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String instrument
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Numerous stringed instruments of Chinese make on display in a shop.
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Ellen Fullman's and Paul Panhuysen's
string installations
Yazh (India)
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Zhongruan (China)
Zhu (China)
Zither
Percussion
Keyboards
v
t
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Viol, fidel and rebec (from left to right) on display at Amakusa Korejiyokan in Amakusa, Kumamoto, Japan
String instruments, stringed instruments, or chordophones are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when the performer plays or sounds the strings in some manner.
Musicians play some string instruments by plucking the strings with their fingers or a plectrum—and others by hitting the strings with a light wooden hammer or by rubbing the strings with a bow. In some keyboard instruments, such as the harpsichord , the musician presses a key that plucks the string.
With bowed instruments, the player rubs the strings with a horsehair bow, causing them to vibrate. With a hurdy-gurdy, the musician operates a mechanical wheel that rubs the strings.
Bowed instruments include the string section instruments of the Classical music orchestra (violin, viola, cello and double bass) and a number of other instruments (e.g., viols and gambas used in early music from the Baroque music era and fiddles used in many types of folk music). All of the bowed string instruments can also be plucked with the fingers, a technique called "pizzicato". A wide variety of techniques are used to sound notes on the electric guitar, including plucking with the fingernails or a plectrum, strumming and even "tapping" on the fingerboard and using feedback from a loud, distorted guitar amplifier to produce a sustained sound. Some types of string instrument are mainly plucked, such as the harp and the electric bass. In the Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification, used in organology, string instruments are called chordophones. Other examples include the sitar, rebab, banjo, mandolin, ukulele, and bouzouki.
In most string instruments, the vibrations are transmitted to the body of the instrument, which often incorporates some sort of hollow or enclosed area. The body of the instrument also vibrates, along with the air inside it. The vibration of the body of the instrument and the enclosed hollow or chamber make the vibration of the string more audible to the performer and audience. The body of most string instruments is hollow. Some, however—such as electric guitar and other instruments that rely on electronic amplification—may have a solid wood body.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Earliest string instruments
1.2 Lutes
1.3 Renaissance to modern
2 Types of instruments
2.1 Construction
2.2 Playing techniques
2.2.1 Plucking
2.2.2 Bowing
2.2.3 Striking
2.2.4 Other methods
3 Changing the pitch of a vibrating string
3.1 Length
3.2 Tension
3.3 Linear density
4 String length or scale length
5 Contact points along the string
6 Production of multiple notes
7 Sympathetic strings
8 Sound production
8.1 Acoustic instruments
8.2 Electronic amplification
9 Symphonic strings
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
Bow Harp or Harp Lute, West Africa
Musical bows have survived in some parts of Africa.
Earliest string instruments[edit]
Dating to around c. 13,000 BC, a cave painting in the Trois Frères cave in France depicts what some believe is a musical bow, a hunting bow used as a single-stringed musical instrument.[1][2] From the musical bow, families of stringed instruments developed; since each string played a single note, adding strings added new notes, creating bow harps, harps and lyres.[3] In turn, this led to being able to play dyads and chords. Another innovation occurred when the bow harp was straightened out and a bridge used to lift the strings off the stick-neck, creating the lute.[4]
This picture of musical bow to harp bow is theory and has been contested. In 1965 Franz Jahnel wrote his criticism stating that the early ancestors of plucked instruments are not currently known.[5] He felt that the harp bow was a long cry from the sophistication of the 4th-century BC civilization that took the primitive technology and created "technically and artistically well made harps, lyres, citharas and lutes."[5]
Archaeological digs have identified some of the earliest stringed instruments in Ancient Mesopotamian sites, like the lyres of Ur, which include artifacts over three thousand years old. The development of lyre instruments required the technology to create a tuning mechanism to tighten and loosen the string tension. Lyres with wooden bodies, and strings used for plucking or playing with a bow represent key instruments that point towards later harps and violin-type instruments; moreover, Indian instruments from 500 BC have been discovered with anything from 7 to 21 strings.
Lutes[edit]
Hellenistic banquet scene from the 1st century AD, Hadda, Gandhara. Lute player far right.
Spanish stele of a boy with a pandura.[6]
Musicologists have put forth examples of that 4th-century BC technology, looking at engraved images that have survived. The earliest image showing a lute-like instrument came from Mesopotamia prior to 3000 BC.[7] A cylinder seal from c. 3100 BC or earlier (now in the possession of the British Museum) shows what is thought to be a woman playing a stick lute.[7][8] From the surviving images, theororists have categorized the Mesopotamian lutes, showing that they developed into a long variety and a short.[9] The line of long lutes may have developed into the tamburs and pandura.[10] The line of short lutes was further developed to the east of Mesopotamia, in Bactria, Gandhara, and Northwest India, and shown in sculpture from the 2nd century BC through the 4th or 5th centuries AD.[11][12][13]
During the medieval era, instrument development varied from country to country. Middle Eastern rebecs represented breakthroughs in terms of shape and strings, with a half a pear shape using three strings. Early versions of the violin and fiddle, by comparison, emerged in Europe through instruments such as the gittern, a four stringed precursor to the guitar, and basic lutes. These instruments typically used catgut (animal intestine) and other materials, including silk, for their strings.
Renaissance to modern[edit]
String instrument design refined during the Renaissance and into the Baroque period (1600–1750) of musical history. Violins and guitars became more consistent in design, and were roughly similar to what we use in the 2000s and into the present day. The violins of the Renaissance featured intricate woodwork and stringing, while more elaborate bass instruments such as the bandora were produced alongside quill-plucked citterns, and Spanish body guitars.
In the 19th century, string instruments were made more widely available through mass production, with wood string instruments a key part of orchestras – cellos, violas, and upright basses, for example, were now standard instruments for chamber and smaller orchestras. At the same time, the 19th century guitar became more typically associated with six string models, rather than traditional five string versions.
Major changes to string instruments in the 20th century primarily involved innovations in electronic instrument amplification and electronic music – electric violins were available by the 1920s, and were an important part of emerging jazz music trends in the United States. The acoustic guitar was widely used in blues and jazz, but as an acoustic instrument, it was not loud enough to be a solo instrument, so these genres mostly used it as an accompaniment rhythm section instrument. In big bands of the 1920s, the acoustic guitar played backing chords, but it was not loud enough to play solos like the saxophone and trumpet. The development of guitar amplifiers, which contained a power amplifier and a loudspeaker in a wooden cabinet, let jazz guitarists play solos and be heard over a big band. The development of the electric guitar provided guitarists with an instrument that was built to connect to guitar amplifiers. Electric guitars have magnetic pickups, volume control knobs and an output jack.
In the 1960s, larger, more powerful guitar amplifiers were developed, called "stacks". These powerful amplifiers enabled guitarists to perform in rock bands that played in large venues such as stadiums and outdoor music festivals (e.g., Woodstock Music Festival). Along with the development of guitar amplifiers, a large range of electronic effects units, many in small stompbox pedals were introduced in the 1960s and 1970s, such as fuzz pedals, flangers and phaser enabling performers to create unique new sounds during the psychedelic rock era. Breakthroughs in electric guitar and basses technologies and playing styles enabled major breakthroughs in pop and rock music in the 1960s and 1970s. The distinctive sound of the amplified electric guitar was the centerpiece of new genres of music such as blues rock and jazz-rock fusion. The sonic power of the loudly amplified, highly distorted electric guitar was to key element of the early heavy metal music, with the distorted guitar being used in lead guitar roles, and with power chords as a rhythm guitar.
The ongoing use of electronic amplification and effects units in string instruments, ranging from traditional instruments like the violin to the new electric guitar, added variety to contemporary classical music performances, and enabled experimentation in the dynamic and timbre (tone colour) range of orchestras, bands, and solo performances.[14]
Types of instruments[edit]
Construction[edit]
String instruments can be divided in three groups
Lutes – instruments that support the strings via a neck and a bout ("gourd"), for instance a guitar, a violin, or a saz
Harps – instruments that contain the strings within a frame
Zithers – instruments that have the strings mounted on a body or frame, such as a guqin, a cimbalom, an autoharp, harpsichord or a piano
It is also possible to divide the instruments into categories focused on how the instrument is played.
Playing techniques[edit]
An acoustic guitar being strummed.
For a full list, see List of string instruments.
All string instruments produce sound from one or more vibrating strings, transferred to the air by the body of the instrument (or by a pickup in the case of electronically amplified instruments). They are usually categorised by the technique used to make the strings vibrate (or by the primary technique, in the case of instruments where more than one may apply.) The three most common techniques are plucking, bowing, and striking. An important difference between bowing and plucking is that in the former the phenomenon is periodic so that the overtones are kept in a strictly harmonic relationship to the fundamental.[15]
Plucking[edit]
Main article: Plucked string instrument
Plucking is a method of playing on instruments such as the veena, banjo, ukulele, guitar, harp, lute, mandolin, oud, and sitar, using either a finger, thumb, or quills (now plastic plectra) to pluck the strings.
Instruments normally played by bowing (see below) may also be plucked, a technique referred to by the Italian term pizzicato.
Bowing[edit]
Main article: Bowed string instrument
Bowing (Italian: arco) is a method used in some string instruments, including the violin, viola, cello, and the double bass (of the violin family), and the old viol family. The bow consists of a stick with a "ribbon" of parallel horse tail hairs stretched between its ends. The hair is coated with rosin so it can grip the string; moving the hair across a string causes a stick-slip phenomenon, making the string vibrate, and prompting the instrument to emit sound.
The ravanahatha is one of the oldest string instruments. Ancestors of the modern bowed string instruments are the rebab of the Islamic Empires, the Persian kamanche and the Byzantine lira. Other bowed instruments are the rebec, hardingfele, nyckelharpa, kokyū, erhu, igil, sarangi and K'ni. The hurdy-gurdy is bowed by a wheel. Rarely, the guitar has been played with a bow (rather than plucked) for unique effects.
Striking[edit]
The third common method of sound production in stringed instruments is to strike the string. The piano and hammered dulcimer use this method of sound production. Even though the piano strikes the strings, the use of felt hammers means that the sound that is produced can nevertheless be mellow and rounded, in contrast to the sharp attack produced when a very hard hammer strikes the strings.
Violin family string instrument players are occasionally instructed to strike the string with the stick of the bow, a technique called col legno. This yields a percussive sound along with the pitch of the note. A well-known use of col legno for orchestral strings is Gustav Holst's "Mars" movement from The Planets suite.
Other methods[edit]
The aeolian harp employs a very unusual method of sound production: the strings are excited by the movement of the air.
Some instruments that have strings have an attached keyboards that the player presses keys on to trigger a mechanism that sounds the strings, instead of directly manipulating the strings. These include the piano, the clavichord, and the harpsichord. With these keyboard instruments too, strings are occasionally plucked or bowed by hand. Modern composers such as Henry Cowell wrote music that requires that the player reach inside the piano and pluck the strings directly, "bow" them with bow hair wrapped around the strings, or play them by rolling the bell of a brass instrument such as a trombone on the array of strings. However, these are relatively rarely used special techniques.
Other keyed string instruments, small enough for a strolling musician to play, include the plucked autoharp, the bowed nyckelharpa, and the hurdy-gurdy, which is played by cranking a rosined wheel.
Steel-stringed instruments (such as the guitar, bass, violin, etc.) can be played using a magnetic field. An E-Bow is a small hand-held battery-powered device that magnetically excites the strings of an electric string instrument to provide a sustained, singing tone reminiscent of a held bowed violin note.
Third bridge is a plucking method where the player frets a string and strikes the side opposite the bridge. The technique is mainly used on electric instruments because these have a pickup that amplifies only the local string vibration. It is possible on acoustic instruments as well, but less effective. For instance, a player might press on the seventh fret on a guitar and pluck it at the head side to make a tone resonate at the opposed side. On electric instruments, this technique generates multitone sounds reminiscent of a clock or bell.
Electric string instruments, such as the electric guitar, can also be played without touching the strings by using audio feedback. When an electric guitar is plugged into a loud, powerful guitar amplifier with a loudspeaker and a high level of distortion is intentionally used, the guitar produces sustained high-pitched sounds. By changing the proximity of the guitar to the speaker, the guitarist can produce sounds that cannot be produced with standard plucking and picking techniques. This technique was popularized by Jimi Hendrix and others in the 1960s. It was widely used in psychedelic rock and heavy metal music.
Changing the pitch of a vibrating string[edit]
Main article: Mersenne's laws
There are three ways to change the pitch of a vibrating string. String instruments are tuned by varying the strings' tension because adjusting length or mass per unit length is impractical. Instruments with a fingerboard are then played by adjusting the length of the vibrating portion of the strings. The following observations all apply to a string that is infinitely flexible (a theoretical assumption, because in practical applications, strings are not infinitely flexible) strung between two fixed supports. Real strings have finite curvature at the bridge and nut, and the bridge, because of its motion, are not exactly nodes of vibration. Hence the following statements about proportionality are approximations.
Length[edit]
String fingering is proportional and not fixed,[16] as on the piano
Pitch can be adjusted by varying the length of the string.[15] A longer string results in a lower pitch, while a shorter string results in a higher pitch. The frequency is inversely proportional to the length:
f ∝ 1 l {\displaystyle f\propto {\frac {1}{l}}}
A string twice as long produces a tone of half the frequency (one octave lower).
Tension[edit]
Pitch can be adjusted by varying the tension of the string. A string with less tension (looser) results in a lower pitch, while a string with greater tension (tighter) results in a higher pitch. A homemade washtub bass made out of a length of rope, a broomstick and a washtub can produce different pitches by increasing the tension on the rope (producing a higher pitch) or reducing the tension (producing a lower pitch). The frequency is proportional to the square root of the tension:
f ∝ T {\displaystyle f\propto {\sqrt {T}}}
Linear density[edit]
The pitch of a string can also be varied by changing the linear density (mass per unit length) of the string. In practical applications, such as with double bass strings or bass piano strings, extra weight is added to strings by winding them with metal. A string with a heavier metal winding produces a lower pitch than a string of equal length without a metal winding. This can be seen on a 2016-era set of gut strings for double bass. The higher-pitched G string is often made of synthetic material, or sometimes animal intestine, with no metal wrapping. To enable the low E string to produce a much lower pitch with a string of the same length, it is wrapped with many wrappings of thin metal wire. This adds to its mass without making it too stiff. The frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the linear density:
f ∝ 1 μ {\displaystyle f\propto {1 \over {\sqrt {\mu }}}}
Given two strings of equal length and tension, the string with higher mass per unit length produces the lower pitch.
String length or scale length[edit]
The length of the string from nut to bridge on bowed or plucked instruments ultimately determines the distance between different notes on the instrument. For example, a double bass with its low range needs a scale length of around 42 inches (110 cm), whilst a violin scale is only about 13 inches (33 cm). On the shorter scale of the violin, the left hand may easily reach a range of slightly more than two octaves without shifting position, while on the bass' longer scale, a single octave or a ninth is reachable in lower positions.
Contact points along the string[edit]
The strings of a piano
In bowed instruments, the bow is normally placed perpendicularly to the string, at a point halfway between the end of the fingerboard and the bridge. However, different bow placements can be selected to change timbre. Application of the bow close to the bridge (known as sul ponticello) produces an intense, sometimes harsh sound, which acoustically emphasizes the upper harmonics. Bowing above the fingerboard (sul tasto) produces a purer tone with less overtone strength, emphasizing the fundamental, also known as flautando, since it sounds less reedy and more flute-like.
Bowed instruments pose a challenge to instrument builders, as compared with instruments that are only plucked (e.g., guitar), because on bowed instruments, the musician must be able to play one string at a time if they wish. As such, a bowed instrument must have a curved bridge that makes the "outer" strings lower in height than the "inner" strings. With such a curved bridge, the player can select one string at a time to play. On guitars and lutes, the bridge can be flat, because the strings are played by plucking them with the fingers, fingernails or a pick; by moving the fingers or pick to different positions, the player can play different strings. On bowed instruments, the need to play strings individually with the bow also limits the number of strings to about six or seven strings; with more strings, it would be impossible to select individual strings to bow. (Note: bowed strings can also play two bowed notes on two different strings at the same time, a technique called a double stop.) Indeed, on the orchestral string section instruments, four strings are the norm, with the exception of five strings used on some double basses. In contrast, with stringed keyboard instruments, 88 strings are used on a piano, and even though these strings are arranged on a flat bridge, the mechanism can play any of the notes individually.
Similar timbral distinctions are also possible with plucked string instruments by selecting an appropriate plucking point, although the difference is perhaps more subtle.
In keyboard instruments, the contact point along the string (whether this be hammer, tangent, or plectrum) is a choice made by the instrument designer. Builders use a combination of experience and acoustic theory to establish the right set of contact points.
In harpsichords, often there are two sets of strings of equal length. These "choirs" usually differ in their plucking points. One choir has a "normal" plucking point, producing a canonical harpsichord sound; the other has a plucking point close to the bridge, producing a reedier "nasal" sound rich in upper harmonics.
Production of multiple notes[edit]
A single string at a certain tension and length only produces one note. To produce multiple notes, string instruments use one of two methods. One is to add enough strings to cover the required range of different notes (e.g., as with the piano, which has sets of 88 strings to enable the performer to play 88 different notes). The other is to provide a way to stop the strings along their length to shorten the part that vibrates, which is the method used in guitar and violin family instruments to produce different notes from the same string. The piano and harp represent the first method, where each note on the instrument has its own string or course of multiple strings tuned to the same note. (Many notes on a piano are strung with a "choir" of three strings tuned alike, to increase the volume.) A guitar represents the second method—the player's fingers push the string against the fingerboard so that the string is pressed firmly against a metal fret. Pressing the string against a fret while plucking or strumming it shortens the vibrating part and thus produces a different note.
Some zithers combine stoppable (melody) strings with a greater number of "open" harmony or chord strings. On instruments with stoppable strings, such as the violin or guitar, the player can shorten the vibrating length of the string, using their fingers directly (or more rarely through some mechanical device, as in the nyckelharpa and the hurdy-gurdy). Such instruments usually have a fingerboard attached to the neck of the instrument, that provides a hard flat surface the player can stop the strings against. On some string instruments, the fingerboard has frets, raised ridges perpendicular to the strings, that stop the string at precise intervals, in which case the fingerboard is also called a fretboard.
Moving frets during performance is usually impractical. The bridges of a koto, on the other hand, may be moved by the player occasionally in the course of a single piece of music. Many modern Western harps include levers, either directly moved by fingers (on Celtic harps) or controlled by foot pedals (on orchestral harps), to raise the pitch of individual strings by a fixed amount. The Middle Eastern zither, the qanun, is equipped with small levers called mandal that let each course of multiple strings be incrementally retuned "on the fly" while the instrument is being played. These levers raise or lower the pitch of the string course by a microtone, less than a half step.
Sympathetic strings[edit]
Main article: Sympathetic string
Some instruments are employed with sympathetic strings—which are additional strings not meant to be plucked. These strings resonate with the played notes, creating additional tones. Sympathetic strings vibrate naturally when various intervals, such as the unisons or the octaves of the notes of the sympathetic strings are plucked, bowed or struck. This system is used on the sarangi, the grand piano, the hardanger fiddle and the rubab.
Sound production[edit]
Acoustic instruments[edit]
See also: Musical acoustics
A vibrating string strung on a very thick log, as a hypothetical example, would make only a very quiet sound, so string instruments are usually constructed in such a way that the vibrating string is coupled to a hollow resonating chamber, a soundboard, or both. On the violin, for example the four strings pass over a thin wooden bridge resting on a hollow box (the body of the violin). The pressure from the strings is supported in part by a small cylinder of wood called the soundpost. The violin body also has two "f-holes" carved on the top. The strings' vibrations are distributed via the bridge and soundpost to all surfaces of the instrument, and are thus made louder. The correct technical explanation is that they allow a better match to the acoustic impedance of the air.
It is sometimes said that the sounding board or soundbox "amplifies" the sound of the strings. Technically speaking, no amplification occurs, because all of the energy to produce sound comes from the vibrating string. What really happens is that the sounding board of the instrument provides a larger surface area to create sound waves than that of the string. A larger vibrating surface moves more air, hence produces a louder sound.
All lute type instruments traditionally have a bridge, which holds the string at the proper action height from the fret/finger board at one end of the strings. On acoustic instruments, the bridge performs an equally important function of transmitting string energy into the "sound box" of the instrument, thereby increasing the sound volume. The specific design, and materials the used in the construction of the bridge of an instrument, have a dramatic impact upon both the sound and responsiveness of the instrument.
Achieving a tonal characteristic that is effective and pleasing to the player's and listener's ear is something of an art and craft, as well as a science, and the makers of string instruments often seek very high quality woods to this end, particularly spruce (chosen for its lightness, strength and flexibility) and maple (a very hard wood). Spruce is used for the sounding boards of instruments from the violin to the piano. Instruments such as the banjo use a drum, covered in natural or synthetic skin as their soundboard.
Acoustic instruments can also be made out of artificial materials, such as carbon fiber and fiberglass (particularly the larger, lower-pitched instruments, such as cellos and basses).
In the early 20th century, the Stroh violin used a diaphragm-type resonator and a metal horn to project the string sound, much like early mechanical gramophones. Its use declined beginning about 1920, as electronic amplification through power amplifiers and loudspeakers was developed and came into use. String instrument players can electronically amplify their instruments by connecting them to a PA system or a guitar amplifier.
Electronic amplification[edit]
Most string instruments can be fitted with piezoelectric or magnetic pickups to convert the string's vibrations into an electrical signal that is amplified and then converted back into sound by loudspeakers. Some players attach a pickup to their traditional string instrument to "electrify" it. Another option is to use a solid-bodied instrument, which reduces unwanted feedback howls or squeals.
Amplified string instruments can be much louder than their acoustic counterparts, so musicians can play them in relatively loud rock, blues, and jazz ensembles. Amplified instruments can also have their amplified tone modified by using electronic effects such as distortion, reverb, or wah-wah.
Bass-register string instruments such as the double bass and the electric bass are amplified with bass instrument amplifiers that are designed to reproduce low-frequency sounds. To modify the tone of amplified bass instruments, a range of electronic bass effects are available, such as distortion and chorus.
Symphonic strings[edit]
The string instruments usually used in the orchestra, and often called the "symphonic strings" or string section are:[17]
Violins (divided into two sections—first violins and second violins; these sections play exactly the same instruments; the difference is that the first violins play higher-register lines and the second violins play lower-register parts, accompaniment parts or countermelodies)
Violas
Cellos
Double basses
When orchestral instrumentation specifies "strings," it often means this combination of string parts. Orchestral works rarely omit any of these string parts, but often include additional string instruments, especially the concert harp and piano. In the Baroque orchestra from the 1600s–1750 (or with modern groups playing early music) harpsichord is almost always used to play the basso continuo part (the written-out bass line and improvised chords), and often a theorbo or lute or a pipe organ. In some classical music, such as the string quartet, the double bass is not typically used; the cello plays the bass role in this literature.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to String instruments.
"Essay on the fingering of the violoncello and on the conduct of the bow"
List of string instruments
Luthier (maker of stringed instruments)
Musical acoustics
Ravanahatha
String instrument extended technique
String instrument repertoire
String orchestra
Strings (music)
Stringed instrument tunings
List of string instruments
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Campen, Ank van. "The music-bow from prehistory till today". HarpHistory.info. Retrieved March 26, 2015. A cave-painting in the "Trois Frères" cave in France dating from about 15,000 years ago. The magician-hunter plays the musical bow.
Jump up ^ "Trois Freres Cave". Retrieved March 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ Dumbrill, 1998 & page 179, 231, 235–236, 308–310
Jump up ^ Dumbrill, 1998 & page 308–310
^ Jump up to: a b Jahnel, Franz (1965). Manual of Guitar Technology: The History and Technology of Plucked String Instruments (Fachbuchreihe Das Musikinstrument, Bd. 37). p. 15. ISBN 0-933224-99-0. There have been some uncertain presumptions concerning the "invention" of the bowed harp...The "musical bow" conjectured by many music scholars is not definitely recognizable in any cave paintings. The fact that some African negroes held the end of their bow shaped harp in their mouths in order to improve the tone...should not be taken as proof that the first European bowmen were also conversant with the musical bow.
Jump up ^ https://m.flickr.com/#/photos/julio-claudians/8098646683/ Flicker based photo of the museum information sign for the stele. Circa 2nd century A.D memorial stele from Augusta Emerita in modern Spain for a Roman boy, Lutaia Lupata, showing him with his pandurium, the Roman variant of the Greek Pandura. Kept at the Museo Arqueologico, Merida, Spain.
^ Jump up to: a b Dumbrill, 1998 & page 321
Jump up ^ https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=1447477&partId=1&people=24615&peoA=24615-3-17&page=1 British Museum, Cylinder Seal, Culture/period Uruk, Date 3100BC (circa1), Museum number 41632.
Jump up ^ Dumbrill, 1998 & page 310
Jump up ^ Dumbrill, Richard J. (2005). The Archaeomusicology of the Ancient Near East. Victoria, British Columbia: Trafford Publishing. pp. 319–320. ISBN 1-4120-5538-5. The long-necked lute in the OED is orthographed as tambura; tambora, tamera, tumboora; tambur(a) and tanpoora. We have an Arabic Õunbur ; Persian tanbur ; Armenian pandir ; Georgian panturi. and a Serbo-Croat tamburitza. The Greeks called it pandura; panduros; phanduros; panduris or pandurion. The Latin is pandura. It is attested as a Nubian instrument in the third century BC. The earliest literary allusion to lutes in Greece comes from Anaxilas in his play The Lyre-maker as 'trichordos'... According to Pollux, the trichordon (sic) was Assyrian and they gave it the name pandoura...These instruments survive today in the form of the various Arabian tunbar...
Jump up ^ "Encyclopaedia Iranica - Barbat". Iranicaonline.org. 1988-12-15. Retrieved 2015-03-13.
Jump up ^ "Five Celestial Musicians". LACMA.org. Retrieved 15 May 2017. Views 3 & 4 show a musician playing a 4th- to 5th-century lute-like instrument, excavated in Gandhara, and part of a Los Angeles County Art Museum collection of Five Celestial Musicians
Jump up ^ "Bracket with two musicians 100s, Pakistan, Gandhara, probably Butkara in Swat, Kushan Period (1st century-320)". The Cleveland Museum of Art. Retrieved March 25, 2015.
Jump up ^ Michael Chanan (1994). Musica Practica: The Social Practice of Western Music from Gregorian Chant to Postmodernism. Verso. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-85984-005-4.
^ Jump up to: a b "Oxford Music Online by subscription". www.oxfordmusiconline.com. Retrieved 2015-09-17.
Jump up ^ Piston, Walter (1955). Orchestration, p.5.
Jump up ^ The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Music. Oxford University Press. 1964. p. 412. ISBN 0-19-311302-3.
External links[edit]
The physics of the bowed string
Instruments in Depth: The Viola, an online feature presented by Bloomingdale School of Music (2010)
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stringed instruments". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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GND: 4129455-5
NDL: 00816642
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text:
Mechanicsburg, Ohio
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For the community in Crawford County, see Mechanicsburg, Crawford County, Ohio.
For the Ohio city formerly known as Mechanicsburg, see East Palestine, Ohio.
Mechanicsburg, Ohio
Village
Motto: "Where Unity Means Progress"
Location of Mechanicsburg, Ohio
Location of Mechanicsburg in Champaign County
Coordinates: 40°4′28″N 83°33′28″W / 40.07444°N 83.55778°W / 40.07444; -83.55778Coordinates: 40°4′28″N 83°33′28″W / 40.07444°N 83.55778°W / 40.07444; -83.55778
Country
United States
State
Ohio
County
Champaign
Township
Goshen
Established
1814
Government
• Type
Mayor - Council
• Mayor
Greg Kimball
Area[1]
• Total
1.02 sq mi (2.64 km2)
• Land
1.01 sq mi (2.62 km2)
• Water
0.01 sq mi (0.03 km2)
Elevation[2]
1,083 ft (330 m)
Population (2010)[3]
• Total
1,644
• Estimate (2012[4])
1,623
• Density
1,627.7/sq mi (628.5/km2)
Time zone
Eastern (EST) (UTC-5)
• Summer (DST)
EDT (UTC-4)
ZIP code
43044
Area code(s)
937
FIPS code
39-48706[5]
GNIS feature ID
1061501[2]
Website
http://www.mechanicsburgohio.org/
Mechanicsburg is a village in Champaign County, Ohio, United States. The population was 1,644 at the 2010 census.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Geography
3 Demographics
3.1 2010 census
3.2 2000 census
4 Public services
4.1 Public safety
4.2 Education
5 Community
6 Notable people
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Mechanicsburg was platted in 1814.[6][7] The village was so named for the fact a large share of its settlers worked as mechanics.[8] By 1833, Mechanicsburg's industries included two stores, a gristmill and a saw mill.[9] Mechanicsburg was incorporated as a village in 1834.[10]
During the antebellum years, because of its location on a tributary of the Ohio River, Mechanicsburg was used as a station on the Underground Railroad. The "conductor" Udney Hyde (1808-1887) is credited with helping more than 500 fugitive slaves on their way to freedom.
Geography[edit]
Mechanicsburg is located at 40°4′28″N 83°33′28″W / 40.07444°N 83.55778°W / 40.07444; -83.55778 (40.074483, -83.557759).[11]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 1.02 square miles (2.64 km2), of which, 1.01 square miles (2.62 km2) is land and 0.01 square miles (0.03 km2) is water.[1] It is located on Little Darby Creek, a tributary of the Scioto River, and, ultimately the Ohio River. Fugitive slaves made their way cross-country when escaping from Kentucky.
Demographics[edit]
Historical population
Census
Pop.
%±
1850 682 —
1860 735 7.8%
1870 940 27.9%
1880 1,522 61.9%
1890 1,459 −4.1%
1900 1,617 10.8%
1910 1,446 −10.6%
1920 1,470 1.7%
1930 1,424 −3.1%
1940 1,653 16.1%
1950 1,920 16.2%
1960 1,810 −5.7%
1970 1,686 −6.9%
1980 1,792 6.3%
1990 1,803 0.6%
2000 1,744 −3.3%
2010 1,644 −5.7%
Est. 2016 1,593 [12] −3.1%
U.S. Decennial Census[13]
2010 census[edit]
As of the census[3] of 2010, there were 1,644 people, 598 households, and 403 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,627.7 inhabitants per square mile (628.5/km2). There were 671 housing units at an average density of 664.4 per square mile (256.5/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 95.4% White, 1.6% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.1% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 2.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.0% of the population.
There were 598 households of which 34.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.2% were married couples living together, 15.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 32.6% were non-families. 27.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the average family size was 3.02.
The median age in the village was 35.5 years. 24.5% of residents were under the age of 18; 10.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 29.2% were from 25 to 44; 22.7% were from 45 to 64; and 13.2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 52.3% male and 47.7% female.
2000 census[edit]
As of the census[5] of 2000, there were 1,744 people, 705 households, and 473 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,699.4 people per square mile (653.7/km²). There were 761 housing units at an average density of 741.6 per square mile (285.3/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 97.59% White, 0.92% African American, 0.40% Native American, 0.29% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.63% of the population.
There were 705 households out of which 34.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.4% were married couples living together, 14.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.9% were non-families. 28.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 12.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.03.
In the village, the population was spread out with 28.7% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 31.0% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.6 males.
The median income for a household in the village was $33,385, and the median income for a family was $42,368. Males had a median income of $34,375 versus $24,453 for females. The per capita income for the village was $16,685. About 10.3% of families and 14.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.2% of those under age 18 and 14.2% of those age 65 or over.
Public services[edit]
Public safety[edit]
The public is served by Mechanicsburg Police Department and the Mechanicsburg Division of Fire and EMS. The police department is a full-time department. The fire department is a combination of career, part-time paid employees and volunteers.[14]
Education[edit]
Local children attend the schools of the Mechanicsburg Exempted Village School District.[citation needed]
Community[edit]
Mechanicsburg is home to a rich history. Annually Mechanicsburg celebrates many holidays, which are sponsored through the efforts of Our Towne Mechanicsburg.
Maple Grove Cemetery is the center of Memorial Day activities. The annual Summer Celebration is the second Saturday of July to commemorate Independence Day, including a parade, live music, and fireworks. Christmas in the Village is the second Saturday of December.
Notable people[edit]
William B. Saxbe - politician, served as Republican Senator from Ohio, Republican state representative, speaker of the Ohio House of Representatives, Ohio Attorney General, United States Attorney General, United States Ambassador to India, and member of the Ohio Crime Commission.
John Foley Horr - Civil War Captain with the 2nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry. Appointed by President Harrison as Collector of Customs for the Port of Key West. Appointed under President McKinley and again by President Roosevelt as a Federal Marshall. Born in Mechanicsburg.
Sue Ernest Hewling - Orchestra leader and professional whistler.
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b "US Gazetteer files 2010". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "US Board on Geographic Names". United States Geological Survey. 2007-10-25. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ Jump up to: a b "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-01-06.
Jump up ^ "Population Estimates". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2013-06-17.
^ Jump up to: a b "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
Jump up ^ The History of Champaign County, Ohio. W.H. Beers & Company. 1881. p. 596.
Jump up ^ Middleton, Evan P. (1917). History of Champaign County, Ohio: Its People, Industries and Institutions, Volume 1. B.F. Bowen. p. 275.
Jump up ^ Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 204.
Jump up ^ Kilbourn, John (1833). The Ohio Gazetteer, or, a Topographical Dictionary. Scott and Wright. p. 304. Retrieved 12 December 2013.
Jump up ^ Overman, William Daniel (1958). Ohio Town Names. Akron, OH: Atlantic Press. p. 85.
Jump up ^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
Jump up ^ "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". Retrieved June 9, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Census of Population and Housing". Census.gov. Retrieved June 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ http://www.firedepartment.net/directory/ohio/champaign-county/mechanicsburg/mechanicsburg-fire-and-ems-department
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mechanicsburg, Ohio.
Community organization Our Towne Mechanicsburg
School district website
[hide]
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Leônidas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the Brazilian swimmer, see Leônidas da Silva (swimmer).
This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. Please discuss this issue on the article's talk page. (September 2013)
Leônidas
Personal information
Full name
Leônidas da Silva
Date of birth
(1913-09-06)6 September 1913
Place of birth
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Date of death
24 January 2004(2004-01-24) (aged 90)
Place of death
Cotia, São Paulo, Brazil
Playing position
Centre forward
Senior career*
Years
Team Apps (Gls)
1929
São Cristóvão 29 (31)
1929–1930
Sírio e Libanês 47 (50)
1931–1932
Bonsucesso 51 (55)
1933
Peñarol 25 (28)
1934
Vasco da Gama 29 (27)
1935–1936
Botafogo 33 (42)
1936–1942
Flamengo 149 (153)
1943–1950
São Paulo 211 (140)
Total
574 (526)
National team‡
1932–1946
Brazil 19 (21)
* Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only
‡ National team caps and goals correct as of 16 June 2009
Leônidas da Silva (Portuguese pronunciation: [leˈõnidɐz dɐ ˈsiwvɐ]; 6 September 1913, Rio de Janeiro – 24 January 2004, Cotia) was an association footballer and commentator, who played as a forward.
He is regarded as one of the most important players of the first half of the 20th century. Da Silva played for Brazil in two World Cups, and was the top scorer of the 1938 World Cup.
He was known as the "Black Diamond" and the "Rubber Man" due to his agility.
Contents
[hide]
1 Club career
2 The bicycle kick
3 National team
3.1 1934 World Cup statistics
3.2 1938 World Cup statistics
4 Chocolate bar
5 After retirement
6 Honours
6.1 Club
6.2 Country
6.3 Individual
7 References
8 External links
Club career[edit]
Leônidas, born in Rio de Janeiro, started his career at São Cristóvão. In 1931 and in 1932, he played for Bonsucesso.
He joined Peñarol in Uruguay in 1933. After one year, he came back to Brazil to play for Vasco da Gama. He helped them win the Rio State Championship. After playing in the World Cup in 1934 he joined Botafogo and won another Rio State Championship in 1935. The following year, he joined Flamengo, where he stayed until 1941. Once again, in 1939, the team won the Rio State Championship. He was also at the forefront of the movement against prejudice in football, being one of the first black players to join the then-elitist Flamengo team.
Leonidas joined São Paulo in 1942 and stayed at the club until his retirement from playing in 1950.
The bicycle kick[edit]
Leônidas is one of several possible players credited for inventing the "Bicycle kick". The first time Leônidas used this technique was on 24 April 1932, in a match between Bonsucesso and Carioca. In Flamengo he used this move only once, in 1939, against the Argentinian team Independiente. The unusual volley gained huge fame at the time, propelling it into the football mainstream. For São Paulo he used the bicycle kick on two occasions: the first on 14 June 1942, in the defeat against Palestra Italia (currently Palmeiras). Most famously of all, he used it on 13 November 1948, in the massive 8–0 victory over Juventus. The play (and the goal) was captured in an image [1] and is regarded as the most famous picture of the player[citation needed]. In the 1938 World Cup, he also used the bicycle kick, to the delight of the spectators. When he did it, the referee was so shocked by the volley that he was unsure whether it was within the rules or not.
National team[edit]
He played 19 times for the Brazilian national team, scoring 21 goals in total, and scoring twice on his debut. In 1938, he was the World Cup's top scorer with 7 goals, scoring at least three times[2] in the 6–5 extra time win over Poland.
Nevertheless, his performance also made him be frequently fouled by the Poles. For the next match, against Czechoslovakia, he was not in the ideal conditions, but the Brazilian staff, concerned for possible punishment in using Niginho in Leônidas place, preferred to keep Leônidas in the team; Italian Football Federation had warned FIFA about Niginho irregular condition: this player, who had Italian Citizenship, was still legally attached to Lazio, the club he left without permission in 1936 by fearing be recruited by the Italian Army to the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. Leônidas managed to score against the Czechs, but his injuries got worse, making him definitely unable to be used in the next match - the semifinal against Italy. Brazil lost it by 2-1 and for many years the coach Adhemar Pimenta was criticized as many fans, not aware of Lêonidas true poor conditions, believed his absence was just an option arrogantly made by Pimenta "to rest the player to a final". This version still circulates in despite of Leônidas had written a letter published at the newspapers in those days in which he clarified that Pimenta had no choice but to rest him due to the Niginho affair.[3]
The Niginho affair also prevented this player of playing in the semifinal. In his and Leônidas place, Romeu was improvised as the centerforward to the semifinals, scoring the Brazilian late goal in the match.[4] Leônidas returned for the third place match and scored two more goals in a 4-2 win against Sweden.
1934 World Cup statistics[edit]
The scores contain links to the article on the 1934 FIFA World Cup and the round in question. The matches’ numbers reflect the number of World Cup matches Leônidas played during his career.
Game no.
Round
Date
Opponent
Score
Leônidas’ goals
Times
Leônidas’ playing time
Notes
Venue
Report
1 1st R. 27 May 1934 Spain 1–3 (0–3) 1 55' 90 min. Stadio Luigi Ferraris, Genoa [1]
1938 World Cup statistics[edit]
The scores contain links to the article on the 1938 FIFA World Cup and the round in question. When there is a special article on the match in question, the link is in the column for round.
Game no.
Round
Date
Opponent
Score
Leônidas’ goals
Times
Leônidas’ playing time
Notes
Venue
Report
2 1st R. 5 June 1938 Poland 6–5 a.e.t.
(4–4) (3–1) 3 18' 93' 104' 120 min. Stade de la Meinau, Strasbourg [2]
3 QF 12 June 1938 Czechoslovakia 1–1 a.e.t.
(1–1) (1–0) 1 30' 120 min. Parc Lescure, Bordeaux [3]
4 Replay 14 June 1938 Czechoslovakia 2–1 (0–1) 1 57' 90 min. Parc Lescure, Bordeaux [4]
– SF 16 June 1938 Italy 1–2 (0–0) 0 Did not play Injured Stade Vélodrome, Marseille [5]
5 3rd pl. 19 June 1938 Sweden 4–2 (1–2) 2 63' 74' 90 min. Parc Lescure, Bordeaux [6]
Chocolate bar[edit]
During the 1938 World Cup, Leônidas was nicknamed Diamante Negro (black diamond). In the next year, Brazilian chocolate manufacturer Lacta purchased from him the right to name a chocolate bar as Diamante Negro.[5] This chocolate brand is still a comercial success in Brazil[6]
After retirement[edit]
He joined São Paulo as manager in 1953, before leaving football to become a radio reporter and then the owner of a furniture store in São Paulo. Leônidas died in 2004 in Cotia, São Paulo, because of complications due to Alzheimer's disease, from which he had been suffering since 1974. He is buried in the Cemitério Morada da Paz of São Paulo.
Honours[edit]
Club[edit]
Campeonato Carioca: 1934, 1935, 1939[7]
Campeonato Paulista: 1943, 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949[7]
Country[edit]
FIFA World Cup: Third-place 1938
Individual[edit]
FIFA World Cup Golden Boot: 1938[7]
FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 1938[8]
FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1938
IFFHS Brazilian Player of the 20th Century (8th place)[9]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://cdn.bleacherreport.net/images_root/slides/photos/001/816/813/Leonidas-da-Silva-FIFA-Worldcup-Golden-Boot-Winner-1938_original_display_image.jpg?1327026497
Jump up ^ Some sources claimed that Leonidas scored only three goals in the victory over Poland instead of the often quoted four. According to Polish experts, Brazil's six goals were scored by: Leonidas (18th, 93rd and 104th minutes), Romeu (25th minute) and Perácio (44th and 71st minute). This is now recognised by the RSSSF (see RSSSF page on 1938 tournament) and also FIFA itself (see match data at official FIFA World Cup site). In November 2006, FIFA also confirmed that he scored only once in the quarter-final replay against Czechoslovakia, not twice as FIFA had originally recorded (see Media release by FIFA Archived 16 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine.). This means he finished as the top goal scorer of the tournament with an official tally of 7 goals. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 3 May 2006. Retrieved 2016-01-07. CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
Jump up ^ GEHRINGER, Max (nov. 2005). Faltaram os papéis. Placar Especial "A Saga da Jules Rimet" n. 3 - 1938 França. São Paulo: Editora Abril, p. 37
Jump up ^ GEHRINGER, Max (nov. 2005). Derrota amarga. Placar Especial "A Saga da Jules Rimet" n. 3 - 1938 França. São Paulo: Editora Abril, p. 38
Jump up ^ "Brazilian Brands: Diamante Negro - eatrio.net". eatrio.net. 2013-04-26. Retrieved 2017-02-22.
Jump up ^ Silva, Postado por Rômulo. "TOP 5 - Chocolates mais famosos no Brasil". Retrieved 2017-02-22.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Leonidas: Brazil's first superstar". FIFA.com. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
Jump up ^ 100 World Cup heroes (80-61): Sportsmail's countdown continues with Owen, Laudrup, Iniesta, Stoichkov... and Marco Tardelli!
Jump up ^ IFFHS' Century Elections
External links[edit]
Web site dedicated to Leônidas – leonidasdasilva.com.br – Publikan, Brazil.
Leônidas da Silva career at Sambafoot[permanent dead link]
[show]
Awards
[show]
v
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FIFA World Cup · Golden Boot
Top Scorer
1930: Stábile
1934: Nejedlý
1938: Leônidas
1950: Ademir
1954: Kocsis
1958: Fontaine
1962: Albert, Garrincha, Ivanov, Jerković, Sánchez & Vavá
Golden Shoe
1966: Eusébio
1970: G. Müller
1974: Lato
1978: Kempes
1982: Rossi
1986: Lineker
1990: Schillaci
1994: Salenko & Stoichkov
1998: Šuker
2002: Ronaldo
2006: Klose
Golden Boot
2010: T. Müller
2014: James
Golden Boot was first awarded in 1966.
[show]
v
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FIFA World Cup · Golden Ball
Best Player
1930: Nasazzi
1934: Meazza
1938: Leônidas
1950: Zizinho
1954: Puskás
1958: Didi
1962: Garrincha
1966: Charlton
1970: Pelé
1974: Cruijff
1978: Kempes
Golden Ball
1982: Rossi
1986: Maradona
1990: Schillaci
1994: Romário
1998: Ronaldo
2002: Kahn
2006: Zidane
2010: Forlán
2014: Messi
Golden Ball was first awarded in 1982.
[show]
v
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1938 FIFA World Cup Team of the Tournament
Goalkeeper
František Plánička
Defenders
Pietro Rava
Alfredo Foni
Domingos da Guia
Midfielders
Michele Andreolo
Ugo Locatelli
Forwards
Silvio Piola
Gino Colaussi
György Sárosi
Gyula Zsengellér
Leônidas
[show]
v
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Brazilian Football Museum – Hall of Fame
Bebeto
Carlos Alberto Torres
Didi
Djalma Santos
Falcão
Garrincha
Gérson
Gilmar
Jairzinho
Julinho
Nílton Santos
Pelé
Rivaldo
Rivelino
Roberto Carlos
Romário
Ronaldinho
Ronaldo
Sócrates
Taffarel
Tostão
Vavá
Zagallo
Zico
Zizinho
Honorable mentions: Domingos da Guia
Leônidas
[show]
Brazil squads
[show]
v
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Brazil squad – 1934 FIFA World Cup
GK Germano
GK Pedrosa
DF Luiz Luz
DF Octacílio
DF Sylvio Hoffmann
MF Ariel
MF Canalli
MF Martim (c)
MF Tinoco
MF Waldyr
FW Armandinho
FW Áttila
FW Carvalho Leite
FW Leônidas
FW Luisinho
FW Patesko
FW Waldemar de Brito
Coach: Vinhaes
[show]
v
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Brazil squad – 1938 FIFA World Cup Third Place
GK Batatais
GK Walter
DF Domingos da Guia
DF Jaú
DF Machado
DF Nariz
MF Afonsinho
MF Argemiro
MF Brandão
MF Britto
MF Martim (c)
MF Zezé Procópio
FW Hércules
FW Leônidas
FW Lopes
FW Luisinho
FW Niginho
FW Patesko
FW Perácio
FW Roberto
FW Romeu
FW Tim
Coach: Pimenta
[show]
v
t
e
Brazil squad – 1946 South American Championship Runners-up
GK Ary
GK Luiz Borracha
DF Augusto
DF Domingos da Guia
DF Newton
DF Norival
MF Aleixo
MF Danilo
MF Ivan
MF Jaime
MF Rui
MF Teixeirinha
MF Zezé Procópio
FW Ademir
FW Chico
FW Eduardo Lima
FW Heleno de Freitas
FW Jair
FW Leônidas
FW Tesourinha
FW Vevé
FW Zizinho
Coach: Costa
[show]
v
t
e
São Paulo – managers
Bueno (1930)
Platero (1930)
Salles (1931–32)
Marinetti (1932–33)
Clodô (1933–35)
Del Debbio (1936–37)
Feola (1937–38)
Rodrigues (1938)
Feola (1938–39)
Amsel (1939)
Pedroso (1939)
Barbuy (1939–40)
Platero (1940)
Feola (1941–42)
Ross (1942–43)
Joreca (1943–47)
Feola (1947–50)
Leônidas (1951)
Feola (1951–53)
López (1953–54)
Leônidas (1954–55)
Feola (1955–57)
Caxambu (a.i.) (1957)
Guttmann (1957–58)
Renganeschi (1958–59)
Feola (1959–60)
Costa (1960–61)
Cardoso (1961)
A. Moreira (1962)
Brandão (1962–64)
Vieira (1964)
Poy (1964–65)
Lopes (1965)
A. Moreira (1966)
Pirillo (1967–68)
Lameiro (1968–69)
Z. Moreira (1970)
Brandão (1971)
Poy (a.i.) (1971)
Ramos (1972)
Mota (1972)
Poy (1972)
Telê Santana (1973)
Poy (1973–76)
Juliato (a.i.) (1976)
Minelli (1977–79)
Juliato (1979)
Silva (1980–81)
Neto (a.i.) (1981)
Formiga (1981–82)
Poy (1982–83)
Serrão (a.i.) (1983)
Travaglini (1983–84)
Valdir de Moraes (a.i.) (1984)
Cilinho (1984–86)
Didi (1986)
Serrão (a.i.) (1986)
Pepe (1986–87)
Serrão (a.i.) (1987)
Cilinho (1987–89)
Paulinho (1988)
Gimenez (a.i.) (1989)
Carlos Alberto Silva (1989–90)
Gimenez (a.i.) (1990)
Forlán (1990)
Telê Santana (1990–96)
Muricy (a.i.) (1996)
Parreira (1996)
Muricy (1996–97)
Pereyra (1997–98)
N. Baptista (1998)
Pita (a.i.) (1998)
Mário Sérgio (1998)
Carpegiani (1999)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (1999)
Culpi (2000)
Vadão (2001)
N. Baptista (2001–02)
O. Oliveira (2002–03)
Rojas (2003)
Cuca (2004)
Leão (2004–05)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2005)
Autuori (2005)
Muricy (2006–09)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2009)
Gomes (2009–10)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2010)
Baresi (a.i.) (2010)
Carpegiani (2010–11)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2011)
Adílson (2011)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2011)
Leão (2011–12)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2012)
Franco (2012–13)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2013)
Autuori (2013)
Muricy (2013–15)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2015)
Osorio (2015)
Doriva (2015)
Milton Cruz (a.i.) (2015)
Bauza (2016)
Jardine (a.i.) (2016)
Gomes (2016)
Pintado (a.i.) (2016)
Ceni (2017)
Pintado (a.i.) (2017)
Dorival Jr. (2017–18)
Jardine (a.i.) (2018)
Aguirre (2018–)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 47847760
GND: 129656755
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leônidas&oldid=831190336"
Categories:
Bonsucesso Futebol Clube players
Botafogo de Futebol e Regatas players
Brazil international footballers
Brazilian expatriate footballers
Brazilian footballers
Brazilian football managers
Clube de Regatas do Flamengo footballers
Club de Regatas Vasco da Gama players
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Expatriate footballers in Uruguay
Brazilian expatriates in Uruguay
São Paulo Futebol Clube managers
São Paulo FC players
1934 FIFA World Cup players
1938 FIFA World Cup players
1913 births
2004 deaths
Brazilian people of African descent
São Cristóvão de Futebol e Regatas players
Association football forwards
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value: ليونيداس دا سيلفا – Arabic

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