diagnosis and possible treatments. More children than ever are surviving childhood cancer. There are now new and better drugs and treatments, and we can now also work to reduce the after-effects of having had cancer in the past. It’s devastating to hear that your child has cancer. At times it can feel overwhelming but there are many healthcare professionals and support organisations to help you through this difficult time. Understanding more about the cancer your child has, and the treatments that may be used, can often help parents to cope. Your child’s specialist will give


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more about the cancer your child has, and the treatments that may be used, can often help parents to cope. Your child’s specialist will give you more detailed information and if you have any questions it’s important to ask the specialist doctor or nurse who knows your child’s individual situation. Sarcomas Sarcomas are rare types of cancer that develop in the supporting tissues of the body. There are 2 main types: bone sarcomas and soft tissue sarcomas. Bone sarcomas can develop in any of the bones of the skeleton, but may also develop in the soft tissue near bones. Soft tissue sarcomas can develop in muscle, fat, blood vessels or any of the other tissues that support, surround and protect the organs of the body. Ewing sarcoma Ewing sarcoma is the second most common primary sarcoma in children and young people. This type of cancer is a bone cancer and most commonly occurs in the long bones, ribs, pelvis and spine (vertebral column). It usually occurs in the teenage years, and is more


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cancer and most commonly occurs in the long bones, ribs, pelvis and spine (vertebral column). It usually occurs in the teenage years, and is more common in boys. Although Ewing sarcoma is a type of bone cancer, it can also occur very rarely in the soft tissues. This is called extraosseous Ewing sarcoma. Another type of Ewing sarcoma is a primitive neuroectodermal tumour (PNET). These can be found in either the bone or soft tissue. Causes The exact causes of primary bone cancer are unknown. The development of Ewing sarcoma may be related in some way to times of rapid bone growth, which may explain why more cases are seen in teenagers. Like other cancers, it’s not infectious and cannot be passed on to other people. Signs and symptoms Pain is the most common symptom of bone cancer. It is frequently worse at night. However, symptoms may vary depending on the position and size of the cancer. There may be some swelling in the affected area if the tumour is close to the surface of the body


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depending on the position and size of the cancer. There may be some swelling in the affected area if the tumour is close to the surface of the body and it may become tender to touch. This may cause a limp if in the leg or pelvis. Bone cancer is sometimes discovered when a bone that has been weakened by cancer breaks after the child has a minor fall or accident. Occasionally, there may be fever or weight loss. How Ewing sarcoma is diagnosed Usually you begin by seeing your GP, who will examine your child and may arrange tests or X-rays. If a sarcoma is suspected, your GP should refer your child directly to a specialist hospital or bone tumour centre. A variety of tests and investigations are needed to diagnose Ewing sarcoma, including an X-ray of the painful part of the bone, a chest X-ray and a blood test. A specialist doctor will remove a small piece of the tumour to look at under a microscope (biopsy). Other tests may be done, such as a bone scan, PET scan, a bone marrow biopsy. An


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a small piece of the tumour to look at under a microscope (biopsy). Other tests may be done, such as a bone scan, PET scan, a bone marrow biopsy. An MRI or CT scan may also be done. Any tests and investigations that your child needs will be explained to you. Treatment A combination of various treatments is used to treat Ewing sarcoma. These include chemotherapy, surgery and radiotherapy. Treatment will depend on a number of factors, including the size and position of the tumour. Chemotherapy Chemotherapy is the use of anti-cancer (cytotoxic) drugs to destroy cancer cells. This is a very important component of treatment for the majority of children with Ewing sarcoma and can help make surgery more straightforward. A combination of different chemotherapy drugs are given before surgery and continued afterwards in order to destroy any remaining cancer cells and prevent the sarcoma from spreading. Chemotherapy given in this way is called adjuvant chemotherapy. Surgery If surgery is needed,


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cancer cells and prevent the sarcoma from spreading. Chemotherapy given in this way is called adjuvant chemotherapy. Surgery If surgery is needed, it should be carried out at a specialist orthopaedic bone tumour centre. The aim of surgery is to remove the tumour without causing too much damage. If the tumour is in one of the main bones of the arm or leg, it may be necessary to remove the whole limb (amputation) or part of the affected bone. If only part of the affected bone is removed, this is known as limb-sparing surgery. Amputation Sometimes amputation of the limb is unavoidable if the cancer has affected the surrounding blood vessels and nerves. After amputation, a false limb will be fitted, and this will be regularly adjusted as your child grows. False limbs work very well. It should be possible for your child to join in with normal activities and even sport. Limb-sparing surgery There are several ways in which limb-sparing surgery may be done. It may involve: replacing the bone


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activities and even sport. Limb-sparing surgery There are several ways in which limb-sparing surgery may be done. It may involve: replacing the bone with a prosthesis (a specially designed artificial part) replacing the bone with bone taken from another part of the body (a bone graft) After limb-sparing surgery, the child is often able to use the limb almost normally. However, it is best not to take part in any contact sports, because any damage to the bone graft or prosthesis may require another major operation to repair or replace it. If the child is growing, the limb prosthesis will need to be lengthened from time to time as the bone grows. This may mean further short stays in hospital, although some prostheses can be lengthened during an outpatient procedure. Radiotherapy Radiotherapy treats cancer by using high energy rays that destroy cancer cells while doing as little harm as possible to normal cells. Ewing sarcoma responds very well to radiotherapy. It’s often used after


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destroy cancer cells while doing as little harm as possible to normal cells. Ewing sarcoma responds very well to radiotherapy. It’s often used after chemotherapy and before or after surgery. If the tumour is impossible to remove surgically, it’s a good option. Side effects of treatment for Ewing sarcoma Treatment often causes side effects. Your child’s doctor will discuss this with you before the treatment starts. Any possible side effects will depend on the actual treatment being used and the part of the body that’s being treated. Side effects can include: feeling sick (nausea) and being sick (vomiting) hair loss increased risk of infection bruising and bleeding tiredness diarrhoea Radiotherapy can cause irritation or soreness of the skin in the area being treated and general tiredness. If your child is having surgery, the surgeon will explain the possible complications of the surgery that your child is having. Late side effects A small number of children may develop other side


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will explain the possible complications of the surgery that your child is having. Late side effects A small number of children may develop other side effects, sometimes many years later. These include a reduction in normal bone growth, reduced fertility, a change in heart function, and a small increase in the risk of developing a second cancer later in life. Your child’s doctor or nurse will explain all of this to you and will monitor your child carefully for any potential late side effects. Clinical trials Many children have their treatment as part of a clinical research trial. Trials aim to improve our understanding of the best way to treat an illness, usually by comparing the standard treatment with a new or modified version. Specialist doctors carry out trials for children’s cancers. If appropriate, your child’s medical team will talk to you about taking part in a clinical trial, and will answer any questions you have. Written information will be provided to help explain things.


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to you about taking part in a clinical trial, and will answer any questions you have. Written information will be provided to help explain things. Treatment guidelines Sometimes, clinical trials are not available for your child’s tumour. This may be because a recent trial has just finished, or because the tumour is very rare. In these cases, you can expect your doctors and nurses to offer treatment which is agreed to be the most appropriate, using guidelines which have been prepared by experts across the country. The Children’s Cancer and Leukaemia Group (CCLG) is an important organisation which helps to produce these guidelines. Follow-up care Your child will have regular follow-up appointments, with x-rays or scans as necessary. Many children with Ewing sarcoma can be cured. Even if the tumour comes back, further treatment may be given successfully. Your child will be checked up on every few months for the first 3 years after treatment and then every 6 months for another 2 years. If


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successfully. Your child will be checked up on every few months for the first 3 years after treatment and then every 6 months for another 2 years. If you have specific concerns about your child’s condition and treatment, it’s best to discuss them with your child’s doctor who knows the situation in detail. Your feelings As a parent, the fact that your child has cancer is one of the worst situations you can be faced with. You may have many emotions, such as fear, guilt, sadness, anger and uncertainty. These are all normal reactions and are part of the process that many parents go through at such a difficult time. Your child may have a variety of powerful emotions throughout their experience with cancer. Further information and advice if your child has cancer Source: Children's Cancer and Leukemia Group - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 09 October 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal


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updated: 09 October 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Other health sites Scottish Cancer Network: Patient information Search for cancer support services near you Enter a place or postcode NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/muscular-dystrophy/facioscapulohumeral-muscular-dystrophy-fshd/


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Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Muscular dystrophy Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) is one of the most common forms of MD. It affects all genders. Males are likely to experience more severe symptoms at an earlier stage. FSHD is caused by a genetic mutation which deletes some of the DNA on chromosome 4. This switches on a gene which is toxic to muscles. Some people with FSHD aren’t aware they have the condition until they’re an adult. FSHD progresses slowly and doesn’t usually shorten life expectancy. Children with FSHD are likely to experience more severe symptoms. Symptoms of FSHD Symptoms of FSHD in children might include: their eyes being slightly open


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with FSHD are likely to experience more severe symptoms. Symptoms of FSHD Symptoms of FSHD in children might include: their eyes being slightly open when sleeping not being able to squeeze their eyes shut tightly not being able to purse their lips Older children and adults might have rounded shoulders and thin, weak upper arms. This can cause pain in the shoulders and back. In adulthood, FSHD usually affects the: face (facio) shoulders (scapula) upper arms (humeral) back calves pelvic girdle muscles ankles (foot drop) In over half of those with FSHD there can be weakness at the knees, hips and back. This can cause a backward leaning and high stepping style of walking. Sometimes, there can be a different change in posture with a tendency to bend forwards rather than backwards. The earlier in life someone has FSHD symptoms, the more severe their symptoms will eventually be. Men, and those assigned male at birth, tend to experience more severe weakness and will have symptoms from a


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their symptoms will eventually be. Men, and those assigned male at birth, tend to experience more severe weakness and will have symptoms from a younger age than women and those assigned female at birth. The condition can develop unevenly (asymmetrically). One side of the body might be affected more than the other. About 10-20% of people with FSHD eventually require a wheelchair. People with FSHD can often experience pain. Some people with FSHD will develop hearing loss. This is more common in people who develop FSHD during childhood. Causes of FSHD FSHD is a dominant inherited muscular dystrophy. If you have a dominant inherited MD, you only need to inherit the altered gene from one parent to be affected. This means, if you have a child with someone who doesn’t have MD there’s still a 1 in 2 chance your child will develop the condition. Family history Most of the time, FSHD is inherited from either parent. Occasionally, someone with FSHD, especially if it was diagnosed in early


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Family history Most of the time, FSHD is inherited from either parent. Occasionally, someone with FSHD, especially if it was diagnosed in early childhood, may not have inherited it from either parent. This means it could be caused by a novel (new) mutation. However, it could be that the symptoms of a family member were very mild or they’d been misdiagnosed. Children who inherit the faulty gene are likely to start experiencing symptoms from a similar age as their parent did. There will be some families where those with the condition will continue to be affected severely or where it will always be mild. Read more about the causes of FSHD Diagnosing Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy A blood test can often detect the DNA mutation that causes FSHD. The genetics of FSHD are more complex than other muscle wasting conditions. FSHD is caused by the protein DUX4 being produced in the muscle where it’s not normally found. DUX4 ‘switches on’ genes that are not normally active in the muscle


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by the protein DUX4 being produced in the muscle where it’s not normally found. DUX4 ‘switches on’ genes that are not normally active in the muscle cell. It’s toxic for the cell and can lead to its death causing muscle wasting and weakness. Treatments of Facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy (FSHD) There’s no cure for FSHD and there are no specific drug treatments. Regular exercise and hydrotherapy can help to maintain muscle function for as long as possible. Try to eat a healthy balanced diet and maintain a healthy weight. This will help to reduce stress on the already weakened muscles. Orthoses Using orthoses (devices that support the feet) can help people with FSHD. They can improve FSHD symptoms like foot drop and shoulder weakness. Surgery FSHD can cause the scapular muscles, which attach the shoulder blades to your chest, to become weak. This can make lifting your arms difficult. There’s an operation called scapular fixation which fixes the shoulder blades to the ribs at the


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weak. This can make lifting your arms difficult. There’s an operation called scapular fixation which fixes the shoulder blades to the ribs at the back. This can help some people with FSHD to regain some more use of their arms. If your eyes become dry and inflamed and you can’t close them at night, you might be offered surgery to bring the eyelids closer. This option would be considered if artificial tears are not helping. Pain management It’s common to experience pain as part of your symptoms of FSHD. You might be prescribed painkillers to help manage your pain. Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 12 April 2023 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Muscular dystrophy


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Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Muscular dystrophy Becker muscular dystrophy Congenital muscular dystrophy (CMD) Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy Limb girdle muscular dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy Oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy (OPMD) Other health sites Muscular Dystrophy UK NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/farting/


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Febrile seizures | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Febrile seizures Febrile seizures About febrile seizures Symptoms of febrile seizures Causes of febrile seizures Diagnosing febrile seizures Treating febrile seizures About febrile seizures A febrile seizure is a fit that can happen when a child has a fever. Febrile seizures are also sometimes called febrile convulsions. They are relatively common and, in most cases, aren’t serious. Around one in 20 children will have at least one febrile seizure at some point. They most often occur between the ages of six months and three years. During a febrile seizure, the child’s body usually becomes stiff, they lose consciousness and their arms and legs twitch. Some children may wet themselves. This is known as a tonic clonic seizure. Read more about the symptoms of


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and their arms and legs twitch. Some children may wet themselves. This is known as a tonic clonic seizure. Read more about the symptoms of febrile seizures What to do during a seizure If your child is having a febrile seizure, place them in the recovery position. Lay them on their side, on a soft surface, with their face turned to one side. This will stop them swallowing any vomit, keep their airway open and help prevent injury. Stay with your child and try to make a note of how long the seizure lasts. If it’s your child’s first seizure, or it lasts longer than five minutes, take them to the nearest hospital as soon as possible, or dial 999 for an ambulance. While it’s unlikely that there’s anything seriously wrong, it’s best to be sure. If your child has had febrile seizures before and the seizure lasts for less than five minutes, phone your GP or the NHS 24 111 service for advice. Don’t put anything, including medication, in your child’s mouth during a seizure because there’s a


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your GP or the NHS 24 111 service for advice. Don’t put anything, including medication, in your child’s mouth during a seizure because there’s a slight chance that they might bite their tongue. Almost all children make a complete recovery after having a febrile seizure. Read more about diagnosing febrile seizures and treating febrile seizures Types of febrile seizure There are two main types of febrile seizure. Simple febrile seizure A simple febrile seizure is the most common type of febrile seizure, accounting for about eight out of 10 cases. It’s a fit that: is a tonic clonic seizure (see above) lasts less than 15 minutes doesn’t reoccur within 24 hours or the period in which your child has an illness Complex febrile seizure Complex febrile seizures are less common, accounting for two out of 10 cases. A complex febrile seizure is any seizure that has one or more of the following features: the seizure lasts longer than 15 minutes your child only has symptoms in one part of their


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seizure that has one or more of the following features: the seizure lasts longer than 15 minutes your child only has symptoms in one part of their body (this is known as a partial or focal seizure) your child has another seizure within 24 hours of the first seizure, or during the same period of illness your child doesn’t fully recover from the seizure within one hour Why febrile seizures occur The cause of febrile seizures is unknown, although they’re linked to the start of a fever (a high temperature of 38C (100.4F) or above). In most cases, a high temperature is caused by an infection such as: chickenpox flu (influenza) middle ear infections (otitis media) tonsillitis There may also be a genetic link to febrile seizures because the chances of having a seizure are increased if a close family member has a history of them. Around one in four children affected by febrile seizures has a family history of the condition. Read more about the causes of febrile seizures Complications Febrile


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children affected by febrile seizures has a family history of the condition. Read more about the causes of febrile seizures Complications Febrile seizures have been linked to an increased risk of epilepsy, as well as other problems. Recent research findings may indicate a link between febrile seizures and sudden unexplained death in childhood (SUDC), possibly due to the connection between febrile seizures and epilepsy. However, this link hasn’t been proven and SUDC is incredibly rare, affecting around one in 100,000 children which is equivalent to a 0.001% chance. In addition, one of the biggest studies of its kind looked at more than 1.5 million children with a history of febrile seizures and found no evidence of an increased risk of death in later childhood or adulthood. Febrile seizures and epilepsy Many parents worry that if their child has one or more febrile seizures, they’ll develop epilepsy when they get older. Epilepsy is a condition where a person has repeated seizures


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child has one or more febrile seizures, they’ll develop epilepsy when they get older. Epilepsy is a condition where a person has repeated seizures without fever. While it’s true that children who have a history of febrile seizures have an increased risk of developing epilepsy, it should be stressed that the risk is still small. It’s estimated that children with a history of simple febrile seizures have a one in 50 chance of developing epilepsy in later life. Children with a history of complex febrile seizures have a one in 20 chance of developing epilepsy in later life. This is compared to around a one in 100 chance for people who haven’t had febrile seizures. Symptoms of febrile seizures The main symptom of a febrile seizure is a fit that occurs while a child has a fever. Febrile seizures often occur during the first day of a fever, which is defined as a high temperature of 38C (100.4F) or above. However, there appears to be no connection between the extent of your child’s fever and


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is defined as a high temperature of 38C (100.4F) or above. However, there appears to be no connection between the extent of your child’s fever and the start of a seizure. Seizures can occur even if your child has a mild fever. Simple febrile seizures can happen when there’s a rapid rise in temperature and you may only realise your child is ill when they have a fit. Alternatively, they can occur as your child’s temperature drops from a high level. During simple febrile seizures: your child’s body will become stiff and their arms and legs will begin to twitch they’ll lose consciousness and they may wet or soil themselves they may also vomit and foam at the mouth and their eyes may roll back the seizure usually lasts for less than five minutes following the seizure, your child may be sleepy for up to an hour afterwards Complex febrile seizures tend to last longer than 15 minutes, and the symptoms may only affect one area of your child’s body. The seizure sometimes recurs within 24 hours


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tend to last longer than 15 minutes, and the symptoms may only affect one area of your child’s body. The seizure sometimes recurs within 24 hours or during the period in which your child is ill. Seeking medical advice You should take your child to hospital or dial 999 for an ambulance if: your child is having a fit for the first time the seizure lasts longer than five minutes and shows no signs of stopping you suspect the seizure is being caused by another serious illness, for example meningitis your child is having breathing difficulties If your child has previously had febrile seizures, it’s recommended that you telephone your GP or call the NHS 24 111 service for advice. You should also contact your GP or the NHS 24 111 service if your child shows signs and symptoms of dehydration (a lack of fluid in the body). This includes: a dry mouth sunken eyes a lack of tears when crying a sunken fontanelle – the soft spot usually found at the top of a young child’s head Causes of febrile


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mouth sunken eyes a lack of tears when crying a sunken fontanelle – the soft spot usually found at the top of a young child’s head Causes of febrile seizures Febrile seizures are linked to fevers, but the exact cause is unknown. Some researchers think that the biological processes associated with a high temperature may be responsible. A high temperature is thought to be caused by a bacterial or viral infection that stimulates the release of cytokines. Cytokines are proteins that affect the parts of the brain and nervous system responsible for regulating the body’s temperature. Their release causes a rise in the body’s temperature. One theory is that in certain people, high levels of cytokines may temporarily ‘scramble’ the workings of the brain and nervous system, triggering a seizure. Family history Although febrile seizures are poorly understood, a family history of the conditions is thought to increase the risk. If a child has a first-degree relative (mother, father, sister or


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understood, a family history of the conditions is thought to increase the risk. If a child has a first-degree relative (mother, father, sister or brother) with a history of febrile seizures, their risk of having seizures increases. The more relatives affected, the higher the risk. This is probably the result of one or more genetic mutations that a child inherits from their parents, which makes them more susceptible to seizures. A genetic mutation means the instructions carried in certain genes become ‘scrambled’, resulting in some of the body’s processes not working in the normal way. Associated infections Most febrile seizures occur when a child has a high temperature caused by an infection. The three most common infections associated with febrile convulsions are: viral infections, such as chickenpox and flu middle ear infections (otitis media) tonsillitis Other infections associated with febrile seizures are: urinary tract infections (UTIs) upper respiratory tract infection – an


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media) tonsillitis Other infections associated with febrile seizures are: urinary tract infections (UTIs) upper respiratory tract infection – an infection of the mouth, nose and throat, and associated tissues and structures gastroenteritis – an infection of the digestive system lower respiratory tract infections, such as pneumonia (a lung infection) and bronchitis (an infection of the airways that supply the lungs) Vaccinations In rare cases, febrile seizures can occur after a child has a vaccination. Research has shown that your child has a one in 3,000 to 4,000 chance of having a febrile seizure after having the MMR vaccine. The risks are even lower with the DTaP/IPV/Hib vaccine – a one in 11,000 to 16,000. Diagnosing febrile seizures Febrile seizures can often be diagnosed from a description of what happened. Further tests may be needed if the cause of the associated infection isn’t clear. It’s unlikely that your doctor will see the seizure, so an account of what happened is


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needed if the cause of the associated infection isn’t clear. It’s unlikely that your doctor will see the seizure, so an account of what happened is useful. It’s useful to know: how long the seizure lasted what happened – body stiffening, twitching of the face, arms and legs, staring and loss of consciousness whether your child recovered within one hour whether they’ve had a seizure before Tests to identify the source of the infection will only usually be necessary to rule out rarer conditions which can cause similar symptoms, such as meningitis. A blood or urine sample may be needed to test for signs of infection. It can sometimes be difficult to obtain a urine sample from young children, so it may have to be done in hospital. Read more about blood tests Further tests Further tests may be carried out in hospital if your child’s symptoms are unusual – for example, if they don’t have a high temperature or their seizures don’t follow the normal pattern. Further testing and observation in


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unusual – for example, if they don’t have a high temperature or their seizures don’t follow the normal pattern. Further testing and observation in hospital is also usually recommended if your child is having complex febrile seizures. Your child may have other tests including an electroencephalogram and lumbar puncture, particularly if they’re less than 12 months old. These two tests are explained below. Electroencephalogram An electroencephalogram (EEG) measures your child’s electrical brain activity through electrodes that are placed on their scalp. Unusual patterns of brain activity can sometimes indicate epilepsy. However, some studies have suggested that an EEG may not be useful in many cases of febrile seizures. Lumbar puncture During a lumbar puncture, a small sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is removed for testing. CSF is a clear fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. A hollow needle is inserted into the base of the spine to obtain the CSF sample.


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a clear fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. A hollow needle is inserted into the base of the spine to obtain the CSF sample. During the procedure, local anaesthetic will be used to numb your child’s back so that they don’t feel any pain. A lumbar puncture can be used to determine whether your child has an infection of the brain or nervous system. Treating febrile seizures In many cases, febrile seizures do not need to be treated, although care should be taken to deal with a seizure as it happens. What to do during a seizure If your child is having a febrile seizure, place them in the recovery position. Lay them on their side, on a soft surface, with their face turned to one side. This will stop them swallowing any vomit, and will keep their airway open and help prevent injury. Stay with your child while they’re having a seizure, and make a note of when the seizure started to keep track of how long it lasts. If the seizure lasts for less than five minutes,


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having a seizure, and make a note of when the seizure started to keep track of how long it lasts. If the seizure lasts for less than five minutes, phone your GP or call the NHS 24 111 service. If it’s your child’s first seizure, or if it lasts longer than five minutes, take your child to the nearest hospital as soon as possible. While there’s probably nothing seriously wrong with your child, it’s best to be sure. Don’t put anything, including medication, in your child’s mouth while they’re having a seizure. There’s a slight chance that they might bite their tongue, although any damage isn’t usually serious and will heal within a few days. Trying to stop someone biting their tongue by placing your hand or an object in their mouth could be dangerous both for you and for them. High temperature (fever) Reducing a high temperature can help make your child feel more comfortable. Paracetamol and ibuprofen have been shown to be effective in reducing a high temperature. However, they won’t


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make your child feel more comfortable. Paracetamol and ibuprofen have been shown to be effective in reducing a high temperature. However, they won’t reduce the chances of your child actually having a seizure. Removing any unnecessary clothes and bedding will also help to lower your child’s temperature. Aspirin should never be given to children under 16 years of age because there’s a small risk that the medication could trigger a condition called Reye’s syndrome, which can cause brain and liver damage. The use of cold sponges or fans isn’t recommended for treating a high temperature. There’s little evidence that they’re effective, and they may cause your child discomfort. Your GP will be able to give you additional advice about treating the underlying cause of your child’s high temperature. It’s also important to prevent dehydration during a fever by making sure your child drinks plenty of fluids. Recurring febrile seizures About one third of children will have a febrile seizure again


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a fever by making sure your child drinks plenty of fluids. Recurring febrile seizures About one third of children will have a febrile seizure again during a subsequent infection. This often occurs within a year of the first febrile seizure. Recurrence is more likely if: the first febrile seizure occurred before your child was 18 months old there’s a history of seizures or epilepsy in your family before having the first seizure your child had a fever that lasted less than one hour or their temperature was less than 40C (104F) your child has multiple seizures during the same febrile episode (complex febrile seizure) your child attends a day care nursery (this increases their chances of developing common childhood infections, such as the flu or chickenpox) It’s not recommended that your child is given a prescription of regular medicines to prevent further febrile seizures. This is because the adverse side effects associated with many medicines outweigh any risks of the seizures


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to prevent further febrile seizures. This is because the adverse side effects associated with many medicines outweigh any risks of the seizures themselves. Research has shown that the use of medication to control fever isn’t likely to prevent recurrence of further febrile seizures. However, there may be exceptional circumstances where medication to prevent recurrent febrile seizures is recommended. For example, children may need medication if they have a low threshold for having seizures during illness, particularly if the seizures are prolonged. In this case, your child may be prescribed medications such as diazepam or lorazepam to take at the start of a fever. Children who’ve had a febrile seizure following a routine vaccination (which is very rare), are no more at risk of having another seizure compared to children who’ve had a seizure due to another cause for fever. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 03 June 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us


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seizure due to another cause for fever. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 03 June 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/ears-nose-and-throat/feeling-of-something-in-your-throat-globus/


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Fever in adults | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Infections and poisoning Fever in adults Fever in adults Return to Symptoms Enter age Last Updated: Next Review Date: Review my answers Find your local services Search for a service near you by entering your postcode below. Please input your postcode in the following format: A12 1BC GP Practices Dental Services Pharmacies Opticians Postcode Search NHS inform has more information on this condition. Read more Previous Start guide Review my answers × You told us your credentials were: : You said: Based on the information you gave us, we made the following recommendation: Close Keep a copy View PDF A fever is usually when your body temperature is 38°C or higher. You may feel warm, cold or shivery. You can find out if you have a fever (high temperature) by using a thermometer to take your


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is 38°C or higher. You may feel warm, cold or shivery. You can find out if you have a fever (high temperature) by using a thermometer to take your temperature. You should try to stay at home and avoid other people if you have a high temperature, to avoid spreading potential illness. There is a separate page on fever in children. Fever in adults self-help guide Complete our self-help guide to check your symptoms and find out what to do next. When to get medical advice Contact your GP practice immediately if: You have a fever and you: have a weakened immune system are on immune-suppressant drugs, such as regular steroids, methotrexate, azathioprine or cyclophosphamide are on, or recently completed, treatment for cancer, leukaemia or lymphoma are a transplant recipient are HIV positive have chronic lung disease have asthma which has been treated with medication in the last 3 years have heart disease (excluding blood pressure which is currently well controlled) have diabetes or another


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treated with medication in the last 3 years have heart disease (excluding blood pressure which is currently well controlled) have diabetes or another metabolic disease have chronic gastrointestinal or liver disease have chronic renal (kidney) disease have cystic fibrosis have neurological conditions such as cerebral palsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis or muscular dystrophy have sickle cell disease If your GP practice is closed, you can phone NHS 24 on 111. Contact your GP practice if: you have severe thirst or are peeing less your pee is darker than normal you are lightheaded or weak you have new, severe muscle cramps your symptoms have worsened or you notice new symptoms you’ve had a fever after recent foreign travel If your GP practice is closed, phone 111. Treatment for a fever Most fevers will improve on their own in a few days. There are a things you can do to help your symptoms. Do get lots of rest wear loose, comfortable clothing make sure the room you are in isn’t too warm drink


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a things you can do to help your symptoms. Do get lots of rest wear loose, comfortable clothing make sure the room you are in isn’t too warm drink more fluids (water is best) so you don’t get dehydrated – drink enough so your pee is light yellow and clear avoid alcohol as this can make dehydration worse take a medicine that reduces fever such as paracetamol (unless you’re allergic or have been told by a healthcare professional that you can’t take it) Don’t do not wear too many layers of clothing do not attempt to make yourself feel cold What causes a fever? A fever is your body’s natural response to many common illnesses such as: flu tonsillitis kidney or urinary tract infections (UTIs) Fever helps your body fight infections by stimulating your immune system (your body’s natural defence). By increasing your body’s temperature, a fever makes it harder for the bacteria and viruses that cause infections to survive. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 29 October


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makes it harder for the bacteria and viruses that cause infections to survive. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 29 October 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Self-help guide: Fever in babies Coronavirus (COVID-19) NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/healthy-living/womens-health/girls-and-young-women-puberty-to-around-25/periods-and-menstrual-health/fibroids/


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Fibroids | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Healthy living Women's health Girls and young women (puberty to around 25) Periods and menstrual health Fibroids Fibroids العربية | 简体中文 | Polski | ਪੰਜਾਬੀ | اردو | British Sign Language (BSL) | Easy Read Fibroids are non-cancerous growths that develop in the muscular wall of the womb (uterus). These growths are made up of muscle and tissue and can be different sizes. Some can be the size of a pea, others can be the size of a melon. They’re sometimes known as uterine myomas or leiomyomas. Fibroids are common. Around 1 in 3 people who menstruate develop them at some point in their life. They’re more common as you get older. Symptoms Many people don’t know that they have fibroids because they don’t have any symptoms. This is nothing to worry about. Speak to your doctor if: You’re worried about your symptoms or you


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fibroids because they don’t have any symptoms. This is nothing to worry about. Speak to your doctor if: You’re worried about your symptoms or you regularly have: heavy periods painful periods tummy (abdominal) pain lower back pain a frequent need to urinate constipation pain or discomfort during sex symptoms which are affecting your day to day life If your doctor thinks you might have fibroids, they’ll usually refer you for an ultrasound scan to confirm the diagnosis. Symptom questionnaire You can use our menstrual health symptom questionnaire (PDF, 421KB) to keep a note of your symptoms and how you’re feeling. You can print it and talk about it with your healthcare professional to help them understand the different symptoms you’re experiencing. Complete the symptom questionnaire Why fibroids develop The exact cause of fibroids is unknown. They’re linked to the hormones produced by the ovaries, oestrogen and progesterone. Fibroids usually develop and grow as long as the ovaries are


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They’re linked to the hormones produced by the ovaries, oestrogen and progesterone. Fibroids usually develop and grow as long as the ovaries are producing these hormones. Fibroids may continue to grow during pregnancy. They tend to shrink when these hormone levels fall, such as after the menopause. Types of fibroids There are different types of fibroid. The main types of fibroids are: intramural – the most common type of fibroid, these develop in the muscular wall of the womb subserosal – fibroids that develop on the outside part of the wall of the womb and can become very large submucosal – fibroids that develop in the muscular layer of the womb beneath the womb’s inner lining (endometrium) and grow into the inside of the womb pedunculated – subserosal or submucosal fibroids that are attached to the womb with a narrow stalk of tissue Treatment Fibroids will often shrink after the menopause, as hormone levels in your body change. If you have fibroids, but you’re not affected by any


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Treatment Fibroids will often shrink after the menopause, as hormone levels in your body change. If you have fibroids, but you’re not affected by any symptoms then you don’t need treatment. However, if you do have symptoms, your doctor can recommend the right treatment for you. Treatment options include: over-the-counter pain relief like ibuprofen the contraceptive pill which can reduce heavy menstrual bleeding medication taken only during your period that can reduce heavy menstrual bleeding medicines that can shrink fibroids by lowering your oestrogen and progesterone levels in rare cases, surgery Your doctor will discuss these treatments with you and you can ask any questions that you might have. Fibroids and getting pregnant If you’re having difficulty getting pregnant, your doctor or specialist may suggest extra support or treatments that can help. Your doctor will discuss these with you and you can ask any questions that you might have. Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new


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that can help. Your doctor will discuss these with you and you can ask any questions that you might have. Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 11 April 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Other languages and formats العربية | 简体中文 | Polski | ਪੰਜਾਬੀ | اردو | British Sign Language (BSL) | Easy Read العربية | 简体中文 | Polski | ਪੰਜਾਬੀ | اردو | British Sign Language (BSL) | Easy Read Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Periods (menstruation) Self-help tool: Periods and mental wellbeing Other health sites NICE: heavy menstrual bleeding NICE: hysteroscopic morcellation of fibroids NICE: MRI-guided percutaneous laser ablation of fibroids NICE: MRI-guided transcutaneous ultrasound for fibroids NICE: uterine


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of fibroids NICE: MRI-guided percutaneous laser ablation of fibroids NICE: MRI-guided transcutaneous ultrasound for fibroids NICE: uterine artery embolisation for fibroids Pelvic Pain Support Network British Fibroid Trust Fertility Network UK Wellbeing of Women: Period Symptom Checker NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/chronic-pain/fibromyalgia/


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Flu | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Infections and poisoning Flu Flu Return to Symptoms Enter age Last Updated: Next Review Date: Review my answers Find your local services Search for a service near you by entering your postcode below. Please input your postcode in the following format: A12 1BC GP Practices Dental Services Pharmacies Opticians Postcode Search NHS inform has more information on this condition. Read more Previous Start guide Review my answers × You told us your credentials were: : You said: Based on the information you gave us, we made the following recommendation: Close Keep a copy View PDF Flu (influenza) is a common infectious viral illness. You can catch flu all year round, but it’s especially common in winter. This is why it’s also known as seasonal flu. You can catch flu many times because flu viruses change


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round, but it’s especially common in winter. This is why it’s also known as seasonal flu. You can catch flu many times because flu viruses change regularly. Your body won’t have a natural resistance to the new versions. Flu symptoms Some of the main symptoms of flu include: a sudden high temperature tiredness and weakness a headache general aches and pains a dry, chesty cough sore throat difficulty sleeping loss of appetite diarrhoea or tummy pain feeling sick and being sick chills a runny or blocked nose sneezing The symptoms are similar for children. They may also get pain in their ear and be less active. How long do symptoms last The symptoms of flu usually develop 1 to 3 days after becoming infected. Most people will feel better within a week. But, you may have a lingering cough and still feel very tired for a few more weeks. Flu-like illness self-help guide Complete our self-help guide to check your symptoms and find out what to do next. Phone 999 or go to A&E if: you have severe


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illness self-help guide Complete our self-help guide to check your symptoms and find out what to do next. Phone 999 or go to A&E if: you have severe difficulty breathing – for example, you struggle to speak without pausing, gasping or choking you have severe chest pain in the middle of your chest that isn’t going away – it may feel like pressure, tightness or squeezing you have pain that spreads to your arms, back, neck and jaw you feel more drowsy than usual or find it more difficult to wake up your lips or skin are turning very pale, blue or grey – on brown or black skin this is easier to see on the palms of your hands Contact your GP practice urgently if you: are more short of breath than usual have pain when breathing in or coughing are feeling confused, dizzy, or lightheaded feel sick or are being sick – for example, you can’t keep food or fluids down are coughing up blood (haemoptysis) have heart palpitations – this may feel like your heart is racing, going too slowly or


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keep food or fluids down are coughing up blood (haemoptysis) have heart palpitations – this may feel like your heart is racing, going too slowly or skipping a beat or like a fluttering feeling in your chest are peeing less than usual – this can be a sign of dehydration have a very high or low temperature – for example, you feel either hot or cold to touch or you’re shivering If your GP practice is closed, phone 111. Get advice from a pharmacist A pharmacist can give you advice about how to treat flu. Find your nearest pharmacy Treating flu at home If you have flu, there are things you can do to help you recover more quickly. Do rest get plenty of sleep keep warm drink lots of water to avoid dehydration take paracetamol or ibuprofen to lower your temperature and treat aches and pains stay off work or school until you feel better Don’t do not take paracetamol and flu remedies that contain paracetamol at the same time GPs don’t recommend antibiotics for flu. They won’t relieve your


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do not take paracetamol and flu remedies that contain paracetamol at the same time GPs don’t recommend antibiotics for flu. They won’t relieve your symptoms or speed up your recovery. Preventing the spread of flu Flu is spread by germs from coughs and sneezes. These can live on hands and surfaces for 24 hours. You can help stop yourself catching flu or spreading it to others with good hygiene measures. Do wash your hands regularly with soap and warm water clean surfaces like your computer keyboard, telephone and door handles regularly use tissues to cover your mouth and nose when you cough or sneeze bin used tissues as soon as possible avoid unnecessary contact with other people while you’re infectious stay off work or school until you’re feeling better How to wash your hands properly Help to keep germs at bay by washing your hands properly. The difference between flu and a cold It can sometimes be difficult to tell if you have flu or a cold. Flu symptoms: come on quickly usually


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The difference between flu and a cold It can sometimes be difficult to tell if you have flu or a cold. Flu symptoms: come on quickly usually include fever and aching muscles are more severe Cold symptoms: come on gradually mainly affect your nose and throat are fairly mild, so you can still get around and are usually well enough to go to work Flu vaccine The annual flu vaccine can help reduce your risk of getting flu each year. It’s offered every year for free by the NHS to help protect people at risk of flu and its complications. Further information about the flu vaccine for adults Further information about the flu vaccine for children Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 18 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add


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e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform If your child has cold or flu symptoms NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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Food poisoning | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Infections and poisoning Food poisoning Food poisoning Food poisoning is an illness caused by eating contaminated food. It’s not usually serious and most people get better within a few days without treatment. In most cases, food is contaminated by bacteria or a virus like: campylobacter – the most common cause of food poisoning salmonella Escherichia coli (E. coli) norovirus listeria Food Standards Scotland has further information about bacteria and viruses that can cause food poisoning. Symptoms of food poisoning Symptoms of food poisoning include: feeling sick (nausea) being sick (vomiting) diarrhoea, which may contain blood or mucus stomach cramps and abdominal pain a lack of energy and weakness loss of appetite a high temperature of 38C or above (fever) aching muscles chills The


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stomach cramps and abdominal pain a lack of energy and weakness loss of appetite a high temperature of 38C or above (fever) aching muscles chills The symptoms of food poisoning usually begin within 1 to 2 days of eating contaminated food. They can also start a few hours later or several weeks later. What to do if you have food poisoning Do stay off school or work until you have not been sick or had diarrhoea for at least 2 days rest drink lots of water to prevent dehydration – you can sip it if this is easier consider speaking to your pharmacist about an oral rehydration solution (ORS) eat when you feel up to it – try small, light meals eat bland foods like toast, crackers, banana and rice until you feel better avoid alcohol, caffeine, fizzy drinks, spice and fatty foods – they may make you feel worse Speak to a GP if you: have a weak immune system – for example, because of medication, cancer treatment or HIV have severe symptoms are pregnant don’t start to see improvements to your


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immune system – for example, because of medication, cancer treatment or HIV have severe symptoms are pregnant don’t start to see improvements to your symptoms after a few days are unable to keep down any fluids because you’re vomiting repeatedly have symptoms of severe dehydration, like confusion, a rapid heartbeat, sunken eyes and passing little or no urine are over 60 think your baby or young child has food poisoning have a long-term underlying condition, like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), diabetes or kidney disease How you get food poisoning Food poisoning is caused by eating something that’s been contaminated with germs. Any type of food can cause food poisoning. Food can be contaminated if it’s not cooked or reheated thoroughly not stored correctly – for example, it’s not been frozen or chilled left out for too long handled by someone who’s ill or hasn’t washed their hands eaten after its ‘use by’ date not reheating cooked food well enough Further information on preparing and


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who’s ill or hasn’t washed their hands eaten after its ‘use by’ date not reheating cooked food well enough Further information on preparing and cooking food safely Preventing infection when you’re ill Do try to keep contact with vulnerable people to a minimum, for example the very young or elderly wash your hands with soap and warm water often clean surfaces, toilet seats, flush handles, basins and taps often make sure everyone in the household has their own towels and flannels wash the laundry of the infected person on the hottest washing machine setting Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 10 January 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Preparing and cooking food safely Other


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Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Also on NHS inform Preparing and cooking food safely Other health sites FSA: Find your local environmental health officer FSA: food hygiene ratings Food Standards Scotland: Food safety and hygeine NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/muscle-bone-and-joints/leg-and-foot-problems-and-conditions/fragility-fracture-of-the-hip/


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/muscle-bone-and-joints/arm-shoulder-and-hand-problems-and-conditions/frozen-shoulder/


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/brain-nerves-and-spinal-cord/functional-neurological-disorder/


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Functional neurological disorder (FND) | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Brain, nerves and spinal cord Functional neurological disorder Functional neurological disorder Functional neurological disorder (FND) describes a problem with how the brain receives and sends information to the rest of the body. It’s often helpful to think of your brain as a computer. In someone who has FND, there’s no damage to the hardware, or structure, of the brain. It’s the software, or program running on the computer, that isn’t working properly. The problems that cause FND are going on in a level of the brain that you cannot control. It includes symptoms like arm and leg weakness and seizures. Other symptoms like fatigue or pain are not directly caused by FND, but are often found alongside it. Symptoms of FND FND can have many symptoms that can vary from


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like fatigue or pain are not directly caused by FND, but are often found alongside it. Symptoms of FND FND can have many symptoms that can vary from person to person. Some people may have few symptoms, and some people may have many. A diagnosis of FND should be made because you have one or more clinical features that a specialist can recognise as typical of FND. It shouldn’t be made just because scans or tests for other neurological conditions that have similar symptoms are normal. What is a clinical feature? A clinical feature is a distinctive way that your symptom presents that is unique to FND. For example, it could be that your eyes close during seizures, or that limb weakness briefly disappears during certain physical tests. Clinical features are what specialists use to identify FND from other neurological conditions with similar symptoms. Functional limb weakness Functional limb weakness is when a leg or an arm doesn’t work properly. In FND, this happens because of a problem


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symptoms. Functional limb weakness Functional limb weakness is when a leg or an arm doesn’t work properly. In FND, this happens because of a problem with how the nervous system is functioning. It can cause a range of symptoms, including: problems walking heaviness down one side dropping things feeling like a limb isn’t part of you Functional limb weakness can often look a symptoms of a stroke or multiple sclerosis. If you have FND, any scans you have will show no damage to the brain to explain the weakness. A specialist will diagnose functional limb weakness based on specific clinical features (symptoms) they find when they examine you. Read more about functional limb weakness Functional seizures A functional seizure (also called a dissociative seizure) is an episode where someone loses either their awareness of, or their ability to interact with, their surroundings. It may look like an epileptic seizure or a faint. A functional seizure can appear as: uncontrolled shaking suddenly


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with, their surroundings. It may look like an epileptic seizure or a faint. A functional seizure can appear as: uncontrolled shaking suddenly going motionless and unresponsive staring without responding to surroundings Some people are aware that seizures are about to happen, while others experience them without warning. A specialist will ask you and your friends or family about what happens during a seizure, and will look at any video footage you can provide. They’ll use this evidence to decide if it’s epilepsy, a faint or a functional seizure. Read more about functional seizures Functional tremor Tremor is uncontrollable shaking of part of the body. It’s most often found in the arms and legs. Functional tremor can come and go throughout the day, and change in speed and strength. A specialist will diagnose functional tremor based on specific features of your symptoms that they find when they examine you. Read more about functional tremor Functional dystonia Functional dystonia is a


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features of your symptoms that they find when they examine you. Read more about functional tremor Functional dystonia Functional dystonia is a type of muscle spasm. It causes a part of the body to become stuck in an unusual position. This can be for a short or a long period of time. Someone with functional dystonia will often present with curled fingers, a clenched hand, or an ankle that turns in. Read more about functional dystonia Functional gait disorder Functional gait disorder describes the problems walking that you may experience as part of FND. You may find you have a dragging leg, that you feel unsteady when walking, or that you make excessive movements when walking. A specialist will diagnose functional gait disorder based on clinical features, like the way your walking changes when doing different activities. Read more about functional gait disorder Functional facial spasm Functional facial spasm is when there are muscle spasms in the face. These can lead to problems like a


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gait disorder Functional facial spasm Functional facial spasm is when there are muscle spasms in the face. These can lead to problems like a narrowing of the eye or the pulling of the mouth or jaw upwards, downwards or to the side. Read more about functional facial spasm Functional tics A tic is a fast repetitive movement or sound that happens suddenly. Functional tics can be a symptom of FND. Functional tics can look similar to the tics in Tourette’s syndrome. A specialist will look at the clinical features of your tics to make a diagnosis. It’s quite common to have both functional tics and Tourette’s syndrome. Functional jerks and twitches A symptom of FND can be jerks or twitches, which is when someone makes sudden movements. Everyone experiences random jerks occasionally, like when you jolt awake as you’re falling asleep. In FND, however, these uncontrolled jerks and twitches can become much more frequent. Read more about functional jerks and twitches Functional drop attacks


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however, these uncontrolled jerks and twitches can become much more frequent. Read more about functional jerks and twitches Functional drop attacks Functional drop attacks are when someone falls to the ground suddenly, without losing consciousness. Read more about functional drop attacks Functional sensory symptoms A symptom of FND can be numbness, pins and needles, or a feeling that a limb isn’t part of your body. Read more about functional sensory symptoms Functional cognitive symptoms Problems with your memory or concentration can be a symptom of FND. You might find that you: lose track while doing things, for example being unable to remember why you went into a room go blank, for example when trying to recall your pin number lose track during conversations misplace important things, like your keys or phone forget words It’s normal to experience these things occasionally. For someone with functional cognitive symptoms, these things happen so often that they interfere with work and


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experience these things occasionally. For someone with functional cognitive symptoms, these things happen so often that they interfere with work and home life. The cognitive symptoms of FND can sometimes be mistaken for dementia. Specialists will look for features that are typical of functional cognitive symptoms when diagnosing FND. Read more about functional cognitive symptoms Functional speech and swallowing difficulties Functional speech and swallowing difficulties can be a symptom of FND. You might experience: slurred speech a new stutter difficulties finding the right word unintentionally mixing words up whispering or hoarse speech (dysphonia) difficulty swallowing, including feeling like there’s something stuck in your throat A specialist will diagnose functional speech and swallowing difficulties based on specific features. Read more about functional speech and swallowing difficulties Persistent postural perceptual dizziness (PPPD) PPPD (sometimes called functional dizziness,


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more about functional speech and swallowing difficulties Persistent postural perceptual dizziness (PPPD) PPPD (sometimes called functional dizziness, triple PD or 3PD) can be a symptom of FND. The dizziness in PPPD is typically experienced constantly, and gets worse while walking or in crowded environments. There are many causes of dizziness. Most people with PPPD have another cause of dizziness at the same time. A specialist will diagnose PPPD based on specific features when they assess you. Read more about PPPD Functional visual symptoms Visual symptoms can be a part of FND. You may experience changes to your vision, like: blurred vision double vision photophobia (sensitivity to light) reduced vision A specialist will diagnose functional visual symptoms based on specific features that they find when they examine you. Read more about functional visual symptoms Dissociative symptoms Dissociative symptoms are common in FND, although there are many other causes. These symptoms can be


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functional visual symptoms Dissociative symptoms Dissociative symptoms are common in FND, although there are many other causes. These symptoms can be hard to describe, but are often described as feeling: that your body is disconnected from you that your body doesn’t belong to you disconnected from the world around you spaced out that you are floating that you are having an out-of-body experience there but not there You may also be able to hear what’s going on around you, but not be able to respond. These experiences are called dissociation, and can link into other FND symptoms. Read more about dissociative symptoms There are other symptoms or conditions that are commonly associated with FND. These include: chronic pain, including fibromyalgia, back and neck pain, and complex regional pain syndrome persistent fatigue sleep problems including insomnia (not sleeping enough) and hypersomnia (sleeping too much) migraines and other types of headache and facial pain irritable bowel syndrome


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insomnia (not sleeping enough) and hypersomnia (sleeping too much) migraines and other types of headache and facial pain irritable bowel syndrome and other problems with the function of your stomach and bowel anxiety and panic attacks depression post-traumatic stress disorder chronic urinary retention despite all tests being normal (which may be diagnosed as Fowlers syndrome) dysfunctional breathing What causes FND? We know that the symptoms of FND happen because there’s a problem with how the brain is sending and receiving messages to itself and other parts of the body. Using research tools, scientists can see that certain circuits in the brain are not working properly in people with FND. However, there’s still a lot of research to be done to understand how and why FND happens. Why does FND happen? FND can happen for a wide range of reasons. There’s often more than one reason, and the reasons can vary hugely from person to person. Some of the reasons why the brain stops working


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reasons. There’s often more than one reason, and the reasons can vary hugely from person to person. Some of the reasons why the brain stops working properly in FND include: the brain trying to get rid of a painful sensation a migraine or other neurological symptom the brain shutting down a part or all of the body in response to a situation it thinks is threatening In some people, stressful events in the past or present can be relevant to FND. In others, stress is not relevant. The risk of developing FND increases if you have another neurological condition. Read more about how and why FND happens. Diagnosing FND When diagnosing FND, your healthcare provider will carry out an assessment to see if there are typical clinical features of FND. Your healthcare provider may still choose to test for other diseases and conditions before diagnosing FND. This is because many conditions share the same symptoms and, in around a quarter of cases, FND is present alongside another neurological


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FND. This is because many conditions share the same symptoms and, in around a quarter of cases, FND is present alongside another neurological condition. Someone can have both FND and conditions like sciatica, carpal tunnel syndrome, epilepsy, or multiple sclerosis (MS). The diagnosis of FND, however, should be given because you have the clinical features of FND. It shouldn’t be given just because there’s no evidence of other conditions or illnesses. Because the symptoms of FND are not always there, your healthcare provider may ask you to video your symptoms. This will allow them to see what your symptoms look like. Treatments FND is a really variable condition. Some people have quite short-lived symptoms. Others can have them for many years. There are treatments available that can manage and improve FND. These treatments are all forms of rehabilitation therapy, which aims to improve your ability to carry out every day activities. Many of these treatments are designed to ‘retrain the


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rehabilitation therapy, which aims to improve your ability to carry out every day activities. Many of these treatments are designed to ‘retrain the brain’. Some people with FND benefit a lot from treatment and may go into remission. Other people continue to have FND symptoms despite treatment. Physiotherapy Specialised physiotherapy can be useful in treating FND. It helps to remind the body how it should move. It can also help you build up strength and stamina you may have lost. Read more about physiotherapy for FND Occupational therapy Occupational therapy can be helpful in treating FND. An occupational therapist will work with you to plan your treatment goals, and gradually build your confidence and ability to reach them. Read more about occupational therapy for FND Psychological therapy Psychological therapy can be helpful to many people with FND, even those without stress in their lives. It can help you gain a better understanding of FND and its relationship to your personal


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people with FND, even those without stress in their lives. It can help you gain a better understanding of FND and its relationship to your personal circumstances. There are specific psychological techniques which can help you gain better control over movement or seizure symptoms. Psychological therapy can also help you learn to manage low mood, anxiety and past traumatic events, as well as other psychological problems (if present). Not everyone with FND will need psychological therapy. Read more about psychological therapy for FND Speech, language and swallowing therapy Speech and language therapists are available to help if you’re struggling with speaking or swallowing. They have a range of techniques to try, designed to help with specific problems. These might include helping you to shape certain sounds, or to practice breathing patterns as you try to talk. Read more about speech and language therapy for FND Medication Medication can play a role in treating the some of the problems


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as you try to talk. Read more about speech and language therapy for FND Medication Medication can play a role in treating the some of the problems associated with FND, like pain, depression and anxiety. Your healthcare provider can help decide if medication is right for you. There are many types of medication that can make FND worse, including opiates like morphine, dihydrocodeine or codeine. It may be worth discussing your current medications with your healthcare provider. Do not stop taking any medicine that’s been prescribed without checking with your GP or healthcare provider first. You could make yourself very ill. Read more about treating FND FND in children and young people FND is broadly the same condition in children and young people. It’s unusual for it to occur under the age of 10. It becomes more common through the teenage years. The treatment for FND in children and young people is similar to adults. It’s especially important for families and schools to learn about the


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years. The treatment for FND in children and young people is similar to adults. It’s especially important for families and schools to learn about the condition, so they can respond in the most helpful way. Where to find support If you’ve been diagnosed with FND there are sources of information, charities and support groups that can help you. The Neurosymptoms FND Guide has more detailed information. There’s also an app available with further details about the condition. My FND is an app that allows you to learn about your symptoms. It helps you track them, and offers advice for managing them. FND Hope UK is a charity that raises awareness of FND. It provides further information, resources, and support services for those with FND. FND Action is a charity that provides information on FND and support for those with a diagnosis. Source: Scottish Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 26 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your


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Government - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 26 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Other health sites Neurosymptoms FND Guide My FND FND Hope UK FND Action NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/cancer/cancer-types-in-adults/gallbladder-cancer/


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Gallbladder cancer | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Cancer Cancer types in adults Gallbladder cancer Gallbladder cancer Gallbladder cancer is very rare. There are a number of different types of gallbladder cancer, depending on the cells affected. Over 85% of gallbladder cancers are adenocarcinoma, which means the cancer started in the gland cells lining the gallbladder. Cancer that starts in the skin-like cells that line the gallbladder is known as squamous cell cancer. The Cancer Research UK website has more information about the different types of gallbladder cancer. Cancer of the gallbladder is more common in women than men, with around 7 out of 10 cases diagnosed in women. It’s also more common in older people, particularly those over 70 years of age. The gallbladder The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ that’s located


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more common in older people, particularly those over 70 years of age. The gallbladder The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ that’s located underneath the liver. It’s main purpose is to store and concentrate bile. Bile is a liquid produced by the liver that helps to digest fats. It passes from the liver through a series of channels (bile ducts) into the gallbladder, where it’s stored. Over time, bile becomes more concentrated, which makes it better at digesting fats. The gallbladder releases bile into the digestive system when it’s needed. The gallbladder is a useful but not essential organ, which can be safely removed without interfering with your ability to digest food. Symptoms of gallbladder cancer In the early stages, gallbladder cancer doesn’t cause symptoms, which means it could be at an advanced stage by the time it’s diagnosed. Symptoms that occur at a later stage can include: abdominal (stomach) pain feeling sick jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes)


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Symptoms that occur at a later stage can include: abdominal (stomach) pain feeling sick jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes) These symptoms could be linked to a number of conditions and may not be related to gallbladder cancer. However, if you have these symptoms, you should speak to your GP so they can investigate what’s causing them. Other possible symptoms of gallbladder cancer can include loss of appetite, unexplained weight loss and a swollen stomach. What causes gallbladder cancer? In gallbladder cancer, abnormal cells grow within the gallbladder. It’s not known why this happens, but certain things are thought to increase your chances of developing the condition. Gallbladder cancer is more common in older people, and your chances of developing it increase with age. Lifestyle factors – such as obesity, smoking and an unhealthy diet – are believed to increase the risk of gallbladder cancer. However, there’s not enough evidence to show a firm link between diet


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an unhealthy diet – are believed to increase the risk of gallbladder cancer. However, there’s not enough evidence to show a firm link between diet and gallbladder cancer. There are also a number of conditions that can increase your chances of developing gallbladder cancer. For example, gallstones, cholecystitis (inflammation of the gallbladder) and diabetes have been closely linked to the condition. If you have a family history of gallstones, cholecystitis, or gallbladder cancer, you’re more likely to develop these conditions yourself. The Cancer Research UK website has more information about the risks and causes of gallbladder cancer. Diagnosing gallbladder cancer Your GP will examine you and ask about your symptoms. If they suspect gallbladder cancer, they may refer you to a specialist, usually a gastroenterologist (a doctor who specialises in conditions of the digestive system). The specialist will ask about your medical history and check to see whether the lymph glands in your


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in conditions of the digestive system). The specialist will ask about your medical history and check to see whether the lymph glands in your neck and groin are swollen. You may also have some initial tests, including: blood tests an ultrasound scan a computerised tomography (CT) scan If these tests reveal anything abnormal in or around your gallbladder, further tests may be arranged to help confirm whether you have gallbladder cancer. These may include: an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) a magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) biopsy and fine needle aspiration (FNA) The Cancer Research UK website has more information about tests for gallbladder cancer. Treating gallbladder cancer The main treatment for gallbladder cancer is surgery to remove the gallbladder and possibly some of the surrounding tissue. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are also sometimes used, either on their own or in combination with surgery. The treatment programme that’s most suitable


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and radiotherapy are also sometimes used, either on their own or in combination with surgery. The treatment programme that’s most suitable for you will depend on: the type of gallbladder cancer you have the stage of your cancer your overall level of health As with all cancers, the chances of survival depend on how far the condition has advanced when it is diagnosed. The Cancer Research UK website has more information about treating gallbladder cancer and the stages and outlook for gallbladder cancer. Source: NHS 24 - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 14 October 2024 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me Other health sites Cancer Research UK: Gallbladder cancer Macmillan Cancer Support: Gallbladder cancer Scottish


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feedback Add this page to Info For Me Other health sites Cancer Research UK: Gallbladder cancer Macmillan Cancer Support: Gallbladder cancer Scottish Cancer Network: Patient information Search for cancer support services near you Enter a place or postcode NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/gallstones/


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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/muscle-bone-and-joints/arm-shoulder-and-hand-problems-and-conditions/ganglion-cyst/


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Ganglion cyst | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Muscle, bone and joints Arm, shoulder and hand problems and conditions Ganglion cyst Ganglion cyst Ganglion cysts are fluid-filled lumps that can change in size. The most common type of swelling is in the hand, wrist or foot. They tend to be smooth and round. They are usually harmless and can safely be left alone. If you still have concerns about any lump or swelling you should contact your GP practice. Symptoms of ganglion cysts If you have a ganglion cyst the swelling can become noticeable, but often there are no other symptoms. Sometimes a ganglion can cause pain and limit movement in your joint. The pain is usually caused by pressure being applied to the ganglion. Some people are also concerned about the cyst’s appearance. Most symptoms settle with time. Diagnosing ganglion cysts


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being applied to the ganglion. Some people are also concerned about the cyst’s appearance. Most symptoms settle with time. Diagnosing ganglion cysts Ganglion cysts have a very distinct appearance. Ganglion cyst on the back of the wrist Ganglion cyst on the front of the wrist Ganglion cyst on the ankle These cysts are normally harmless and don’t usually need any treatment. Contact your GP if: the ganglion: continues to increase in size restricts function becomes hard becomes irregular in shape becomes painful Giving a diagnosis is usually straightforward. Scans are rarely needed but can be helpful if the diagnosis is uncertain. Causes of ganglion cysts A ganglion cyst starts when the fluid from a joint or tendon collects and forms a jelly-filled sac beneath the skin. It’s not known why this happens but they can be common. Types of ganglion cysts Ganglion cysts can form: at the back of the wrist – these often disappear without treatment at the front of the wrist at the base of the


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cysts Ganglion cysts can form: at the back of the wrist – these often disappear without treatment at the front of the wrist at the base of the finger – these tend to be firmer, and pea-like in shape at the top of the foot Treating ganglion cysts Most ganglion cysts disappear on their own, without treatment. In the early stages, you should wait to see if this happens. Pain may be related to the pressure being applied to the ganglion. You could adapt your hand position for activities to see if that helps. It’s important to use your hand or foot as normally as you can to avoid the area getting stiff or weak. Aspiration Your healthcare professional may consider aspiration of the ganglion cyst, if appropriate. It’s a procedure where they will remove fluid from the ganglion with a needle and syringe. Surgery You may be referred for surgery if the ganglion is causing significant pain or affects function. The surgery may be carried out under either local or general anaesthetic. As with any


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the ganglion is causing significant pain or affects function. The surgery may be carried out under either local or general anaesthetic. As with any surgery there are associated risks. Your healthcare professional will discuss these with you. After any treatment, there’s a possibility the ganglion may come back. Source: The NHS 24 MSK Clinical Advisory Group - Opens in new browser window Last updated: 06 February 2025 How can we improve this page? Help us improve NHS inform Thank You Your feedback has been received Don’t include personal information e.g. name, location or any personal health conditions. Email Address e.g. you@example.com Message Maximum of 500 characters Send feedback Add this page to Info For Me NHS inform About NHS inform Editorial policy Contact us Webchat Give feedback about NHS inform Info for Me tool Terms and conditions Privacy and cookies policy Freedom of information (FOI) Accessibility Other languages and formats © 2025 NHS 24 – v1.1.1.17852


key: source
string_value:
https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/gastro-oesophageal-reflux-disease-gord/


key: source
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https://www.nhsinform.scot/illnesses-and-conditions/stomach-liver-and-gastrointestinal-tract/gastroenteritis/


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Gastroenteritis | NHS inform Home Illnesses and conditions Symptoms and self-help Tests and treatments Healthy living Care, support and rights Scotland’s Service Directory 0 Home Illnesses and conditions Stomach, liver and gastrointestinal tract Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis is a very common condition that causes diarrhoea and vomiting. It’s usually caused by a bacterial or viral tummy bug. It affects people of all ages, but is particularly common in young children. Most cases in children are caused by a virus called rotavirus. Cases in adults are usually caused by norovirus (the ‘winter vomiting bug’) or bacterial food poisoning. Gastroenteritis can be very unpleasant, but it usually clears up by itself within a week. You can normally look after yourself or your child at home until you’re feeling better. Try to avoid going to your GP, as gastroenteritis can spread to others very easily. Phone 111 or your GP if you’re concerned or need any advice. Symptoms of


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avoid going to your GP, as gastroenteritis can spread to others very easily. Phone 111 or your GP if you’re concerned or need any advice. Symptoms of gastroenteritis The main symptoms of gastroenteritis are: sudden, watery diarrhoea feeling sick vomiting, which can be projectile a mild fever Some people also have other symptoms, such as a loss of appetite, an upset stomach, aching limbs and headaches. The symptoms usually appear up to a day after becoming infected. They typically last less than a week, but can sometimes last longer. What to do if you have gastroenteritis If you experience sudden diarrhoea and vomiting, the best thing to do is stay at home until you’re feeling better. There’s not always a specific treatment, so you have to let the illness run its course. You don’t usually need to get medical advice, unless your symptoms don’t improve or there’s a risk of a more serious problem. There are things you can do to help ease your symptoms. Do drink plenty of fluids to avoid


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don’t improve or there’s a risk of a more serious problem. There are things you can do to help ease your symptoms. Do drink plenty of fluids to avoid dehydration; you need to drink more than usual to replace the fluids lost from vomiting and diarrhoea – water is best, but you could also try fruit juice and souptake paracetamol for any fever or aches and painsget plenty of restif you feel like eating, try small amounts of plain foods, such as soup, rice, pasta and breaduse special rehydration drinks made from sachets bought from pharmacies if you have signs of dehydration, such as a dry mouth or dark urinetake anti-vomiting medication (such as metoclopramide) and/or antidiarrhoeal medication (such as loperamide) if you need to – some types are available from pharmacies, but check the leaflet that comes with the medicine; you can also ask your pharmacist or GP for advice about whether they’re suitable Read further information about treating dehydration Gastroenteritis can spread very


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your pharmacist or GP for advice about whether they’re suitable Read further information about treating dehydration Gastroenteritis can spread very easily. You should wash your hands regularly while you’re ill and stay off work or school until at least 48 hours after your symptoms have cleared, to reduce the risk of passing it on. When to get medical advice You don’t normally need to see your GP if you think you have gastroenteritis, as it should get better on its own. Visiting your GP practice can put others at risk, so it’s best to phone 111 or your GP if you’re concerned or feel you need advice. Phone 111 or your GP practice if: you have symptoms of severe dehydration, like persistent dizziness, only passing small amounts of urine or no urine at all you have bloody diarrhoea you’re vomiting constantly and are unable to keep down any fluids you have a fever over 38C (100.4F) your symptoms haven’t started to improve after a few days in the last few weeks you’ve returned from a part


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fluids you have a fever over 38C (100.4F) your symptoms haven’t started to improve after a few days in the last few weeks you’ve returned from a part of the world with poor sanitation you have a serious underlying condition, such as kidney disease, inflammatory bowel disease or a weak immune system, and have diarrhoea and vomiting Your GP may suggest sending off a sample of your poo to a laboratory to check what’s causing your symptoms. Antibiotics may be prescribed if this shows you have a bacterial infection. Looking after a child with gastroenteritis You can look after your child at home if they have diarrhoea and vomiting. There’s not usually any specific treatment and your child should start feeling better in a few days. You don’t normally need to get medical advice unless their symptoms don’t improve or there’s a risk of a more serious problem. There are things you can do to help ease your child’s symptoms. Do encourage them to drink plenty of fluids as they need to replace the


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problem. There are things you can do to help ease your child’s symptoms. Do encourage them to drink plenty of fluids as they need to replace the fluids lost from vomiting and diarrhoea – water is generally best; avoid giving them fizzy drinks or fruit juice, as they can make their diarrhoea worsebabies should continue to feed as usual, either with breast milk or other milk feedsmake sure they get plenty of restlet your child eat if they’re eating solids and feel hungry – try small amounts of plain foods, such as soup, rice, pasta and breadgive them paracetamol if they have an uncomfortable fever or aches and pains – young children may find liquid paracetamol easier to swallow than tabletsuse special rehydration drinks made from sachets bought from pharmacies if they’re dehydrated – your GP or pharmacist can advise on how much to give your child Don’t give your child antidiarrhoeal and anti-vomiting medication, unless advised to by your GP or pharmacist. Make sure you and your child


