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A paper on the effectiveness of clubs as functional instruments capable of satisfying the governance needs of the individuals.
James Buchanan pioneered the economic theory of government, the economic theory of clubs and the economic theory of constitutions (Buchanan 1965; Buchanan and Tullock 1962).  Oddly, almost no one has attempted to connect these theories.  This paper does that. It analyzes “constitutional effectiveness”—the degree to which constitutions can be enforced — in the system of government vs. the system of clubs.
I argue that clubs have residual claimants on revenues generated through constitutional compliance, operate in a highly competitive environment, and permit individuals to sort themselves according to their governance needs. These features make their constitutional contracts self-enforcing. Government lacks these features. So its constitutional contract is not.
Institutional augmentations that make government more club-like, such as federalism, democracy, and limited government scope, improve government’s constitutional effectiveness. But constitutional effectiveness remains superior in the system of clubs.
Assuming individuals care about constitutional effectiveness, this begs the following question: Why don’t societies use the system of clubs instead of the system of government to supply governance? The answer is perhaps they should.
Buchanan (1975) offers a useful starting place for thinking about the emergence of collective decision-making organs and the constitutional contracts that bring them into existence. Following Hobbes ( 1982) he asks us to begin our thinking with a state of nature in which no such organs exist. In the state of nature each individual is responsible for protecting his own property rights and producing the goods he desires.
This state is insecure. Persons’ property is constantly exposed to expropriation by others. This cripples individuals’ ability to cooperate for mutual gain. The relationships required to finance and produce goods with strong “publicness” attributes that no person finds profitable to produce individually are impossible.
According to Buchanan, individuals who find themselves in this state have a mutual interest in signing a “disarmament contract.” This contract is an agreement between each person in the state of nature to forbear preying on others. Individuals also have a mutual interest in appending this contract to share in the financing of public goods.
The social contract endows one or several members of society with coercive authority to enforce the disarmament’s terms and to ensure that individuals contribute to public goods, per their agreement. This governance-creating contract is called a constitution. The person(s) who the constitutional contract endows with the power to enforce its terms on the others has a monopoly on the legitimized use of force. The monopoly governance organ he controls is called government.
Insecure in their property and unable to enjoy the public goods they desire in the state of nature, individuals demand governance services.  Some of them, perhaps the strongest ones, offer to sell property protection, and thus some delineation of rights, to others.  The kind, quality, and price of that protection varies.
Some persons may offer full-time police protection for individuals who enter “disarmament contracts” through them. Others offer only part-time protection to such persons. Some persons offer disarmament contracts that prohibit a range of activities besides violent conflict. Others offer “night watchman” disarmament contracts that prohibit no more than this.
The other persons in the state of nature may contract with such protection providers. Or they may enter the protection business themselves and offer different kinds of disarmament contracts to others instead. Some persons may choose not to enter into any disarmament contract at all and remain unprotected.
Protection sellers also offer conflict resolution services to their customers. Some may offer to adjudicate customers’ conflicts through courts. Others might offer to referee duels. Further, persons who don’t sell protection services may sell adjudication services to others “à la carte.” Some persons may choose to sell adjudication services specifically for conflicts that emerge between protection sellers and their customers, or between customers who’ve entered disarmament contracts with different parties.
Similarly, to satisfy the demand for non-protection related goods with strong “publicness” attributes, some persons offer contractual arrangements to others for the financing and provision of various public goods. Some private protection sellers may bundle these goods in the disarmament contracts they offer. In other cases specialist providers of such goods may offer contracts for their services.
Individuals’ different governance demands—demands for protection and non-protection related public goods—drive the particular contracts that are offered and emerge. Some of these contracts may create communal property arrangements for customers and involve redistributing income from richer signatories to poorer ones. Other governance contracts may create governance arrangements that look very individualistic. Nearly any and all kind of governance contract, each with its own characteristics, is possible. I leave it to the reader’s imagination to fill in the many alternative governance configurations to the few described above.
Each of these governance contracts creates a “club.”  Buchanan’s (1965) theory of clubs explains how individuals can supply goods with a high degree of “publicness” privately. Club goods are excludable but non-rivalrous (or only rivalrous past some congestion threshold). Thus it’s profitable to supply them privately if sellers can induce a sufficient number of individuals to share their cost. Buchanan developed the theory of clubs with goods like swimming pools in mind. But the same underlying logic applies to all goods of this type, including governance itself.
The process I describe that gives rise to the system of clubs from the state of nature is similar to the one Buchanan describes that gives rise to the system of government from that state. In both accounts governance emerges from contractual agreement out of individuals’ mutual interest in supplying it collectively. But there’s a crucial difference in our accounts.
In Buchanan’s account everyone enters the same constitutional contract. That contract creates a monopoly governance supplier, making it the single source of legitimized force in society. There’s one constitution and one collective decision-making organ. Governance is monocentric.
In my account individuals enter a variety of different constitutional contracts—as many as “the market will bear.” These contracts create a multitude of governance suppliers, generating many, competing sources of force in society. There are multiple constitutions and collective decision-making organs. Governance is polycentric.  This difference between the system of government and the system of clubs turns out to be critically important.
The skeptical reader, for whom the process Buchanan describes that leads to the emergence of the system of government sounds eminently reasonable but the process I describe that leads to the emergence of the system of clubs sounds like science fiction, will be relieved to learn that the latter has the stronger claim on historical reality.
Both government-creating and club-creating constitutional contracts create governance. And both confront the same obstacle: constitutional enforcement. Clubs and governments enforce contracts between their customers or citizens. But what enforces contracts between them and their customers or citizens? Unlike “ordinary” contracts, contracts with governance suppliers—constitutional contracts—must be self-enforcing.
Below I show that my tale from the state of nature isn’t only more historical than Buchanan’s. It’s more logical. In the system of government the question, “Who guards the guardians?,” goes unresolved. In the system of clubs it doesn’t. There’s a simple reason for this. In the system of clubs constitutional contracts tend to be self-enforcing. In the system of government the constitutional contract doesn’t.
Three features of the system of clubs, which are either absent or only weakly present in the system of government, account for constitutional self-enforcement in the former but not the latter. First, in the system of clubs governance suppliers are residual claimants on revenues they generate through constitutional compliance. Clubs have owners. They earn the profits flowing from individuals’ patronage of their clubs. Thus their interests are tied directly to their clubs’ success in attracting patrons. This success depends on their clubs’ constitutional effectiveness.
If club owners (or their agents) violate their clubs’ constitutions, they lose patrons. Club owners capitalize this loss. In contrast, if club owners ensure constitutional compliance, they capitalize the benefits of satisfying their patrons. Residual claimancy in the system of clubs aligns club owners’ and club members’ interests. In doing so it makes clubs’ constitutional contracts self-enforcing.
In the system of government the monopoly governance supplier isn’t a residual claimant on revenues he generates through constitutional compliance. He’s a residual claimant on revenues he generates through increasing citizens’ productivity. When citizens produce more, government earns more revenue. Thus government has some incentive to enhance citizens’ productivity. But that’s not the same as having an incentive to comply with the constitutional contract citizens agreed to.
Consider two cases. First, suppose the constitutional contract citizens desire, and thus agree to, isn’t productivity maximizing. They dislike large wealth disparities. So they agree to a constitutional contract that involves significant income redistribution. Or they may value leisure highly. So they create a constitutional contract that gives them more leisure at the expense of providing for the quantity/mix of public goods that maximizes their productivity. Such a society is materially poorer than one that doesn’t redistribute income or requires individuals to contribute more to public goods. But citizens prefer it.
Government doesn’t. It can’t tax utility. Thus, if government is a revenue maximizer, it prefers a materially richer society. Its incentive is to violate the constitutional contract citizens agreed to, for example by supplying more public goods than the constitution calls for, because this raises resident productivity.
Now suppose the constitutional contract citizens desire, and thus agree to, is productivity maximizing. In this case, too, government has an incentive to break the constitutional contract. Government doesn’t internalize the full cost of taxation. Tax distortions are borne partly by government, but also partly by citizens. Thus the tax rate that maximizes revenue—the one government desires—is always higher than the tax rate that citizens would unanimously consent to (McGuire and Olson 1996).  That means it’s higher than what citizens agreed to in the constitutional contract.
The system of government has a residual claimant. But from the perspective of constitutional effectiveness, it’s a claim on the residual of the wrong thing. The residual government claims doesn’t co-vary with satisfying citizens and thus constitutional effectiveness. It covaries with maximizing tax revenue. This gives government an incentive to violate the constitutional contract.
The second reason the system of clubs facilitates constitutional self-enforcement is that it’s highly competitive. In that system individuals have a multitude of constitutional, and thus governance, options available to them, including not contracting into any collective decision-making organ at all. The large number of competing governance organs and freedom of entry into this market exposes each club’s owners to the pressures that competitive markets expose traditional producers to.
The threat of consumer exit, with a competing club’s assistance if necessary, constrains the club’s owners in how they wield the authorities their customers have endowed them with constitutionally. If club owners break their end of their constitutional contract, club customers exit. This threat makes constitutional compliance compatible with club owner incentives. It aligns the interests of the club’s agents and principals.
Exit isn’t free. It’s costly to leave a situation in which one has “put down roots.” Thus there remains some range over which owners may exploit customers. However, the more “poly” governance is, the smaller this range is, and thus the stronger the self-enforcing power of constitutional contracts is, and vice versa. The system of clubs maximizes governance’s “poly ness.” There are as many governance organs as individuals demand. Thus the system of clubs minimizes the exploitation that’s possible because of exit costs and maximizes the self-enforcing power of constitutional contracts.
The system of government minimizes governance’s “poly-ness.” It limits governance provision to a single organ. Thus the system of government maximizes the exploitation that’s possible because of exit costs and minimizes the self-enforcing power of its constitutional contract.
The third reason the system of clubs facilitates constitutional self-enforcement is that it’s highly assortive. Since there are no artificial limits on the constitutional contracts and associated governance organs that individuals may develop and join in that system, the governance organ that each person would ideally prefer tends to govern him. By “artificial limits” I mean there are no systemically created barriers to creating a different, competing collective decision-making organ.
There are of course economic limits. For example, it’s not possible to develop a club wherein choices are costless or unicorns adjudicate commercial disputes. Also, there are good economic reasons why, even if I prefer a slightly different governance “package” from one provided by a currently existing club with many customers, I may still choose to join that club rather than creating my own competing one. Network effects can create increasing returns to membership in an existing governance organ. These effects may exert some naturally limiting influence on the number of governance organs that evolve in the system of clubs. This influence’s extent depends on how strong network effects are for governance. I discuss this issue more below.
Assortiveness facilitates constitutional self-enforcement in the system of clubs by enabling club customers to threaten coordinated punishment of constitution-violating club owners. Because of that system’s assortiveness, clubs tend to consist of persons who share preferences and goals. Such persons are more likely than persons with divergent preferences and goals to share ideas about what kinds of agent behaviors constitute constitutional violations and what kinds don’t. This permits them to threaten constitution-violating club owners with coordinated punishment, such as collective exit.
Coordinated punishment is more severe than uncoordinated punishment. It imposes a higher cost on “bad” club owners. Knowing that constitutional violation will lead to not just one or a few persons punishing them, but rather all of the club’s customers, club owners find constitutional compliance incentive compatible for a larger range of potential opportunistic behavior.
The system of government isn’t assortive. Government artificially (i.e., through non economic forces) limits the ability of individuals who have different interests and objectives to sort themselves into collective decision-making organs that reflect those differences. In establishing a monopoly governance organ government precludes such sorting completely. Every person, regardless of interests or objectives, falls under the same governance organ’s purview.
The absence of assortiveness in the system of government undermines assortiveness’ ability to facilitate constitutional self-enforcement in that system. When citizens’ interests and objectives vary, ideas about what constitutes a constitutional violation, and how to respond such a violation, are likely to vary too. This makes it harder for citizens to coordinate punishments of constitution-violating agents. Knowing that punishments for constitution violations are unlikely to be comprehensively collective, and thus will be less severe, agents of government are willing to engage in a wider range of such violations.
One criticism of the foregoing analysis is that it treats constitutional contractors as naïve. Sophisticated constitutional contractors would surely insist on including provisions in their contract with government that might improve constitutional self-enforcement in the system of government. In the real-world system of government individuals include such provisions in the constitutional contract. Three such provisions are especially important: federalism, democracy, and limited government scope.
We can understand these provisions as attempts to make the system of government more like the system of clubs—as attempts to enhance government’s “clubness.” They may improve constitutional effectiveness in the system of government. But, for reasons described below, constitutional effectiveness in the system of clubs remains superior.
Sophisticated individuals entering a constitutional contract that creates government may insist on including a provision that creates federalism. They may write into the constitutional contract that beneath the central government there must be smaller sub-governments, each of which has considerable autonomy from the center in its governance-related decisions. To facilitate this, each sub-government shall have its own constitutional contract—limited only by the rules set down in the constitutional contract with the central government—with the individuals that reside within its domain. Those constitutional contracts may differ in the kind of protection they supply, and thus in how they define rights, the means by which they supply protection, and the mix and quantity of non-protection related public goods they provide.
A federalism provision attempts to mimic the competitive and assortive features of the system of clubs that facilitates constitutional self-enforcement in that system. Charles Tiebout (1956) articulated the mechanism whereby this could help produce constitutional effectiveness. If a sub-government violates its constitutional contract with its citizens, they may move to an area governed by a different-sub government that doesn’t. The threat of competition between sub-governments improves constitutional effectiveness in each.
Further, since under federalism individuals have more than one choice about protection and public good arrangements, they’re able to sort themselves better by the constitutional contracts they desire. This facilitates their ability to coordinate punishment of sub-governments that violate their constitutional contracts, encouraging sub-governments to comply with their constitutions.
There are (at least) two limitations to a federalism provision’s ability to improve constitutional effectiveness compared to the system of clubs. First, unless the constitutional contract with the central government permits as many sub-governments—each with its own constitutional contract—to develop as individuals desire, the degree of competitiveness and assortiveness under the system of government, and thus competition’s ability to facilitate self-enforcing constitutional contracts under this system, remains lower than it is under the system of clubs in which there’s no constraint on the number (or variety) of governance organs that may operate.
If the constitutional contract with the central government permits an unlimited number (and variety) of sub-governments, its ceases to be a monopoly collective decision-making organ. Such a system of “government” is for all intents and purposes the system of clubs. To remain a government in any meaningful sense government must limit the number of sub-governments. In doing so it limits the extent to which competition and assortiveness can facilitate constitutional effectiveness compared to the system of clubs.
The same is true regarding sub-governments’ autonomy. Allowing sub-governments complete autonomy would undo the central government’s monopoly on the legitimized use of force. Thus government must limit sub-government autonomy. But in doing so it limits the variety of governance organs that may exist compared to the system of clubs.
Sophisticated persons entering a constitutional contract that creates government may insist on including a provision that creates democracy. They may write into the contract that they reserve the right to popularly depose existing agents of government and put new ones in their place.
A democracy provision attempts to mimic the residual claimaint-on-constitutional effectiveness feature of the system of clubs that facilitates constitutional self-enforcement in that system. John Ferejohn (1986) articulated the mechanism whereby this could help produce constitutional effectiveness.  If agents of government violate the constitutional contract with citizens, citizens may remove them from their position as agents of government. The threat of removal connects government agents’ interests to constitutional effectiveness, making it more likely that agents will comply with the constitutional contract.
Public choice theory elaborates a long list of limitations on such a democracy provision’s ability to improve constitutional effectiveness in the system of government. Perhaps foremost among these is the logic of special interest groups. The behaviors that maximize government agents’ chances of reelection often differ from the behaviors that are consistent with constitutional compliance.
Popularly elected agents of government improve their chance of reelection by concentrating benefits on the well-organized, well-informed signatories of the constitutional contract at the expense of poorly organized, uninformed signatories. Unless the latter individuals requested such redistributions in the constitutional contract, including a democracy provision needn’t lead agents of government to comply with that contract’s terms.
The final provision I consider that sophisticated persons may insist on including in a constitutional contract that creates government is one that limits government’s scope. They may write into the contract that government is authorized to undertake only a few basic activities, for example providing institutions of law and order, such as police and courts, and perhaps a few other basic public goods, such as roadways and education.
A limited-scope provision attempts to mimic the effect of the assortiveness feature of the system of clubs that facilitates constitutional self-enforcement in that system. Friedrich Hayek (1960) articulated the mechanism whereby this could help produce constitutional effectiveness. If government’s activities are limited to only the very few things that command the widest assent, it’s easier for individuals to determine whether government is complying with or violating the constitutional contract. Further, since individuals share interests with respect to these activities, they’re more likely to perceive the same behaviors as either complying with or violating that contract. Thus they’re better able to coordinate punishment for the latter.
Like federalism and democracy, a limited scope provision is limited in its ability to improve constitutional effectiveness in the system of government. The reason for this is one of those given above in my discussion of federalism. Since a limited scope provision is itself part of the constitutional contract, there’s nothing to enforce it. Individuals may include a limited scope clause in the constitutional contract. And government may ignore it. The limited scope provision isn’t itself self-enforcing. Thus it’s difficult to see how it could improve self-enforcement of the constitutional contract more generally.
This paper has stated the obvious: constitutions are more likely to be effective when the individuals charged with executing them have an incentive to do so. That happens when governance suppliers are residual claimants on revenues generated through constitutional compliance; when they supply their services in a competitive market; and when individuals can sort themselves according to the kind of governance services they desire. The system of clubs has these features.
Constitutions are unlikely to be effective when the individuals charged with executing them have little incentive to do so. That happens when governance suppliers aren’t residual claimants on revenues generated through constitutional compliance but are residual claimants on revenues generated through resident productivity instead; when the supply of governance is monopolized; and when individuals can’t sort themselves according to the kind of governance services they desire because only one constitutional contract is available. The system of government has these features.
Including provisions in the constitutional contract that make government more club-like may improve government’s constitutional effectiveness. But not much. Unless these provisions are themselves self-enforcing, they aren’t helpful.
The bottom line is this: constitutional rules, which determine what their executors are supposed to do, are no substitute for incentives, which determine what their executors will actually do.  The system of clubs, which provides the correct incentives for constitutional self-enforcement, exhibits superior constitutional effectiveness whether the constitutional contract that forms government contains rules intended to facilitate its self-enforcement or not.
My analysis begs the following question: Rather than attempting, and inevitably failing, to mimic the system of clubs’ desirable features with the system of government, why don’t societies use the system of clubs to supply governance?
There are three kinds of answers to this question. The first kind argues that societies don’t currently do this. But if they care about constitutional effectiveness they should.
The second kind of answer argues that societies use the system of government instead of the system of clubs because, while the system of clubs may exhibit superior constitutional effectiveness, it can’t supply the kind of governance people desire. The “publicness” characteristics of “governance goods” make this so. These goods are non-excludable. Private action can’t profitably provide them. Therefore the system of government must.
Although this is the most common kind of answer to the question posed above, I find it the most puzzling. With the possible exception of certain kinds of defense services designed to protect massive territories, the benefits of which we’re technologically incapable of excluding some persons from, every supposedly non-excludable governance good is in fact excludable. Police, courts, and other kinds of law enforcement services are certainly excludable. So are non-protection related governance goods. Education, healthcare, welfare insurance, lighthouses, parks, roads, radio waves, and waterways are excludable. So is air space. It’s costly to exclude non-payers from these goods. But providing them privately isn’t just possible. It’s reality. Clubs have provided them privately for centuries (see, for instance, Coase 1974; Benson 1990; Beito, Gordon, and Tabarrok 2002).
A more charitable interpretation of the second kind of answer to the question of why societies use the system of government, and not the system of clubs, to provide governance is that while the system of clubs may succeed in providing some level of the public goods governance demands, it doesn’t supply the efficient level.
It’s true that nearly all goods produce some positive or negative spillovers. Internalizing all of these is impossible. Thus some inefficiency in the system of clubs is inevitable. But as Buchanan’s work constantly reminds us, it doesn’t follow from this recognition that government can do better. Political activity is riddled with external economies (Friedman 2008).
Political decision making generates costs that fall predominantly on persons other than the political decision maker. Think of voters, or legislators, or judges. The omnipresence of externalities in political decision making is one of its hallmarks and what distinguishes it from decision making in the market. Thus the notion that the system of government can get society closer to the efficient level of public goods, let alone get it to the efficient level is, well, absurd. Markets fail. But both theory and evidence give us good reason to think that government fails much worse.
The third kind of answer to the question posed above is the one I think Buchanan offers, albeit implicitly: the system of government, at least in the social contract theory that gives rise to it, is the system of clubs. It’s just a special case.
I’ve focused on the cost of a monopoly governance organ: constitutional ineffectiveness. However, a monopoly governance organ also provides some benefits. For example, when governance is polycentric, provision must be made for, and resources must be spent on, somehow integrating, or at least making governance operable in the context of, different constitutional rules associated with each governance organ. To address conflicts between a customer of club A and a customer of club B, clubs A and B must reach some agreement ex ante about how they will handle such conflicts.
In the world we live in this problem also exists. Nations don’t share constitutional rules or governance organs. So they have to make provisions for dealing with, for instance, international criminals. Extradition treaties are one way they do this. Because of federalism, in the United States this problem also exists, and is solved, between states and even municipalities.
The obstacle that competing governance organs pose is readily surmountable. Indeed, it’s surmounted all the time. Still, it’s not free to do so.
If the network-type benefits of having everyone in society under the same constitutional contract and governance organ are sufficiently large, we might expect individuals to be willing trade off some constitutional effectiveness to capture these benefits. In this case the system of clubs will look like the system of government. Given the choice individuals will contract with one governance organ instead of many.
Similarly, precisely because of their “publicness,” public goods aren’t profitable to produce unless multiple persons share the costs of producing them. If such goods are totally non-rival, it makes sense for every person to be a member of the same club that produces them. Here, too, we get a situation in which economic considerations whittle the potential polycentrism in the system of clubs down to the monocentrism that exists in the system of government. In practice the two systems look the same.
Unlike the second answer to my question about why society doesn’t organize via the system of clubs instead of the system of government, I find this answer intelligible. But it’s wrong for two reasons.
First, while network-type benefits in governance are certainly positive (I wouldn’t anticipate many clubs with only a handful of people if the system of clubs were permitted to flourish), I’m skeptical about how large they are given the ease with which international trading partners, for example, resolve contractual disputes worth tens of millions of dollars despite being from completely different legal systems (see, for instance, Benson 1990; Leeson 2008b). Most important, given the diversity of rules and means of conflict resolution we observe even under the limited federalism that exists in the United States, I’m doubtful whether, if given the choice, individuals really would choose to live under a more homogenous set of rules to capture network-type benefits.
Second, virtually all public goods, though non-rival to a point, become rivalrous past that point when congestion sets in. Thus there’s a positive cost to admitting another person to a club providing such a good. This cost means that the optimal club size—the size contracting individuals would choose—is finite. If society is sufficiently small, a single public goods provider may still result. But for any reasonable sized population, this suggests that multiple clubs would emerge.
 Each of these theories has been important to political economy’s advance over the last 50 years. Sandler and Tschirhart (1997) survey the development and application of the economic theory of clubs. Voigt (1997) surveys the development and application of the economic theory of constitutions. For an overview of Buchanan’s unique political economy and a discussion of its importance, see Boettke (1998).
 Boudreaux and Holcombe (1989), who consider how developers sell memberships in constitutionally governed residential communities, are the only exception I found.
 My analysis of the system of clubs vs. the system of government bears some important similarities to Ostrom, Tiebout, and Warren’s (1961) discussion of a “polycentric political system” vs. “gargantua,” Foldvary’s (2002) discussion of “cellular democracy” vs. “mass democracy,” and Frey’s (2005) discussion of “functional, overlapping, competing jurisdictions” vs. traditional federalism. The system of clubs may be seen as a more radical or extreme form of the polycentric political systems these authors describe in the case of municipalities or jurisdictions. The system of clubs system doesn’t seek to “mimic the market” in governance. It seeks to establish a genuine market in governance. On the limits of governance “quasimarkets” and the benefits of genuine governance markets, see the discussion below and Boettke, Coyne, and Leeson (2011).
 My tale bears some resemblance to Nozick’s (1974). However, in Nozick, for reasons that, as I discuss at the end of this paper, I believe are similar to ones operating implicitly in Buchanan’s tale, the system of clubs leads to the system of government via an invisible-hand process.
 I sketch the system of clubs very briefly. For an excellent, detailed discussion of such a system and the incentive compatibility of the contracts that underlie it, see Friedman (1989).
 Like Buchanan’s tale, mine assumes that individuals in the state of nature have sufficiently secure rights to their persons and “wills” to enter into contracts. Buchanan’s (1974) primary objection to “anarchist” systems, such as the one I describe, is that these systems presuppose an initial definition of property rights from which such a system arising out of private contracting could emerge. This is peculiar. First, as indicated above, his system of government also assumes some initial definition of rights. How else are persons in the state of nature entering a social contract to create government? Second, this assumption, which we both make, doesn’t seem terribly unreasonable. The initial distribution of rights is determined by physical strength or “cunning” in the state of nature. That state isn’t one without any rights distribution. It’s one in which rights are distributed by “might.” One objection to such a distribution is that it entails the strongest (or most cunning) person having all the rights and everyone else none. But this objection is mistaken. The costliness of violently appropriating resources currently in others’ hands means that even the strongest man finds it in his interest to pass some of those resources—and thus rights to them— back to their original holders. See, for instance, Leeson and Nowrasteh (2011).
 In the system of clubs I’ve described, governance rules and organs are consciously selected but must pass a market test. This take on privately created order helps to resolve the difficulties Buchanan (1977) expresses about inefficient privately created order in Hayek (1973). It enables the “good” kind of constructivism that Buchanan wants to ensure is possible without falling prey to the problems of the “bad” kind of constructivism that both Buchanan and Hayek are keen to avoid.
 I borrow this term from Ostrom, Tiebout, and Warren (1961).
 The literature on private governance arrangements — some club-like, others less so — is large and growing. For instance, see Benson (1990), Ellickson (1990), Friedman (1979), and Leeson (2007a, 2007b, 2008a, 2009a, 2009b).
 If “government” is just a synonym for unanimous consent, then of course the tax rates would be the same. But if every governmental decision/activity requires unanimous consent, individuals remain in precisely the situation in which they started in the state of nature. They haven’t created a third-party enforcer, and thus a government, at all.
 If government initially permits sub-governments to form and later decides it would like to reel back federalism, it may find it hard to do so. Sub-governments may resist government action that tries to do this. For this reason federalism is the most effective way to enhance government’s “clubness” among the ways I consider.
 See also, Barro (1973). For a slightly earlier treatment of similar themes, see Hamilton, Madison, and Jay ( 2008).
 Thus the emphasis on rules in much of the important scholarship in constitutional political economy is incomplete. In addition to answering the question of what rules we’d like to have (see, for instance, Brennan and Buchanan 1985), we must answer the question of what rules are incentive compatible and thus self-enforcing. The latter is a subset of the former.
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Hayek, F. A. 1960. The Constitution of Liberty. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Hobbes, T.  1982. Leviathan. Penguin Classics, New York.
Leeson, P.T. 2009a. The calculus of piratical consent: the myth of the myth of social contract. Public Choice 139, 443-459.
Leeson, P. T. 2009b. The laws of lawlessness. Journal of Legal Studies 38, 471-503.
Leeson, P. T. 2008a. Social distance and self-enforcing exchange. Journal of Legal Studies 37, 161-188.
Leeson, P. T. 2008b. How important is state enforcement for trade? American Law and Economics Review 10, 61-89.
Leeson, P. T. 2007a. An-arrgh-chy: the law and economics of pirate organization. Journal of Political Economy 115, 1049-1094.
Leeson, P. T. 2007b. Trading with bandits. Journal of Law and Economics 50, 303-321.
Leeson, P. T., Nowrasteh, A. 2011. Was privateering plunder efficient? Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, forthcoming.
Nozick, R. 1975. Anarchy, State, and Utopia. Basic Books, New York.
Ostrom, V., Tiebout, C. M., Warren, R. 1961. The organization of government in metropolitan areas: a theoretical inquiry. American Political Science Review 55, 831-842.
Sandler, T., Tschirhart, J. 1997. Club theory: thirty years later. Public Choice 93, 335-355.
Tiebout, C. M. 1956. A pure theory of local expenditures. Journal of Political Economy 64, 416-424.
Voigt, S. 1997. Positive constitutional economics: a survey. Public Choice 90, 11- 53.


text:
04/03/2019 :: APRCET-2018 AU VACANCY POSITION AFTER 1ST PHASE COUNSELING.
03/03/2019 :: 2nd Phase of Admission Counselling of APRCET-2018 will be held on 08-03-2019, Director, DOA.
20/02/2019 :: APRCET-2018-AU-MERIT ORDER RANKS (FULL-TIME).
20/02/2019 :: APRCET-2018-AU-MERIT ORDER RANKS (PART-TIME).
20/02/2019 :: APRCET-2018-AU-SCHEDULE FOR ADMISSION COUNSELING.
19/02/2019 :: APRCET-2018 Seat Distribution for M.Phil (Full-Time / Part-Time), Ph.D. (Full-Time / Part-Time) Science, Arts, Engineering , Pharmacy and Law courses & Its Affiliated colleges.
27/11/2018 :: APRCET-2018 Schedule of Oral Interview / Viva-Voce & Certificate Verification.
27/11/2018 :: APRCET-2018 Hall Ticket Number wise lists for Oral Interview / Viva-Voce & Certificate Verification.
09/11/2018 :: Last date Extended upto 20-11-2018 Three Months Course on Skill Development Programme.
11/10/2018 :: THREE MONTHS COURSE ON SKILL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME.
11/10/2018 :: APPLICATION FORM FOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME.

industry_corpus2: Subject Education


text:
How to Enjoy Fall in 6 Easy Steps.
My sweet baby girl will be two in a less than two weeks. We asked Katie to take her photos and these beautiful images below were the result. To say I love them is an understatement. Thank you for capturing our girl, Katie.
Josh and I just got back from a long weekend in Toronto with our friends, Kate and Dylan. This was the first time I've been to Toronto since I was a teenager and the years between my visits made it feel all new. We left our kids at home for this trip and had a really fun, really relaxing weekend in the city. I booked my first ever Airbnb and we stayed in a gorgeous town home in Leslieville.
We got in late evening on Friday and after checking out our new digs for the next few days, we headed down to the Distillery District for a delicious dinner at Cluny with a couple of Kate's friends, Josh and Jane, who are long time Toronto residents. I ordered the lobster bisque covered in puff pastry because I am smart. I also tried my first oyster while we were there! (thanks to Kate's guidance). Friends don't let friends eat briny oysters.
After dinner, Kate's friend Josh was kind enough to swing us through his architecture studio nearby and gave us a little tour of the place and we talked shop about his current (amazing) projects. Later, he and Jane invited us back to their home for some good conversation and relaxation.
It was like a little gift from all the Canadian stereotypes, put there just for our amusement. You can't even make this stuff up, guys.
The next morning we woke up AT OUR LEISURE (I cannot emphasize this point enough) and grabbed chicken and waffles at a little place in Kensington Market before checking out more of the city.
Now, I don't love heights, but I try not to let my nervousness get in the way of me experiencing anything that I wouldn't want to miss. But seriously?! This glass floor business is going TOO far. I stayed a couple arms lengths away fanning my sweaty armpits and deep breathing while these two crazies hopped around on top of it without a care in the world.
Roselle has an earl grey, cream filled cookie that I'm going to be dreaming about for the rest of my life. I must find out a way to reverse engineer it now that we're home.
The next day we kept it super chill and just brunched (The House on Parliament) and shopped (for all of the things) and ate more treats (Nugateau and Nadege).
We also drove over to Casa Loma and walked the grounds a bit just before closing time. It's kind of unbelievable to round a corner and find your self face to face with a real life castle smack dab in the middle of a city. Toronto is full of these kind of delightful surprises and we thoroughly enjoyed our time there. We ended our last night with bacon sandwiches from Rashers and movies under blankets back at the house. All and all, a perfect trip.

industry_corpus2: Travel & Geography


text:
Symfony 2 has had a profound impact on the PHP world since well before the initial stable release, and its components have since been picked up as building blocks by many open source projects. Take a look at how Symfony Components can be of use to you, and how they make your life easier in migrating legacy projects towards a modern architecture.In this workshop, we will take an old PHP4 application into the modern world – step by step. The workshop introduces some of the major Symfony Components that are used as building blocks by Projects like Drupal, Laravel, Silex, and of core Symfony2.
You do not need to know anything about Symfony2. Your general skill level is not important, as long as you have a decent foundation in object oriented PHP (5.3.+) in general.
You will need Git, a Webserver of some kind, MySQL, and PHP. Version 5.3.3 or newer is ok, 5.4 is better. Before the start of the workshop, we will also provide a repository with a base project to get everyone started.
Andreas Hucks works as a senior developer and consultant for SensioLabs Germany, where he is responsible for the trainings unit. He has had extensive project experience with Symfony throughout its history, doing development, consulting, coaching, and contributing to the framework. As a long time member of the Symfony community, Andreas has co-organized the Symfony Day conference series and Symfony Live Berlin.

industry_corpus2: Computing & Telecommunications


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Sometimes a thing of beauty just grabs you at first sight. Now, I've had that happen recently in other contexts; but in terms of beer, I present you with Sierra Nevada Black Barleywine. I recently was the fortunate recipient of one of these on tap at Sheffield's Pub in Lakeview. Sheffield's has a notable craft beer selection and maintains a "beer school" in the back bar near the kitchen where they tap 4-5 craft brews, usually brewers' specialty offers such as Bourbon County Stout or perhaps Old Crumudgeon. This time the row included the Black Barleywine. I've had this on tap before and noted it in previous posts about various other beers. My recent experience was worthy of its own review.
The bartender poured it into a 8 or 9 ounce miniature snifter. He commented that a lot of beer drinkers would have no part of a brew served in such a glass. For this beer it could not be more appropriate. It's a roughly 10 percent beer with really robust flavor so the serving size and device are apt. The beer itself sits in the glass like a dark pool of tar with a thin layer of tan foam atop it that's more like a creek's eddy than an actual head. It smells of roasted barley, bread, and maybe a hint of coffee. The taste is devastating. You go in hoping to avoid the usual sweet barleywine caramel, apple, and honey flavors and your fears are eviscerated by bitter chocolate, roasted nuts, and – pledge, turn, prestige – that barley, grain, and wood flavor that grips the finish, taming the drink like bitters tame a cocktail. Bam! Welcome to beer heaven.
I've stressed this before. Sierra Nevada is one of the best breweries in the U.S. Forget the banal Pale Ale. Like all the great brewers, they make a variety of outstanding beers that differ substantially, ranging from Torpedo IPA, to Harvest, to the amazing Celebration Ale to the Summerfest lager. Their barleywines may be the real stars of the show, Bigfoot Barleywine and the Black. Any serious American craft beer drinker should explore Sierra's formidable lineup. It's well worth it.
Sheffield's has Black Barleywine on tap as might other bars featuring the top craft brews. I do not believe it's available in bottles because I've never seen Sierra bottle any beer with this high of an ABV. Too bad. It's what I want at home to nurse these winter blahs – bring on the prestige.

industry_corpus2: Petrochemicals


text:
IMPORTANT NOTICE : SUN-Java Certification's official name has been changed to Oracle-Java Certification legally by the vendor! To understand in fade color we also have mentioned the old names & codes.
OCA: Oracle Solaris 10 System Admin.
OCE: Oracle Solaris 10 Network Admin.
OCE: Oracle Solaris 10 Security Admin.
OCE: MySQL 5.1 Cluster Database Admin.
Oracle Certified OpenOffice.org Writer Spl.
Oracle Certified OpenOffice.org Calc Spl.
Oracle Certified OpenOffice.org Impress Spl.
About Sun Certification offically rename with Oracle Certification, Sun Training, Sun Courses, Sun Exam are now as Oracle Training, Oracle Exams, SCJA now OCJA (Oracle Certified Java Associates) and so on..
Most of people will select to take a Sun Oracle Training (Sun Oracle Courses) OR Sun Oracle Dumps (Sun Oracle Braindumps) for preparing the Sun Oracle Exam, But The Sun Oracle Training (Sun Oracle Courses) are too simple that is not enough to pass the Sun Oracle Exam, and many Sun Oracle Dumps (Sun Oracle Braindumps) are out dated OR they can't make any Sun Oracle Lab Simulator, so use the Sun Oracle Dumps (Sun Oracle Braindumps) is not a good idea for taking Sun Oracle Test.
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text:
Gerardo Mena has won or placed in several contests, was nominated for a Pushcart, was selected for Best New Poets 2011, and has pieces published or forthcoming in Ninth Letter, Cream City Review, Raleigh Review, Diagram, and the Nashville Review, among others.
You wake up in the future and realize that everyone has evolved. People now have the head of a blue jay and the body of a shiny machine that whirs softly as its insides spin. You see two bird heads that look like your parents, but, of course, that is not possible.
When they see you they cry and shake their heads slowly with disappointment because you are not like them. I’m sorry, you say, your voice rough and hard from one thousand years of sleeping. We are all dying, they sing, their voices like glockenspiels.

industry_corpus2: Literature & Emotions


text:
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To ensure that recipients of our pub and restaurant gift cards and gift vouchers have a better choice of pubs and restaurants in which to redeem their gift than recipients of the Handmade Burger Co. Gift Vouchers we try to offer an experience for everyone. Whether the recipient would prefer a lovely country pub for a romantic meal for two; a bustling city gastro-pub for a fun meal with friends; a traditional coaching Inn for a relaxing night away; a great value meal in a modern pub restaurant or just a few drinks in the local with friends, family or colleagues we think we have something for everyone.
In order to offer this unrivalled choice we have partnered with some of the best pub restaurant operators in the country including Shepherd Neame, Greene King, Metropolitan Pubs, Inns of Character, Hungry Horse, Horatio Group, Eating Inns, Farmhouse Inns, Old English Inns, Belhaven, Barons Pubs and Daniel Thwaites along with many independently owned freehouses.
Buy Pub Tokens rather than Handmade Burger Co. Gift Vouchers Today!

industry_corpus2: Hospitality & Catering


text:
Josh invites you into his brain with this captivating band. Original music and spoken word come together to say something personal about the overwhelming world in which we live.
Check out these videos, recorded by Tom Newitt at the Royal Welsh College of Music & Drama in July 2018.
As well as tunes, we made some improvisations along to poems, which are always fun to play live, so keep an eye out for upcoming gigs!

industry_corpus2: Film & Entertainment


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Infertility is a test for thousands of couples all across the world, and like all tests, it is very heavy and has the ability to crush even the soul.
If you are familiar with my blog, then you may have read a previous post of mine, where I spoke about my very own journey into motherhood. My heartache, my struggle and the very sukoon I found through it – the words of my Rabb and appreciating the beauty of dua.
The test hadn’t ended. The test had just begun. After being blessed with Yusra, I fell unwell. Without going into the details of it all, I had a year filled with a nightmare experience of pain, discomfort and unexplained bleeding. The night I had written my post, was after a hospital appointment where I was told that a hysterectomy might be a good option to relieve me of my pain. It wasn’t the final decision, but it was the kind of discussion the consultant was having with me. I felt saddened – before this I hadn’t thought about having another child, but this obviously brought about so many questions. I always knew I might not have any more children, but to be told that it will definitely not happen, was difficult truth to digest. Maybe because I had hope, hope that if it happened once, it can happen again.
A feeling of confusion surrounded me. I found myself crying again. I felt ashamed, I asked myself why I was being so ungrateful?! Allah so loving blessed me with a child, He answered my dua, why then was I being greedy and what is it that I wanted?
I learnt from reading other peoples experiences, that infertility second time round is as high in number as the first. I didn’t know this before. I didn’t know that many women find it difficult to have a second or third child. And because they already have a child, medical professionals don’t offer a great deal of help (in this country anyway).
The following week, I remember attending a mother and toddler group at the masjid, where sisters were discussing planning for another baby. It was a funny discussion, where some were saying never again and others were saying you should get them all out of the way in one go. I sat there, at first listening, thinking I cant contribute to this discussion, because I can’t plan. I can’t want a baby and then just have one. As the conversation continued, a simple, very normal conversation between mothers, something women from all cultures and backgrounds tend to have, I suddenly felt uncomfortable. I no longer could sit there and listen, I felt my heart started to weep. I got worried that my heart would show me up publicly and I wouldn’t be able to keep control of my tears – I moved away from the conversation and started to play in another area.
I came home and told myself off and then did what my soul needed; I spoke to Allah. This time round, I felt I was equipped with a stronger heart, a more understanding heart – one that was able to speak to her Creator straight away – so although my physical body felt pain, my soul was at ease – something I wasn’t able to experience previously.
I remembered something similar I had experienced years before, before I had become a mother. I was at an iftar gathering of about 20 sisters, when a sister asked me how my pregnancy was going, in front of everyone. She had heard from another sister that I was expecting. I wasn’t. I was nowhere near a pregnancy at the time. I remember her question leaving me feeling red in the face with embarrassment and sorrow. And for someone who is never short of words, I was a little speechless. I didn’t know what to say, and felt my tears sitting at the edge of my eyes, waiting to roll off. Thankfully, another sister very kindly covered up for me, saying: “no she’s not expecting, she’s enjoying her life” or something along those lines. She saved me.
That night when I had come home, I cried. I cried during taraweeh, I cried at tahajjud and I cried into my pillow.
And now some years later, one child later, all this crying was to enter my life again. I was scared. I knew what it makes of me. But alhamdhulillah, something made me happy as well. I felt Allah wanted to teach me a lesson in gratitude, a lesson in humbling myself before Him.
I started to question if I was truly grateful for my duas being answered. Did I take my blessing with open hands and then not offer the thanks due for it? And I knew the answer. No, I hadn’t. As a lazy servant, I was quick to make dua, I was quick to cry to Allah, I was very quick to liken my burdens to the pious prophets of the past. But I wasn’t equally grateful when I was relieved of my pain. I didn’t look up how the Prophets gave shukr. I didn’t experience the beauty of being a grateful servant. My dua was one sided, based on my need alone.
Once again I found solace in the conversation between Prophet Zakariyyah (as) and Allah. For me, the words in ayahs 1-15 of surah Maryam have always exemplified the essence of the one who asks and the One that responds. I also found solace in the duas that Prophet Yusuf (as) and his father Yaqub (as) made. Their words were filled with hope and their actions filled with tawaqqul.
So I was being tested again, but this time I felt the test was for my soul, there was a great need for the nafs to be purified and without a test it wouldn’t happen – because us humans are selfish like that. We only seek Allah’s help when we need something. We fail to seek it in times when we think things are ok.
I needed a lesson to bring me back to reality. I needed Allah to remind me that I was still in need of every good He was to give me. I was still in need of His many blessings in my life. And this need wouldn’t end with my pain going away or with another child, this need will be present until I am granted a place in Jannah.
So equipped with many thoughts and many deep, deep conversations through dua, I finally accepted that life will carry on with tests, sometimes hurting the body, sometimes the mind and mostly hurting the heart.
I came to learn to be a believer in a different kind of way. In this journey, some of my friends helped me a lot. Especially, my friends from my Quran group. We experienced the words of Allah together, through which we found a special bond. It’s lovely having friends, but to have friends that offer comfort, using reminders from the Quran is a true blessing.
My mother helped too. My mother reminded me of istighfar. She would often tell me to not forget istighfar, she would say, believers invite blessings through istighfar. She would remind me to give sadaqah. She made me look at things differently. She would tell me that sadaqah doesn’t have to be in the form of money, it could be in other ways too. I even ended up writing a post about it.
So what happened? Well, this time last year, I suddenly felt unwell. I wasn’t sure what was wrong with me. I told my husband I felt funny inside. And then I found out I’m expecting, alhamdhulillahi rabbul al amin. Something that wasn’t meant to happen; “are you sure?” the consultant asked me when I called him. “Well, you’re a very lucky woman”. Apparently it was a medical miracle.
And so now a year later, I have four-month-old Yahya, literally sitting on my lap as I type this. And I write this, not knowing the purpose of it, but maybe to remind myself. Remind myself once again, that man is not in control of his affairs, no matter how blessed he is, no matter what wealth or comfort he may posses, because life changes, things change within minutes and seconds; sometimes for the better, sometimes for the worse, but always with the Will of Allah, because Allah knows the real good and the true bad.
We are but to be believers in this life, living and experiencing sabr, shukr and tawaqqul.
This was such a beautiful reminder sis alhamdulillah. May Allah swt bless you, Abu Yusra and baby Yahya and make you all a means excel in the duniya and to meet each other again in jannatul firdous, Ameen. Doctors recommended that my sister have a hysterectomy at 34 as she already had 3 children and she took it. SubhanAllah it caused even MORE problems than the ones it was supposed to solve but that’s her test from Allah swt and I pray it’s a means to expiate her sins, Ameen.
Beautiful blog , so true to my feelings during the infertility period and afterwards also. Jazakillah for sharing.
So beautiful jazaki Allah khir my sister. Believe me I read it with my tears I felt it is like message from Allah to read your post. Sister just Allah knows how much ur post help me and inspire me. Love you for Allah’s sake. May Allah bless and protect your family.
This pierced every fibre of my heart. I was diagnosed with PCOD and told that I’ll have difficulty conceiving. But alhamdulilah Allah blessed me with a baby soon after marriage. Now I worry about this secondary infertility.
Jazaki allah khair..i really needed this reminder.
MashaAllah Allah blessed you with 2 children. Indeed, His Bounties and Treasures are very vast, it’s only our thoughts that are narrow and constricted that causes us to despair and become ungrateful.

industry_corpus2: Health & Medicine


text:
Purchasing a property abroad is more than buying a bag of sweets.
You start a new life style, a new purpose, you open a new and important chapter in your life. Alone or with your family.
As a broker, we have more than 16 years experience in accompanying customers with their purchase in Spain. After numerous questions from our clients, we decided to move to Spain. From here we can help you better and faster and assist in the purchasing process. Obviously the life under the Spanish sun is a welcome bonus.
Our presence on site allows us to be more and more a personal shopper in the search for your dream home.
To ensure your financial safety, my partners and I have set up a process to guarantee you a safe purchase. We can offer the buyer a "unique security charter".
After all those years of industry experience, we want to use it to guide you through your purchase.
Understand that all of the information transmitted is a "help & start" for your new life and that no rights can be linked here. All of the sources on our website are informed and agree to be mentioned on this website.

industry_corpus2: Real Estate & Construction


text: Are you looking for Physical Chemistry ebooks. If Yes, then you have reached at right place because this page has a collection of Physical Chemistry free ebooks list. We have collected these official available Physical Chemistry free ebooks from internet and listed on our ebook directory portal so that you can easily find some best free ebooks for Physical Chemistry. Following are the list of free e-books and guides on Physical Chemistry, some of the resources in this section can be viewed online and some of them can be downloaded.


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The burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia floridana) is one of our smallest owls, standing just nine inches tall with a wingspan of 21 inches. Unlike other owls, this owl is a ground dweller, preferring open fields and prairie-type areas well away from trees. It spends most of its time on the ground foraging or guarding its burrow which is where it gets its name. Camouflaged brown plumage helps it blend into its surroundings. It has bright yellow eyes, but no ear tufts and longer legs. This raptor needs open fields and short, herbaceous ground cover, like pastures, golf courses, or agricultural fields. It can be spotted during the daytime standing erect and on guard at the mouth of its burrow or perched on a fence post. Once disturbed, the owl clucks or chatters its displeasure and bobs its head in agitation. Burrowing owls often fly in a wavy, up and down fashion as if negotiating an invisible obstacle course. It can also hover in mid-air – an effective technique used for capturing prey. Florida’s warm climate provides this owl with plenty of its favorite foods: grasshoppers, beetles, mole crickets, small rodents, earthworms, lizards, frogs, toads, snakes, etc.
In Florida, burrows are used year-round. While the owls sometimes use gopher tortoise or armadillo burrows, most pairs excavate their own, which may extend four to eight feet underground. Burrows are lined with grass clippings, animal feces and decorative pieces of shell, feathers or trash.
Nesting begins in the fall and peaks in the spring. Four to ten unmarked white eggs are laid over a one-week period. Three to four weeks later, hatchlings are born covered with grayish-white down and eyes closed. Chicks emerge from the burrow after two weeks. Although proficient fliers at six weeks, chicks typically do not leave their parents until about 12 weeks old.
destroyed by construction activities, malicious destruction by people, or by flooding during heavy rains. This owl is classified as “Threatened” by the Florida Fish & Wildlife Commission primarily due to the loss of native habitat. Burrowing owls and their eggs are protected from harassment and/or disturbance by state law and protected by the federal Migratory Bird Treaty Act.
Read the full Nature’s Reflections article in the April 2018 SECO News online.

industry_corpus2: Agriculture & Fisheries


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Satyayai I have another life after death.
Each man has another life after death. And the man himself or jbalanato and true, and I, we are ourselves.
Many of us have to look a lot less sleep. Many of them do not have to sleep at night, eat, sleep medicine is the same as the rules come abara many sleep. Let’s discuss these issues in detail in the next paragraph, however, we should all keep in mind is the creation of the rules and regulations of the hyandilim However, this rule is also an owner of the causes, he became the head of M God have mercy.
When he went to sleep, the body becomes unconscious. But the heart of the spirit of our country abroad, including entities and many countries around the berai.
Write your ideas in our dreams or visions of the country’s right, yes, I am talking about.
Paul kharapi murder of all kinds, including even dream that we work much worse.
From the rich and the poor became rich from the poor.
Many of them are ordinary people can save the country from real life while sleeping, the king became a minister.

industry_corpus2: Others


text:
The less we will suffer for not receiving this.
Spent in the company of friends and foes alike.
The more at peace we naturally become with ourselves.
This harmony founded in our New Understanding.
By this willingness to put their concerns before our own.
And it is this one action that awakens in them . . .
Their sleeping need to respond in kind.
Happiness is the wholeness found in conscious kindness.
This is the secret of perfect relationships.
I need a drink [...] for love that once seemed pleasing has burdened down my mind.
now feel our pumping hearts beat fast, watch our fears unwind.
Why do we who visit love think we'd stay forever?
We know the yearn to wander will always lovers find.
So we asked the Elder: What law makes love bring pain?
Sobriety, he laughed, you'll feel better when you're wined.
the toss and turn of love's dark storm upon the ocean blind.
love's secret is that you must love without desires that bind.
seek not with her to please your world, just give love and be kind.
Love longs to quiet every fear.
Love comes to heal the broken heart.
Love comes to ease the troubled mind.
Love is part of resolving enmity, of joyful song and dance, and new life.
And all we need to do is open up the door when love knocks.
Love has a lot to live up to.
It’s true. We have come to expect a lot of this thing we call love. Our poetry, our films, our literature, our religion, our art, our music - it all tells us we can expect love to change everything. Love can heal us when we are broken, give life meaning, bring satisfaction and joy.
And yet we also know that love brings us pain.
Love hurts and love heals. Both are true. Love can be both wonderful and horrible - sometimes both at the same time.
There are times when love builds us up. We see ourselves in the accepting, admiring, caring gaze of another and we start to think of ourselves differently. Where we had thought ourselves flawed, we feel a new confidence growing. The wounds we carry from the past seem to heal over and strength takes their place. And we return love with pleasure - finding joy in the joy of our beloved.
And nothing seems to hurt quite as much as when that love is gone - when, that warmth has been taken away. No one can hurt us as much as someone we love and trusted.
If love is so great and powerful, then why does it hurt? Why isn’t the strength of love sufficient to overcome that pain?
A Buddhist perspective might be helpful here.
The Buddha taught that suffering in life comes from attachment. Our pain, he said, is not caused by painful experiences alone. It is caused by how we respond to those experiences. If we are attached to love - if we grab onto it tightly as though our very lives depends upon it - then our dependence on that love becomes reality. Loss of love will be all but deadly.
If we hold on lightly, living moment by moment with love, we can treasure what we have without being destroyed when it is gone. Everything is transient, the Buddhist tradition reminds us. Nothing lasts forever. Not love, not health, not our very lives.
There’s more to it than this though. When the Sufi mystic Hafiz asked the elder “What law makes love bring pain?”, the answer he received reveals the second essential perspective on love’s pain and healing.
“love's secret is that you must love without desires that bind.
It is not simply that non-attachment prevents us from missing love when it’s gone. With love, the very act of being attached to an outcome destroys the potential of that outcome.
Giving love winds up giving us love too. But there is a big caution here. Entering into love with the hope and expectation of this response turns love into commerce - into trade - and its power is disabled. If you care and give because you know you will get the same in return, the magic will be broken.
Love heals, not because the love we receive repairs what is broken in us. It heals because when we love completely, we are given the opportunity to give unreservedly, without ego or thought for our own need. And this places us in the deeply relational human dance of connection. It makes us apart of what is truly holy and healing. This is what heals us. Paradoxically, when our own happiness is not the goal of our actions, then true happiness is the outcome.
Love is wonderful and healing and love is painful. And loving well is hard. Loving well means loving without expectation of getting anything in return - like an ideal parent loves their child.
And although that selfless love brings us great happiness, it doesn’t come easily or naturally.
Our culture teaches that we should be looking out for ourselves. Our economic system needs for us to go to great lengths and expense to please ourselves. We hear very few messages in our lives telling us to worry less about our own desires and our own happiness, and more about others. Even when we are encouraged to get a gift for someone else, there are usually strings attached.
We hear very few messages then, that encourage us to love fully and deeply, which means selflessly. That means we hear very few messages that encourage us to do what will truly make us happy.
In some ways, then, the most selfish thing we can do is to be unselfish. We can heal ourselves by helping others. We can become stronger by strengthening others. We can find love by giving it away.


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John Are: с новым годом!
and I'm happy with the way its going so far.
Thank you to all the people who drop by and look at it.
New years resolution: Draw and Paint MORE!!!


text: Petzl has the reputation of being one of the best, and we must say, we agree. This non-adjustable dynamic rope lanyard is used in combination with the Petzl ABSORBICA to help hold connectors in place with either an "I" shape or a "Y" shape, depending on the version ABSORBICA you have. The cherry on top is that there is abrasion protections, plastic sheath used on the ends. This gear is multi functional as well. It can also be used with the MGO 6.0 connector with large gate opening for connecting to metal structures or other large diameter cables. This lanyard is avaialbe in two lengths, choose which is right for you and your job.

industry_corpus2: Manufacturing


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Wondering if anyone could help me out!
And I have been trying to sell this thing, it is brand new,(less then 6 months old) I started it up once and haven't touched it since. Trouble is I don't really want to sell it for anything less then $2000.00, I have tried literally everything and have found that I need to start trying on computer forums, locally is impossible - There is no one that wants to buy a new high end computer haha.
So yeah, these are the specs, tell me what you think and what is a reasonable offer/sale price for this beast.
Open discussion, let me know what you guys think, where I should sell, and at what price!
Re: Wondering if anyone could help me out!
Its hard reselling computers/parts. I have $1600 wrapped up in my computer, and I'd be lucky to get $600-$700 for it.
Unfortunately, computers depreciate faster than cars do. I guess I'll ask the dumb question since no one else has, Why did you buy such a beast of a computer when you're obviously not that into computers to begin with? It's like buying a $5,000 Gibson Les Paul with a custom paint job and never learning to play the guitar.
Well, thing is I need the computer for school - problem is I need money to pay for school lol.
I'd almost say you'd have an easier time parting it out. Sell it piece by piece.


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I got my E71 just a few days back...while transfering songs through PC suite I cannot access my memory card...i cant access my memory card at all through USB...please can anyone help me out??
those who need blackberry connection... check out https://email.nokia.com/. download the software and turn your device into a blackberry. this device looks damn good. ıt has a great battery life (unlike windows mobile phones), a wonderfull form factor (unlike windows mobile phones).
sukesh kotian, 24 Dec 2008Just I want to know there is any option of call recording in E71. PLS Reply me as soon as possibleYes there is, you should download and install callrecorder for symbian.
Can anyone tell me how to change the bit rate to perform smooth video playback?I convert dvd into mpeg4(app 700mb) which has excellent resolution but a bit "stop" during fast action.
how can i activate ma gps thru bluetooth...it doesnt show any maps...do i have to download the maps??
Is it available without camera?
great phone I must say and better than the Iphone if people realize it.
how can i install new themes for e 71??
toni, 27 Dec 2008have problem with the memory card slot. it keeps showing a message to pull out the memory card... morethis phone sometimes have problem with memory card. sometimes it can't read the memory card, but after u reboot or replug it, its ok.
but horribly, today when i record video, suddenly it stops, shows error and can't read the memory card. for the "bonus", all my multimedia data is lost?!!!
poklat, 27 Dec 2008can this phone view pdf files?Yes, the E71 reads PDF files.


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The following provisions are the current OnApp Services Acceptable Use Policy (“AUP”) and apply to your use of OnApp Services. OnApp shall be entitled to modify the AUP provisions at any time without prior notice by posting to an OnApp website which you should regularly check for updates. In the event that you do not agree such changes your use of the OnApp Services must stop and continued use thereafter signifies your acceptance of those changes.
1. The OnApp Services may not be used in any way that is not honest, decent, legal and truthful nor for any purpose that would otherwise be objectionable to an ordinary reasonable person. In particular, OnApp Services may not be used (i) for the purposes of deceptive advertising or advertising deceptive products or services; (ii) to publish or distribute obscene, defamatory, threatening or harassing images or words; (iii) to infringe the intellectual property rights of others; (iv) to infringe the privacy or personal data rights of any person; (v) to intentionally, recklessly or negligently store or transmit any malicious code or junk mail/spam; or (vi) in a way that could harm the status or operation of OnApp, its systems, networks, or infrastructure or any OnApp Services.
2. Network and system security violations are prohibited. Examples of such violations include, but are not limited to, the following: (i) Unauthorized access of networks, data, servers, databases, etc. that you do not have permission to access; (ii) Any attempt to test, probe, or scan any OnApp system or network (or use the OnApp network or systems for the purposes of such tests) in order to ascertain vulnerability, or any attempt to breach security or authentication measures without authorization; (iii) Unauthorized monitoring of traffic or data on any network or system without authorization from the owner of such network or system; (iv) Any attempt to interfere or disrupt any service or network (including by use of the following, non-exhaustively listed, methods): flooding, mail-bombing, denial of service attacks, or any other deliberate attempts to overload a system; (v) The forging of any TCP-IP packet headers or any part of the header information in emails; (vi) Any usage or attempted usage of services which you are not authorized to use.
3. You must immediately take action to prevent any known or suspected AUP violations and immediately report the violation to us. Without limiting any of our remedies, should we become aware of any AUP violation by you, (as reasonably determined by us), we reserve the right to take down and/or suspend any affected service or account.


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CHAPEL HILL, N.C. – Oct. 31, 2017  –Several UNC Health Care hospitals earned top marks in the latest round of hospital safety grades from the Leapfrog Group, ranking them among the best in the nation.
UNC Medical Center in Chapel Hill, UNC REX Healthcare in Raleigh, Johnston Heath in Smithfield and Clayton, and High Point Regional in High Point all earned top “A” grades on the Leapfrog Group’s Fall 2017 report card.
The Leapfrog Hospital Safety Grade uses 27 measures of publicly-available hospital safety data to assign A, B, C, D and F grades to more than 2,600 U.S. hospitals twice per year. It is calculated by top patient-safety experts, peer reviewed, fully transparent and free to the public. Nationwide, 832 hospitals received “A” grades.
UNC REX is the only hospital in North Carolina – and one of only 59 nationwide – to receive straight A’s since Leapfrog began publishing its safety report card in 2012.
“We applaud all hospitals that earn an A for safety – a significant achievement. UNC REX Healthcare takes that achievement one step further by earning an A year after year,” said Leah Binder, president and CEO of the Leapfrog Group.
To see a hospital’s full grade, and to access consumer-friendly tips for patients, visit www.hospitalsafetygrade.org or follow The Leapfrog Hospital Safety Grade on Twitter and Facebook. Consumers can also download the free Leapfrog Hospital Safety Grade mobile app for Apple and Android devices.
UNC Health Care is an integrated health care system comprised of UNC Hospitals and its provider network UNC Faculty Physicians, UNC Physicians Network, the clinical patient care programs of the UNC School of Medicine and nine other hospitals and hospital systems across the state. Additional hospital entities include UNC REX Healthcare, Chatham Hospital, Johnston Health, Pardee Hospital, High Point Regional Health, Caldwell Memorial, Nash Health Care, Wayne Memorial and UNC Lenoir Health Care.


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Purchased new to me SW Motech Blaze saddlebags from eBay and saved a ton of money. Can't wait to get them installed. My poor bike needs some love, I have yet to do the annual oil change & she hasn't been washed since before I rode to the Gap... She's gonna have to wait though, Motoamerica is this weekend!!!
I'm so glad I got lucky and caught this on camera.
Someone said that was a 65, not an 85 - does anyone know for sure what it was? I have to go back to see if I have any photos of it, it was one of my favorites. That little bike was wicked fast.
I went down a wormhole the other day looking up the ability to tow with my GTI. It was interesting to see that the same vehicle in Europe is rated to tow more than here in the US. And I get it Europe is smaller, doesn't have miles and miles of 70+ speed limit highways, etc, etc. Didn't people tow campers with the big domestic station wagons back in the 80's? But anyway... I have a friend that tows one of those single rail/fold up motorcycle trailers with his Mazda 3 wagon to track days; it looks sketchy as all get out, but it works.

industry_corpus2: Automobiles


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I'm pretty sure Casablanca just got their A level results today. Maybe you did too. Hopefully it will have been good news all round. In other good news, the boys of Casablanca are releasing their debut single, 'Yes'. Listen to their cowbell-infused guitar pop below.
We wrote about Casablanca back in February, calling 'Yes' a "heady indie anthem, cradled by guitar lines". The new production (by Mark Taylor, who has worked with the likes of Enrique Iglesias and Cher!) has given the track a much more enveloping sound - sort of reminding me a bit of the production on Silent Alarm-era Bloc Party.
Find more info at facebook.com/casablancasounds. Pre-order 'Yes' from Party Politics.


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Fujifilm has just announced its latest GF lens, the Fujinon GF 100-200mm f/5.6 R LM OIS WR. It’s made for medium-format GFX system. The lens offers 5-stop optical image stabilization. It’s designed particularly with nature and landscape photographers in mind, but I believe portrait photographers could find it useful as well. Let’s dive into specs and see what you can expect from the latest Fujifilm’s telephoto zoom.
Along with the new X-H1 camera, Fujifilm has announced two new X-mount lenses today: MK50-135mm T2.9 and MK18-55mm T2.9. The focal lengths differ, but the lenses have many features in common, so let’s take a look.
I don’t know about you, but I find factory tours fascinating, especially when so much equipment is still being assembled by hand. Sure, the individual components manufacture may be automated, but to see them all come together to create the final by hand product is a wonderful sight. It’s also interesting to see how each company differs in their approach & working environment, too.
I used to think all this stuff was 99% automated until I started seeing tours of factories like Leica and Sony. This time we get to look inside Fujifilm’s Japanese Sendai factory, thanks to the folks at Cinema5D. The Sendai factory is where they make Fujinon MK lenses, the Fujifilm X-T2, Fujifilm GFX and a few other cool toys.
Anybody who has ever tried to shoot video with a photography zoom lens understands the frustration it can cause. It seems natural to want to use the lenses we already own with DSLRs and mirrorless that can record video. After all, why spend money on a lens we already own, right? But things are a little more complicated than that. Photography lenses aren’t designed for video.
This video from The Camera Store TV is both hilarious and informative. It highlights the big differences between photography and cinema lenses. Why cinema lenses cost more money, and why you often can’t pull off the same shots with even pro photography lenses. I’m not sure which is funnier, though, the general idea of the sketch, or the acting abilities of those involved.
French website Le Monde De La Photo (The World ofPhotography) has recently published test results for three Fujifilm lenses on a Fujifilm GFX 50S camera. They tested Fujinon GF 63mm f/2.8, Fujinon GF 120mm f/4 and Fujinon GF 32-64mm f/4. The lenses and the cameras will be released on February 28, 2017, so this is a good chance to take a look at the performance they offer.
According to the tests, all the lenses have performed very well in terms of performance, autofocus and ISO when attached to the GFX 50S camera. But the sharpness results were exceptional. This review is an early first look, but it gives a nice insight on the lenses and this mirrorless monster of a camera. Le Monde De La Photo has published the graphs showing the sharpness of these three lenses, and here are the results.
According to “new sources”, Fuji Rumors are reporting that Fuji are starting to take a serious interest in video. They say that Fujifilm will launch lenses with clickless apertures sometime in 2017. These lenses will be designed for users of the Fuji X system who primarily use their cameras for video.
The fast & accurate AF of the recently released Fujifilm X-T2 as well as outstanding image quality, it has fast become a favourite for some video shooters. Having native lenses and not relying on various adapters to use other system lenses will make a big difference.


text: -THE DOLPHIN INN IS LOCATED IN THE HEART OF CARMEL-BY-THE-SEA- THE DOLPHIN INN OFFERS 27 GUEST ROOMS AND SUITES WITH WORLD-CLASS ART GALLERIES- DINING- AND SHOPPING NEARBY. THE INN WAS DESIGNED WITH A MONTEREY COLONIAL INFLUENCE AND CREATED WITH A SINGLE FOCUS OF PROVIDING QUALITY GUEST ACCOMMODATIONS AND UPSCALE AMENITIES. OVERSIZED GUEST ROOMS AND SUITES- EXPANSIVE BALCONIES- FIREPLACES IN MOST ACCOMMODATIONS- A LARGE HEATED SWIMMING POOL- AND A COMPLIMENTARY CONTINENTAL BREAKFAST BASKET DELIVERED TO YOUR DOORSTEP EACH MORNING ARE JUST SOME OF THE MANY AMENITIES OFFERED AT THE DOLPHIN INN. BEYOND THE COMFORT OF YOUR ACCOMMODATIONS- OUR STAFF WILL PROVIDE PERSONALIZED AND GRACIOUS SERVICE TO MAKE YOUR VISIT A MEMORABLE EXPERIENCE.


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Facebook Canvas Ads enable us to reach customers with a different and engaging ad experience. Dealers who can paint their canvases with immersive creative, offers, and CTAs will maximize the potential of their ads — and that’s what we’re here for! If you’re ready to start making your first Canvas Ads with LDM, sign-up below and we’ll get to work right away.
Try Your First Canvas Ad!
New + Interactive = Engagement: When users are seeing the same old ads and ad types, they are less likely to engage. Canvas ads give you the opportunity to push new creative that’s immersive and legitimately fun to interact with (remember, they’re probably on Facebook because they’re bored).
Tell the Whole Story: With video, carousels, panoramic images, store locators, and CTAs at your disposal, you can show your audience what you have to offer, what makes you different as a dealership, and how close by you are — all in one immersive experience.
In-App Shop: Canvas ads are a great way to showcase your inventory within Facebook, so that users can start to shop right where they are before having to commit to leaving the Facebook app. That creates a bridge to your website, encouraging those you’ve hooked to click-through and continue shopping on-site.
In our testing of Facebook Canvas ads, we have already seen big results. For example, after just one day Mercedes Benz Langley saw 72 link clicks just from a Canvas ad. Within 3 days of publishing a Canvas ad, Mercedes Benz Langley had a click-through-rate of 2.14% with an average cost-per-click of $0.49 and an astounding 255 link clicks. The average percentage of Canvas viewed was 71. 62% with the average time spent on Canvas being 18.26 seconds.
After 10 days, here’s the traffic generated from a Facebook Canvas Ad as reported in Google Analytics.
This particular ad had 6 different images to scroll through vertically before getting to the site – the fact that users scrolled through almost a third has surpassed our expectations. Mercedes Benz Langley continued to see results after 10 days of releasing the the Canvas ad with a click-through-rate of 1.67% with an average cost-per-click of $0.55. There were 723 link clicks with the average percentage of Canvas viewed being 66.36% and Canvas view time being 15.84 seconds.
Let us know when you’re ready, and our team will stitch together your very own canvas ad out of interactive creative, inventory, and directions to your dealership — and then push it out to in-market shoppers. Give it a shot!


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Traction 22CV video authenticity. No it is not the real car! - CITROËNVIE !CITROËNVIE !
Traction 22CV video authenticity. No it is not the real car!
Have you come across video clips posted online like this one showing footage of Citroën’s “Super Traction Avant” the 8 cylinder 22CV?
Sorry to tell you but no 22CV have been known to survive. Citroën produced at least nine 22CV’s. Perhaps as many as 20 by expert accounts. Roadster, coupe, sedan and familalle versions were all displayed at the 1934 Paris Salon. Publicity and sales material were produced but the car never went into production. However at the time Citroën was filing for bankruptcy due in good measure to the development cost of the Traction Avant and Michelin was taking over control of the company. Extravagance had to cease and two reported crashes of 22CV’s did not endear management to take it any further.
All 22CV’s were ordered by Pierre Boulanger (Citroën’s Managing Director at the time) to be dismantled or converted into 11CV Tractions. Conversion meant: removal of specific 22cv nose and V8 engine and fitting of 11 (4 cylinder) engine and nose. They were then sold to employees of the factory or friends of the developers. The luxurious interior and other specific 22 details remained with the car. Three cars were retained by the Bureau d’Etudes as test beds for the Bibax driveshaft dampers of the 15-6 until early 1937, but were almost certainly scrapped.
The replica was made from 1985-89, and is powered by a Ford side-valve V8 mated to a Renault 16 gearbox. The engine choice was both practical and reasonably authentic as only 2 of the 22CV prototypes are thought to have had Citroën developed V8 engines. The balance (that were running at least) had Ford 8 cylinder power plants.
Dr. de Boer started with a post-war 11 Normale body shell. The “bulge” trunk lid was removed and a flush external tire boot-lid mounted. Up front a 15-6 hood with louvers was modified to single “22” style vents on each side. The front fenders were widened by about 2 inches and integral front headlamps were created using the lenses from a pre-war Chenard et Walcker. About the only visual clue to Dr. de Boer’s creation not looking like the original 22CV is that the little grills below each headlight do not actually have the correct number of vertical slats. To his credit the car was made to look well worn; like a barn find that was just dusted off and fluids changed to go back on the road. It has an uncanny “long lost charm” about it.
Dr. de Boer’s 22CV replica was on display at the 75th Anniversary of the Traction Avant meet in Arras, France back in 2009.
We must admit it’s pretty cool to see a running CV22 and can’t help but wonder what it could have become had Citroën the cash and resources at the time to refine it a bit further.
22CV, Traction V8, Super Traction, Pierre Boulanger, Fabien Sabates, Herve Laronde, Bouwe de Boer, Ford V8, Chenard et Walcker.


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Our 24/7 Display Window features unique art installations that can be viewed from outside the building around the clock.
Fine handcrafted items rotated on a monthly basis.
We celebrate the human spirit through the arts and recognize the importance of art in our lives by exhibiting and selling art by local artists from our Artist Registry; providing creative enrichment for individuals, families and children; and exhibiting artistic and cultural shows from outside the area.
The Bellefonte Art Museum for Centre County, a "Let's Move!" Museum, is proud to be featured on the Institute of Museum and Library Services official blog UpNext!


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Serving as a pastor was something Alex considered from childhood. After four years at Luther Preparatory School, a specialized high school in Watertown, Wisconsin, he continued his studies at Martin Luther College in New Ulm, MN. After four years he received his Bachelor of Arts in Liberal Arts. His coursework there included becoming proficient in Greek, Hebrew, German, History, Science, and other areas. Then came the next four years of study at Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary, from which he received his Master in Divinity. There he took courses devoted to the study of Scripture in the original languages. The curriculum also included large amounts of academic courses like church history and doctrine as well as practical courses like preaching, counseling and evangelism.
Part of Alex’s training included an internship at St. Andrew Lutheran Church in Madison, Wisconsin, in 2009 and 2010. Upon graduation from the Seminary, Alex received a call to serve at Beautiful Savior Lutheran in Cincinnati, Ohio in 2011 and has been serving here ever since. In addition to his responsibilities at Beautiful Savior, Alex serves as the coordinator for the Commission on Youth and Family for the WELS Michigan District.
Alex married his wife Carrie in 2009. Carrie serves as a teacher in Beautiful Savior’s school ministry. They look forward to meeting you!