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Tsetse fly
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Tsetse fly
Tsetse fly
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Clade: Euarthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Suborder: Brachycera
Infraorder: Muscomorpha
Section: Schizophora
Subsection: Calyptratae
Superfamily: Hippoboscoidea
Family: Glossinidae
Theobald, 1903
Genus: Glossina
Wiedemann, 1830
Species groups
Morsitans ("savannah" subgenus)
Fusca ("forest" subgenus)
Palpalis ("riverine" subgenus)
Range of the tsetse fly
Tsetse (/ˈsiːtsi/ SEET-see, US: /ˈtsiːtsi/ TSEET-see or UK: /ˈtsɛtsi/ TSET-see), sometimes spelled tzetze and also known as tik-tik flies, are large biting flies that inhabit much of tropical Africa.[1][2][3] Tsetse flies include all the species in the genus Glossina, which are placed in their own family, Glossinidae. The tsetse are obligate parasites that live by feeding on the blood of vertebrate animals. Tsetse have been extensively studied because of their role in transmitting disease. They have a prominent economic impact in sub-Saharan Africa as the biological vectors of trypanosomes, which cause human sleeping sickness and animal trypanosomiasis. Tsetse are multivoltine and long-lived, typically producing about four broods per year, and up to 31 broods over their lifespans.[4]
Tsetse can be distinguished from other large flies by two easily observed features. Tsetse fold their wings completely when they are resting so that one wing rests directly on top of the other over their abdomens. Tsetse also have a long proboscis, which extends directly forward and is attached by a distinct bulb to the bottom of their heads.
Fossilized tsetse have been recovered from the Florissant Fossil Beds in Colorado,[4] laid down some 34 million years ago.[5] Twenty-three extant species of tsetse flies are known from Africa.
Tsetse were absent from much of southern and eastern Africa until colonial times. The accidental introduction of rinderpest in 1887 killed most of the cattle in these areas, and the resulting famine removed much of the human population. Thorny bush ideal for tsetse quickly grew up, and was populated by wild mammals. Tsetse and sleeping sickness soon colonised the whole region, effectively excluding farming and animal husbandry. Hunters and conservationists supposed that the empty, game-rich land was typical of primeval Africa. Large areas were turned over to reserves, first for game hunting and later for conservation. Sleeping sickness was described by conservationists as "the best game warden in Africa".[6]
Contents
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1 Etymology
2 Biology
2.1 Morphology
2.2 Anatomy
2.3 Life cycle
2.4 Genetics
2.5 Symbionts
3 Systematics
3.1 Species
4 Tsetse, hunger, and poverty
4.1 History
4.2 Situation
5 Trypanosomiasis
5.1 Disease hosts and vectors
5.2 In humans
5.3 In domestic animals
6 Control
6.1 Control techniques
6.1.1 Slaughter of wild animals
6.1.2 Land clearing
6.1.3 Pesticide campaigns
6.1.4 Trapping
6.1.5 Sterile insect technique
7 Effect on societal development
8 T. brucei sexual cycle
9 Resistance of tsetse flies to trypanosome infection
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
14 Resources
14.1 Textbooks
Etymology[edit]
The word tsetse means "fly" in Tswana, a Bantu language of southern Africa.[7] Recently, tsetse without the fly has become more common in English, particularly in the scientific and development communities.
The word is pronounced tseh-tseh in the Sotho languages and is easily rendered in other African languages. During World War II, a de Havilland antisubmarine aircraft was known as the 'Tsetse' Mosquito.[8]
Biology[edit]
The biology of tsetse is relatively well understood by entomologists. They have been extensively studied because of their medical, veterinary, and economic importances, because the flies can be raised in a laboratory, and because they are relatively large, facilitating their analysis.
Morphology[edit]
Tsetse flies can be seen as independent individuals in two forms: as third-instar larvae, and as adults.
Tsetse first become separate from their mothers during the third larval instar, during which they have the typical appearance of maggots. However, this life stage is short, lasting at most a few hours, and is almost never observed outside of the laboratory.
Tsetse next develop a hard external case, the puparium, and become pupae—small, hard-shelled, oblongs with two distinctive, small, dark lobes at the tail (breathing) end. Tsetse pupae are under 1.0 cm long.[9] Within the puparial shell, tsetse complete the last two larval instars and the pupal stage.
At the end of the pupal stage, tsetse emerge as adult flies. The adults are relatively large flies, with lengths of 0.5-1.5 cm,[9] and have a recognizable shape or bauplan which makes them easy to distinguish from other flies. Tsetse have large heads, distinctly separated eyes, and unusual antennae. The thorax is quite large, while the abdomen is wide rather than elongated and shorter than the wings.
Four characteristics definitively separate adult tsetse from other kinds of flies:
Proboscis Tsetse have a distinct proboscis, a long thin structure attached to the bottom of the head and pointing forward.
Folded wings When at rest, tsetse fold their wings completely one on top of the other.
Hatchet cell The discal medial ("middle") cell of the wing has a characteristic hatchet shape resembling a meat cleaver or a hatchet.
Branched arista hairs The antennae have arista with hairs which are themselves branched.
Anatomy[edit]
Like all other insects, tsetse flies have an adult body comprising three visibly distinct parts: the head, the thorax and the abdomen.
The head has large eyes, distinctly separated on each side, and a distinct, forward-pointing proboscis attached underneath by a large bulb. The thorax is large, made of three fused segments. Three pairs of legs are attached to the thorax, as are two wings and two halteres. The abdomen is short but wide and changes dramatically in volume during feeding.
The internal anatomy of tsetse is fairly typical of the insects. The crop is large enough to accommodate a huge increase in size during the bloodmeal since tsetse can take a bloodmeal equal in weight to themselves. The reproductive tract of adult females includes a uterus which can become large enough to hold the third-instar larva at the end of each pregnancy. The article Parasitic flies of domestic animals has a diagram of anatomy of dipteran flies.
Most tsetse flies are physically very tough. Houseflies are easily killed with a flyswatter, but a great deal of effort is needed to crush a tsetse fly.[citation needed]
Life cycle[edit]
Glossina palpalis and G. morsitans from a 1920 lexicon
Tsetse have an unusual lifecycle which may be due to the richness of their food source. A female fertilizes only one egg at a time and retains each egg within her uterus to have the offspring develop internally during the first three larval stages, a method called adenotrophic viviparity. During this time, the female feeds the developing offspring with a milky substance secreted by a modified gland in the uterus. In the third larval stage, the tsetse larva leaves the uterus and begins its independent life. The newly independent tsetse larva crawls into the ground, and develops a hard outer shell called the puparial case, in which it completes its morphological transformation into an adult fly.
This lifestage has a variable duration, generally 20 to 30 days, and the larva must rely on stored resources during this time. The importance of the richness of blood to this development can be seen, since all tsetse development before it emerges from the puparial case as a full adult occurs without feeding, based only on nutritional resources provided by the female parent. The female must get enough energy for her needs, for the needs of her developing offspring, and for the stored resources which her offspring will require until it emerges as an adult.
Technically, these insects undergo the standard development process of insects, which consists of oocyte formation, ovulation, fertilization, development of the egg, three larval stages, a pupal stage, and the emergence and maturation of the adult.
Genetics[edit]
The genome of Glossina morsitans was sequenced in 2014.[10]
Symbionts[edit]
Tsetse flies three known symbionts. The primary symbiont is Wigglesworthia within the flys' bacteriocytes, the secondary symbiont is Sodalis intercellularly or intracellularly, and the third is some kind of Wolbachia.[citation needed]
The tsetse G. palpalis is also a vector and host of the sporozoan Hepatozoon petti, a parasite of the Nile crocodile.[citation needed]
Systematics[edit]
Tsetse are in the order Diptera, the true flies. They belong to the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, in which the tsetse's family, the Glossinidae, is one of four families of blood-feeding obligate parasites.
Up to 34 species and subspecies of tsetse flies are recognized, depending on the particular classification used.
All current classifications place all the tsetse species in a single genus named Glossina. Most classifications place this genus as the sole member of the family Glossinidae. The Glossinidae are generally placed within the superfamily Hippoboscoidea, which contains other hematophagous families.
Species[edit]
The tsetse genus is generally split into three groups of species based on a combination of distributional, behavioral, molecular and morphological characteristics. The genus includes:
The 'savannah' flies: (subgenus Morsitans, occasionally named Glossina):
Glossina austeni (Newstead, 1912)
Glossina morsitans Westwood, 1850
Glossina pallidipes (Austen, 1903)
Glossina swynnertoni (Austen, 1923)
The 'forest' flies: (subgenus Fusca, previously named Austenia):
Glossina fusca fusca (Walker, 1849)
Glossina fuscipleuris (Austen, 1911)
Glossina frezili (Gouteux, 1987)[11]
Glossina haningtoni (Newstead and Evans, 1922)
Glossina longipennis (Corti, 1895)
Glossina medicorum (Austen, 1911)
Glossina nashi (Potts,1955)
Glossina nigrofusca nigrofusca (Newstead, 1911)
Glossina severini (Newstead, 1913)
Glossina schwetzi (Newstead and Evans, 1921)
Glossina tabaniformis Westwood, 1850
Glossina vanhoofi (Henrard, 1952)
The 'riverine' and 'lacustrine' flies: (subgenus Palpalis, previously named Nemorhina):
Glossina caliginea (Austen, 1911)
Glossina fuscipes fuscipes (Newstead, 1911)
Glossina fuscipes martinii (Zumpt, 1935)
Glossina fuscipes quanzensis (Pires, 1948)
Glossina pallicera pallicera (Bigot, 1891)
Glossina pallicera newsteadi (Austen, 1929)
Glossina palpalis palpalis (Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830)
Glossina palpalis gambiensis (Vanderplank, 1911)
Glossina tachinoides Westwood, 1850
Tsetse, hunger, and poverty[edit]
History[edit]
Cows dead from rinderpest in South Africa, 1896
Further information: Rinderpest
The depopulated and apparently primevally wild Africa seen in wildlife documentary films was formed in the 19th century by disease, a combination of rinderpest and the tsetse fly. In 1887, the rinderpest virus was accidentally imported in livestock brought by an Italian expeditionary force to Eritrea. It spread rapidly, reaching Ethiopia by 1888, the Atlantic coast by 1892, and South Africa by 1897. Rinderpest, a cattle plague from central Asia, killed over 90% of the cattle of the pastoral peoples such as the Masai of east Africa. With no native immunity, most of the population – some 5.5 million cattle – died in southern Africa. Pastoralists were left with no animals, their source of income; farmers were deprived of their working animals for ploughing and irrigation. The pandemic coincided with a period of drought, causing widespread famine. The starving human populations died of smallpox, cholera, typhoid and diseases imported from Europe. It is estimated that two thirds of the Masai died in 1891.[6]
The land was left emptied of its cattle and its people, enabling the colonial powers Germany and Britain to take over Tanzania and Kenya with little effort. With greatly reduced grazing, grassland turned rapidly to bush. The closely cropped grass sward was replaced in a few years by woody grassland and thornbush, ideal habitat for tsetse flies. Wild mammal populations increased rapidly, accompanied by the tsetse fly. Highland regions of east Africa which had been free of tsetse fly were colonised by the pest, accompanied by sleeping sickness, until then unknown in the area. Millions of people died of the disease in the early 20th century.[6]
Serengeti National Park, Tanzania
The areas occupied by the tsetse fly were largely barred to animal husbandry. Sleeping sickness was dubbed "the best game warden in Africa" by conservationists, who assumed that the land, empty of people and full of game animals, had always been like that. Julian Huxley of the World Wildlife Fund called the plains of east Africa "a surviving sector of the rich natural world as it was before the rise of modern man".[6] They created numerous large reserves for hunting safaris. In 1909 the newly retired president Theodore Roosevelt went on a safari that returned over 10,000 animal carcases to America. Later, much of the land was turned over to nature reserves and national parks such as the Serengeti, Masai Mara, Kruger and Okavango Delta. The result, across eastern and southern Africa, is a modern landscape of manmade ecosystems: farmland and pastoral land largely free of bush and tsetse fly; and bush controlled by the tsetse fly.[6]
Situation[edit]
Tsetse flies are regarded as a major cause of rural poverty in sub-Saharan Africa because they prevent mixed farming. The land infested with tsetse flies is often cultivated by people using hoes rather than more efficient draught animals because nagana, the disease transmitted by tsetse, weakens and often kills these animals. Those cattle that survive produce little milk, pregnant cows often abort their calves, and manure is not available to fertilize the worn-out soils.
Tsetse fly from Burkina Faso
The disease nagana or African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) causes gradual health decline in infected livestock, reduces milk and meat production, increases abortion rates, and animals eventually succumb to the disease (annual cattle deaths caused by trypanosomiasis are estimated at 3 million). This has an enormous impact on the livelihood of farmers who live in tsetse-infested areas, as infected animals cannot be used to plough the land, and keeping cattle is only feasible when the animals are kept under constant prophylactic treatment with trypanocidal drugs, often with associated problems of drug resistance, counterfeited drugs, and suboptimal dosage. The overall annual direct lost potential in livestock and crop production was estimated at US$4.5 billion.[12][13]
The tsetse fly lives in nearly 10,000,000 square kilometres (4,000,000 sq mi) in sub-Saharan Africa (mostly wet tropical forest) and many parts of this large area is fertile land that is left uncultivated—a so-called green desert not used by humans and cattle. Most of the 37 countries infested with tsetse are poor, debt-ridden, and underdeveloped. Of the 39 tsetse-infested countries, 32 are low-income, food-deficit countries, 29 are least developed countries, and 30 are among the 40 most heavily indebted poor countries. Eradicating the tsetse and trypanosomiasis problem would allow rural Africans to use these areas for animal husbandry or the cultivation of crops, and hence increase food production. Only 45 million cattle, of 172 million present in sub-Saharan Africa, are kept in tsetse-infested areas, but are often forced into fragile ecosystems like highlands or the semiarid Sahel zone, which increases overgrazing and overuse of land for food production.
In addition to this direct impact, the presence of tsetse and trypanosomiasis discourages the use of more-productive exotic and cross-bred cattle, depresses the growth and affects the distribution of livestock populations, reduces the potential opportunities for livestock and crop production (mixed farming) through less draught power to cultivate land and less manure to fertilize (in an environment-friendly way) soils for better crop production, and affects human settlements (people tend to avoid areas with tsetse flies).
Tsetse flies transmit a similar disease to humans, called African trypanosomiasis - human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) or sleeping sickness. An estimated 70 million people in 20 countries are at different levels of risk[14] and only 3-4 million people are covered by active surveillance. The DALY index (disability-adjusted life years), an indicator to quantify the burden of disease, includes the impact of both the duration of life lost due to premature death and the duration of life lived with a disability. The annual burden of sleeping sickness is estimated at 2 million DALYs. Since the disease tends to affect economically active adults, the total cost to a family with a patient is about 25% of a year’s income.[15]
Trypanosomiasis[edit]
Trypanosomes in a blood smear
Tsetse are biological vectors of trypanosomes, meaning that in the process of feeding, they acquire and then transmit small, single-celled trypanosomes from infected vertebrate hosts to uninfected animals. Some tsetse-transmitted trypanosome species cause trypanosomiasis, an infectious disease. In humans, tsetse transmitted trypanosomiasis is called sleeping sickness. In animals, tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases include nagana, souma, and surra according to the animal infected and the trypanosome species involved. The usage is not strict and while nagana generally refers to the disease in cattle and horses it is commonly used for any of animal trypanosomiasis.
Trypanosomes are animal parasites, specifically protozoans of the genus Trypanosoma. These organisms are about the size of red blood cells. Different species of trypanosomes infect different hosts. They range widely in their effects on the vertebrate hosts. Some species, such as T. theileri, do not seem to cause any health problems except perhaps in animals that are already sick.[16]
Some strains are much more virulent. Infected flies have an altered salivary composition which lowers feeding efficiency and consequently increases the feeding time, promoting trypanosome transmission to the vertebrate host.[17] These trypanosomes are highly evolved and have developed a lifecycle that requires periods in both the vertebrate and tsetse hosts.
Tsetse transmit trypanosomes in two ways, mechanical and biological transmission.
Mechanical transmission involves the direct transmission of the same individual trypanosomes taken from an infected host into an uninfected host. The name 'mechanical' reflects the similarity of this mode of transmission to mechanical injection with a syringe. Mechanical transmission requires the tsetse to feed on an infected host and acquire trypanosomes in the blood meal, and then, within a relatively short period, to feed on an uninfected host and regurgitate some of the infected blood from the first blood meal into the tissue of the uninfected animal. This type of transmission occurs most frequently when tsetse are interrupted during a blood meal and attempt to satiate themselves with another meal. Other flies, such as horse-flies, can also cause mechanical transmission of trypanosomes.[18]
Biological transmission requires a period of incubation of the trypanosomes within the tsetse host. The term 'biological' is used because trypanosomes must reproduce through several generations inside the tsetse host during the period of incubation, which requires extreme adaptation of the trypanosomes to their tsetse host. In this mode of transmission, trypanosomes reproduce through several generations, changing in morphology at certain periods. This mode of transmission also includes the sexual phase of the trypanosomes. Tsetse are believed to be more likely to become infected by trypanosomes during their first few blood meals. Tsetse infected by trypanosomes are thought to remain infected for the remainder of their lives. Because of the adaptations required for biological transmission, trypanosomes transmitted biologically by tsetse cannot be transmitted in this manner by other insects.
The relative importance of these two modes of transmission for the propagation of tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases is not yet well understood. However, since the sexual phase of the trypanosome lifecycle occurs within the tsetse host, biological transmission is a required step in the lifecycle of the tsetse-vectored trypanosomes.
The cycle of biological transmission of trypanosomiasis involves two phases, one inside the tsetse host and the other inside the vertebrate host. Trypanosomes are not passed between a pregnant tsetse and her offspring, so all newly emerged tsetse adults are free of infection. An uninfected fly that feeds on an infected vertebrate animal may acquire trypanosomes in its proboscis or gut. These trypanosomes, depending on the species, may remain in place, move to a different part of the digestive tract, or migrate through the tsetse body into the salivary glands. When an infected tsetse bites a susceptible host, the fly may regurgitate part of a previous blood meal that contains trypanosomes, or may inject trypanosomes in its saliva. Inoculation must contain a minimum of 300 to 450 individual trypanosomes to be successful, and may contain up to 40,000 cells.[16]
The trypanosomes are injected into vertebrate muscle tissue,[citation needed] but make their way, first into the lymphatic system, then into the bloodstream, and eventually into the brain. The disease causes the swelling of the lymph glands, emaciation of the body, and eventually leads to death. Uninfected tsetse may bite the infected animal prior to its death and acquire the disease, thereby closing the transmission cycle.
Disease hosts and vectors[edit]
The tsetse-vectored trypanosomiases affect various vertebrate species including humans, antelopes, bovine cattle, camels, horses, sheep, goats, and pigs. These diseases are caused by several different trypanosome species that may also survive in wild animals such as crocodiles and monitor lizards. The diseases have different distributions across the African continent, so are transmitted by different species. This table summarizes this information:[16][19]
Disease
Species affected
Trypanosoma agents
Distribution
Glossina vectors
Sleeping sickness — chronic form humans T. brucei gambiense Western Africa G. palpalis
G. tachinoides
G. fuscipes
G. morsitans
Sleeping sickness — acute form humans T. brucei rhodesiense Eastern Africa G. morsitans
G. swynnertoni
G. pallidipes
G. fuscipes
Nagana — acute form antelope
cattle
camels
horses T. brucei brucei Africa G. morsitans
G. swynnertoni
G. pallidipes
G. palpalis
G. tachinoides
G. fuscipes
Nagana — chronic form cattle
camels
horses T. congolense Africa G. palpalis
G. morsitans
G. austeni
G. swynnertoni
G. pallidipes
G. longipalpis
G. tachinoides
G. brevipalpis
Nagana — acute form domestic pigs
cattle
camels
horses T. simiae Africa G. palpalis
G. fuscipes
G. morsitans
G. tachinoides
G. longipalpis
G. fusca
G. tabaniformis
G. brevipalpis
G. vanhoofi
G. austeni
Nagana — acute form cattle
camels
horses T. vivax Africa G. morsitans
G. palpalis
G. tachinoides
G. swynnertoni
G. pallidipes
G. austeni
G. vanhoofi
G. longipalpis
Surra — chronic form domestic pigs
warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus)
forest hogs (Hylochoerus spp.) T. suis Africa G. palpalis
G. fuscipes
G. morsitans
G. tachinoides
G. longipalpis
G. fusca
G. tabaniformis
G. brevipalpis
G. vanhoofi
G. austeni
In humans[edit]
Main article: African trypanosomiasis
Human African trypanosomiasis, also called sleeping sickness, is caused by trypanosomes of the species Trypanosoma brucei. This disease is invariably fatal unless treated but can almost always be cured with current medicines, if the disease is diagnosed early enough.
Sleeping sickness begins with a tsetse bite leading to an inoculation in the subcutaneous tissue. The infection moves into the lymphatic system, leading to a characteristic swelling of the lymph glands called Winterbottom's sign.[20] The infection progresses into the blood stream and eventually crosses into the central nervous system and invades the brain leading to extreme lethargy and eventually to death.
The species Trypanosoma brucei, which causes the disease, has often been subdivided into three subspecies that were identified based either on the vertebrate hosts which the strain could infect or on the virulence of the disease in humans. The trypanosomes infectious to animals and not to humans were named Trypanosoma brucei brucei. Strains that infected humans were divided into two subspecies based on their different virulences: Trypanosoma brucei gambiense was thought to have a slower onset and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense refers to strains with a more rapid, virulent onset. This characterization has always been problematic but was the best that could be done given the knowledge of the time and the tools available for identification. A recent molecular study using restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis suggests that the three subspecies are polyphyletic,[21] so the elucidation of the strains of T. brucei infective to humans requires a more complex explanation. Procyclins are proteins developed in the surface coating of trypanosomes whilst in their tsetse fly vector.[22]
Other forms of human trypanosomiasis also exist but are not transmitted by tsetse. The most notable is American trypanosomiasis, known as Chagas disease, which occurs in South America, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, and transmitted by certain insects of the Reduviidae, members of the Hemiptera.
In domestic animals[edit]
Main article: Animal trypanosomiasis
Animal trypanosomiasis, also called nagana when it occurs in bovine cattle or horses or sura when it occurs in domestic pigs, is caused by several trypanosome species. These diseases reduce the growth rate, milk productivity, and strength of farm animals, generally leading to the eventual death of the infected animals. Certain species of cattle are called trypanotolerant because they can survive and grow even when infected with trypanosomes although they also have lower productivity rates when infected.
The course of the disease in animals is similar to the course of sleeping sickness in humans.
Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanosoma vivax are the two most important species infecting bovine cattle in sub-Saharan Africa. Trypanosoma simiae causes a virulent disease in swine.
Other forms of animal trypanosomiasis are also known from other areas of the globe, caused by different species of trypanosomes and transmitted without the intervention of the tsetse fly.
The tsetse fly vector ranges mostly in the central part of Africa.
Control[edit]
The conquest of sleeping sickness and nagana would be of immense benefit to rural development and contribute to poverty alleviation and improved food security in sub-Saharan Africa. Human African trypanosomosis (HAT) and animal African trypanosomosis (AAT) are sufficiently important to make virtually any intervention against these diseases beneficial.[23]
Tsetse fly from Burkina Faso
The disease can be managed by controlling the vector and thus reducing the incidence of the disease by disrupting the transmission cycle. Another tactic to manage the disease is to target the disease directly using surveillance and curative or prophylactic treatments to reduce the number of hosts that carry the disease.
Economic analysis indicates that the cost of managing trypanosomosis through the elimination of important populations of major tsetse vectors will be covered several times by the benefits of tsetse-free status.[12] Area-wide interventions against the tsetse and trypanosomosis problem appear more efficient and profitable if sufficiently large areas, with high numbers of cattle, can be covered.
Vector control strategies can aim at either continuous suppression or eradication of target populations. Tsetse fly eradication programmes are complex and logistically demanding activities and usually involve the integration of different control tactics, such as trypanocidal drugs, impregnated treated targets (ITT), insecticide-treated cattle (ITC), aerial spraying (Sequential Aerosol Technique - SAT) and in some situations the release of sterile males (sterile insect technique – SIT). To ensure sustainability of the results, it is critical to apply the control tactics on an area-wide basis, i.e. targeting an entire tsetse population that is preferably genetically isolated.
Control techniques[edit]
Many techniques have reduced tsetse populations, with earlier, crude methods recently replaced by methods that are cheaper, more directed, and ecologically better.
Slaughter of wild animals[edit]
One early technique involved slaughtering all the wild animals tsetse fed on. For example, the island of Principe off the west coast of Africa was entirely cleared of feral pigs in the 1930s, which led to the extirpation of the fly. While the fly eventually re-invaded in the 1950s, the new population of tsetse was free from the disease.
Land clearing[edit]
Another early technique involved complete removal of brush and woody vegetation from an area. Tsetse tend to rest on the trunks of trees so removing woody vegetation made the area inhospitable to the flies. However, the technique was not widely used and has been abandoned. Preventing regrowth of woody vegetation requires continuous clearing efforts, which is only practical where large human populations are present. The clearing of woody vegetation has come to be seen as an environmental problem more than a benefit.
Pesticide campaigns[edit]
Pesticides have been used to control tsetse starting initially during the early part of the twentieth century in localized efforts using the inorganic metal-based pesticides, expanding after the Second World War into massive aerial- and ground-based campaigns with organochlorine pesticides such as DDT applied as aerosol sprays at Ultra-Low Volume rates. Later, more targeted techniques used pour-on formulations in which advanced organic pesticides were applied directly to the backs of cattle.
Trapping[edit]
Tsetse trap
Tsetse populations can be monitored and effectively controlled using simple, inexpensive traps. These often use electric blue cloth, since this color attracts the flies. Early traps mimicked the form of cattle but this seems unnecessary and recent traps are simple sheets or have a biconical form. The traps can kill by channeling the flies into a collection chamber or by exposing the flies to insecticide sprayed on the cloth. Tsetse are also attracted to large dark colors like the hides of cow and buffaloes. Some scientists put forward the idea that zebra have stripes, not as a camouflage in long grass, but because the black and white bands tend to confuse tsetse and prevent attack.[24][25]
The use of chemicals as attractants to lure tsetse to the traps has been studied extensively in the late 20th century, but this has mostly been of interest to scientists rather than as an economically reasonable solution. Attractants studied have been those tsetse might use to find food, like carbon dioxide, octenol, and acetone—which are given off in animals' breath and distributed downwind in an odor plume. Synthetic versions of these chemicals can create artificial odor plumes. A cheaper approach is to place cattle urine in a half gourd near the trap. For large trapping efforts, additional traps are generally cheaper than expensive artificial attractants.
A special trapping method is applied in Ethiopia, where the BioFarm Consortium (ICIPE, BioVision Foundation, BEA, Helvetas, DLCO-EA, Praxis Ethiopia) applies the traps in a sustainable agriculture and rural development context (SARD). The traps are just the entry point, followed by improved farming, human health and marketing inputs. This method is in the final stage of testing (as per 2006).
In the late 18th century, the Kotokoli Muslims of Togo held a special ritual in order for their child to have a prosperous life. This ritual consisted of mothers killing the tsetse flies and sprinkling them on horned melon. They would feed their children this delicacy. This ritual is still practiced today in some sub-Saharan tribes.[citation needed]
Sterile insect technique[edit]
The sterile insect technique (SIT) is a form of pest control that uses ionizing radiation (gamma ray or X ray) to sterilize male flies that are mass-produced in special rearing facilities. The sterile males are released systematically from the ground or by air in tsetse-infested areas, where they mate with wild females, which do not produce offspring. As a result, this technique can eventually eradicate populations of wild flies. SIT is among the most environmentally friendly control tactics available, and is usually applied as the final component of an integrated campaign.
The sustainable removal of the tsetse fly is in many cases the most cost-effective way of dealing with the T&T problem resulting in major economic benefits for subsistence farmers in rural areas. Insecticide-based methods are normally very ineffective in removing the last remnants of tsetse populations, while, on the contrary, sterile males are very effective in finding and mating the last remaining females. Therefore, the integration of the SIT as the last component of an area-wide integrated approach is essential in many situations to achieve complete eradication of the different tsetse populations, particularly in areas of more dense vegetation.
A project that was implemented from 1994 to 1997 on the Island of Unguja, Zanzibar (United Republic of Tanzania), demonstrated that, after suppression of the tsetse population with insecticides, SIT completely removed the Glossina austeni Newstead population from the Island ([26]). The eradication of the tsetse fly from Unguja Island in 1997 was followed by the disappearance of the AAT which enabled farmers to integrate livestock keeping with cropping in areas where this had been impossible before. The increased livestock and crop productivity and the possibility of using animals for transport and traction significantly contributed to an increase in the quality of people’s lives ([27][28]). A recent entomological survey (2015) jointly carried out by independent experts and the Department of Veterinary Services of Zanzibar has confirmed the tsetse-free status of the island, 18 years after eradication was declared.[citation needed]
In the Niayes region of Senegal, a coastal area close to Dakar, livestock keeping was difficult due to the presence of a population of Glossina palpalis gambiensis. Feasibility studies indicated that the fly population was confined to very fragmented habitats and a population genetics study indicated that the population was genetically isolated from the main tsetse belt in the south eastern part of Senegal. After completion of the feasibility studies (2006–2010), an area-wide integrated eradication campaign that included an SIT component was started in 2011, and by 2015, the Niayes region had become almost tsetse fly free.[29]
The entire target area (Block 1, 2 and 3) has a total surface of 1000 km2, and the first block (northern part) can be considered free of tsetse, as intensive monitoring has failed to detect since 2012 a single wild tsetse fly. The prevalence of AAT has decreased from 40-50% before the project started to less than 10% to date in blocks 1 and 2. Although insecticides are being used for fly suppression, they are applied for short periods on traps, nets and livestock, and are not spread into the environment. After the suppression activities are completed, no more insecticide is applied in the area. The removal of trypanosomosis will eliminate the need for constant prophylactic treatments of the cattle with trypanocidal drugs, therefore reducing residues of these drugs in the dung, meat and milk.
The main beneficiaries of the project are the many small holder farmers, the larger commercial farms and the consumers of meat and milk. According to a socio-economic survey and benefit cost analysis,[30] after eradication of the tsetse farmers will be able to replace their local breeds with improved breeds and increase their annual income by €2.8 million. In addition, it is expected that the number of cattle will be reduced by 45%, which will result in reduced environmental impacts.
Effect on societal development[edit]
In the literature of environmental determinism, the tsetse has been linked to difficulties during early state formation for areas where the fly is prevalent. A 2012 study used population growth models, physiological data, and ethnographic data to examine pre-colonial agricultural practices and isolate the effects of the fly. A "tsetse suitability index" was developed from insect population growth, climate and geospatial data to simulate the fly's population steady state. Results suggest that the tsetse decimated livestock populations, forcing early states to rely on slave labor to clear land for farming, and preventing farmers from taking advantage of natural animal fertilizers to increase crop production. These long-term effects may have kept population density low and discouraged cooperation between small-scale communities, thus preventing stronger nations from forming.[31]
T. brucei sexual cycle[edit]
T. brucei are able to undergo meiotic sexual reproduction. Meiosis occurs within the salivary glands of the tsetse fly and is thought to be a normal part of development.[32] The meiotic process results in production of haploid promastigote-like gametes. These gametes can interact with each other using their flagella, and then fuse.
Resistance of tsetse flies to trypanosome infection[edit]
Tsetse flies have an arsenal of immune defenses to resist each stage of the trypanosome infectious cycle, and thus are relatively refractory to trypanosome infection [33] Among the host flies’ defenses is the production of hydrogen peroxide,[34] a reactive oxygen species that damages DNA. These defenses limit the population of infected flies.
See also[edit]
David Bruce (microbiologist)
Use of DNA in forensic entomology
G.D. Hale Carpenter joined the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, and took the DM in 1913 with a dissertation on the tsetse fly (Glossina palpalis) and sleeping sickness. He published: A Naturalist on Lake Victoria, with an Account of Sleeping Sickness and the Tse-tse Fly; 1920. T.F. Unwin Ltd, London; Biodiversity Archive
Muriel Robertson, who conducted early 20th century research on the insect
References[edit]
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
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Jump up ^ IAEA 2015. The Tsetse Fly Eradication Project in Senegal Wins Award for Best Sustainable Development Practices. https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/tsetse-fly-eradication-project-senegal-wins-award-best-sustainable-development-practices
Jump up ^ Bouyer, F; Seck, MT; Dicko, AH; Sall, B; Lo, M; et al. (2014). "Ex-ante Benefit-Cost Analysis of the Elimination of a Glossina palpalis gambiensis Population in the Niayes of Senegal". PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 8 (8): e3112. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003112.
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Jump up ^ Gibson W (2015). "Liaisons dangereuses: sexual recombination among pathogenic trypanosomes". Res. Microbiol. 166 (6): 459–66. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2015.05.005. PMID 26027775.
Jump up ^ Hao Z, Kasumba I, Aksoy S (2003). "Proventriculus (cardia) plays a crucial role in immunity in tsetse fly (Diptera: Glossinidiae)". Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 33 (11): 1155–64. doi:10.1016/j.ibmb.2003.07.001. PMID 14563366.
Further reading[edit]
Gerster, George (December 1986). "Tsetse". National Geographic. Vol. 170 no. 6. pp. 814–833. ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Glossinidae.
Wikispecies has information related to Glossina
Programmes and information to assist in the planning and implementation of tsetse control operations
Programme Against African Trypanosomiasis
PAN AFRICAN TSETSE AND TRYPANOSOMIASIS ERADICATION CAMPAIGN (PATTEC)
Tsetse in the Transvaal and Surrounding Territories - An Historical Review - Claude Fuller, (Division of Entomology, 1923)
Leverhulme Trust Tsetse Research Network (LTTRN)
BITING FLIES - The NZI Trap
Distribution maps
Resources[edit]
Textbooks[edit]
Maudlin, I., Holmes, P.H. & Miles M.A. (2004) "The Trypanosomiases" CAB International.
Buxton, P. (1955) The Natural History of Tsetse Flies: An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (Diptera). London, UK: H.K. Lewis & Co.
Glasgow, J. (1963) The Distribution and Abundance of Tsetse International Series of Monographs on Pure and Applied Biology, No. 20. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.
Mulligan, H. & Potts, W. (1970) The African Trypanosomiases London, UK: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd.
Ford, J. (1971) The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
Leak, S. (1998) Tsetse Biology and Ecology: Their role in the Epidemiology and Control of Trypanosomiasis. New York, NY, USA: CABI Publishing. book site[permanent dead link]
McKelvey Jr., J. (1973) Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa. Ithaca, NY, USA: Cornell University Press.
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Legends of the Fall
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the American film. For the The Weeknd tour, see Starboy: Legend of the Fall Tour.
Legends of the Fall
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Edward Zwick
Produced by
Marshall Herskovitz
William D. Wittliff
Edward Zwick
Screenplay by
Susan Shilliday
William D. Wittliff
Based on
Legends of the Fall
by Jim Harrison
Starring
Brad Pitt
Anthony Hopkins
Aidan Quinn
Julia Ormond
Henry Thomas
Music by
James Horner
Cinematography
John Toll
Edited by
Steven Rosenblum
Production
company
Bedford Falls Productions
Distributed by
TriStar Pictures
Release date
December 23, 1994 (1994-12-23) (US)
Running time
133 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$30 million
Box office
$160.6 million[1]
Legends of the Fall is a 1994 American epic historical drama film directed by Edward Zwick and starring Brad Pitt, Anthony Hopkins, Aidan Quinn, Julia Ormond and Henry Thomas. Based on the 1979 novella of the same title by Jim Harrison, the film is about three brothers and their father living in the wilderness and plains of Montana in the early 20th century and how their lives are affected by nature, history, war and love. The film's time frame spans from World War I through the Prohibition era, ending with a brief scene set in 1963. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards and won for Best Cinematography (John Toll).[2] Both the film and book contain occasional Cornish language terms, the Ludlows being a Cornish emigrant family.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Reception
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
4.3 Accolades
5 Home media
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Sick of betrayals the United States government perpetrated on the Native Americans, Colonel William Ludlow leaves the Army and moves to a remote part of Montana. Along with One Stab, a Cree friend, he builds a ranch and raises his family. Accompanying them are hired hand and former outlaw Decker, Decker's Cree wife Pet, and daughter Isabel Two. Ludlow has three sons: Alfred, the eldest, is responsible and cautious; Tristan, the Colonel's favorite son, is wild and well-versed in American Indian traditions; Samuel, the youngest, is educated but naive and constantly watched over by his brothers.
Ludlow's wife Isabel does not adapt to the harsh Montana winters and moves to the East Coast; Tristan vows never to speak of her again. At age 12, Tristan touches a sleeping grizzly bear. The bear awakens and injures him, but he stabs at the bear's paw and cuts off a claw.
Years later, Samuel returns from Harvard University with his fiancée, Susannah. Susannah talks with Isabel Two and learns of her fondness for Tristan. Susannah finds Tristan captivating but loves Samuel. Before they can marry, Samuel announces his intention to join the Canadian Expeditionary Force and aid Britain in the fight against Germany. Much to their father's displeasure, Alfred also joins. Although Tristan does not want to join, he does so to protect his brothers.
During World War I, the brothers find themselves in the 10th Battalion, CEF. Alfred, commissioned as an officer, leads a charge into no man's land. The attack results in heavy casualties and Alfred is wounded. While visiting Alfred in the field hospital, Tristan learns that Samuel has volunteered for a dangerous reconnaissance mission. He rushes off to protect his brother but arrives too late. A devastated Tristan holds Samuel until he dies, then cuts out his brother's heart and sends it home to be buried at the ranch. Tristan single-handedly raids the German lines. He returns to camp with the scalps of German soldiers hanging around his neck, horrifying his fellow soldiers. He is discharged but does not go home. Alfred returns to Montana and proposes to Susannah, but she declines.
Tristan returns home, where Susannah finds him weeping over Samuel's grave. She comforts him, and they become lovers. A jealous Alfred confronts Tristan and leaves to make his name in Helena. Tristan is plagued with guilt over Samuel's death and feels responsible for driving Alfred away; he leaves Montana for several years. Susannah waits for him, only to receive a letter telling her to marry someone else. Alfred comforts Susannah. Ludlow finds them together, which leads to a falling out between him and Alfred. Ludlow later suffers a stroke. He does not speak for years and the ranch deteriorates. Susannah marries Alfred, now a congressman. Alfred's business and politics cause him to get involved with the O'Banion brothers, bootleggers and gangsters.
Tristan returns during Prohibition, bringing life back to the ranch and his father. He falls in love with Isabel Two and they marry. They have two children, the elder being a boy named Samuel. Tristan becomes involved in small-scale rum-running, finding himself at odds with the O'Banion brothers. Isabel is accidentally killed by a police officer working for the O'Banions. In a fit of grief, Tristan beats the officer nearly to death and is jailed. Susannah visits Tristan, still having feelings for him, but he refuses her advances. After his release, Tristan and Decker kill those responsible for Isabel's death, including one of the O'Banion brothers.
Realizing she cannot live without Tristan, Susannah commits suicide. The remaining O'Banion brother, along with the corrupt sheriff and another police officer, comes after Tristan for revenge. At the ranch, Ludlow and Alfred kill the attackers. Alfred reconciles with his father and brother. The family realizes that Tristan is likely to be blamed for the deaths, which prompts Tristan to ask Alfred to take care of his children. One Stab's narration explains that later during the night they bury the bodies and dump the car in the Missouri River. He reflects that rather than dying young as he, the American Indian, had expected, Tristan lived to watch his children and grandchildren grow. One Stab observes that it was the people Tristan loved and wanted to protect most that died young. The last scene takes place in 1963. Tristan, now an old man living in the North Country investigates an animal carcass as he is confronted by a grizzly bear. He draws his knife and fights it. As they struggle, the image freeze-frames as One Stab narrates, "It was a good death".
Cast[edit]
Brad Pitt as Tristan Ludlow
Keegan MacIntosh as Young Tristan Ludlow
Anthony Hopkins as Col. William Ludlow
Aidan Quinn as Alfred Ludlow
Julia Ormond as Susannah Fincannon-Ludlow
Henry Thomas as Samuel Ludlow
Karina Lombard as Isabel "Isabel II" Decker/Isabel Decker Ludlow
Sekwan Auger as Young Isabel II Decker
Gordon Tootoosis as One Stab
Christina Pickles as Isabel Ludlow
Paul Desmond as Roscoe Decker
Tantoo Cardinal as Pet Decker
Robert Wisden as John T. O'Banion
John Novak as James O'Banion
Kenneth Welsh as Sheriff Tynert
Bart the Bear as the Bear
Production[edit]
Filming[edit]
Legends of the Fall was primarily filmed on location in Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. Principal photography began in mid-September 1993.[4] The World War I battlefield scenes took two weeks to film and were shot near Morley, Alberta, with hundreds of locals and a few Canadian Forces soldiers recruited as extras.[5] The Ghost River Wilderness Area in Alberta served as the filming location for the Ludlow ranch; additional outdoor scenes, as well as the funeral and cemetery scenes, were shot at the Bow River near Banff National Park. A historic harbour area in Vancouver called Gastown was augmented with period building facades for the Helena, Montana street scenes. Hotel scenes were shot at the Hotel Europe at 43 Powell Street in Vancouver. Additional scenes were shot at Maple Leaf Square in Gastown, Vancouver, and Ocho Rios in Saint Ann, Jamaica. Filming wrapped up around January 1994.[6]
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
The film opened in limited release on December 23, 1994, and expanded to a wide release on January 13, 1995. During its first weekend in wide release, which was a four-day weekend due to Martin Luther King, Jr. Day, the film reached number one at the domestic box office after grossing $14 million.[7] After its initial run, the film brought in a final box office total of $160,638,883.[8] Against its $30 million budget, the film was a financial success.
Critical response[edit]
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56% of 54 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 5.8 out of 10.[9] Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 45 based on 23 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[10] IMBD gave the film a score of 7.5/10 based on reviews from critics, indicating generally positive reviews.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times described the film as "pretty good ... with full-blooded performances and heartfelt melodrama".[11] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone particularly praised Pitt's performance saying, "Though the admirable Quinn has the toughest role, Pitt carries the picture. The blue-eyed boy who seemed a bit lost in Interview with the Vampire proves himself a bona fide movie star, stealing every scene he's in."[12] Comparatively, Chris Hicks of Deseret News noted, "Pitt is the hunk of the moment, and Legends of the Fall will only further cement his big-screen, romantic leading-man status. And he is satisfying as the internalized, rebellious Tristan (look for that name to be given to more than a few babies over the next few years). Even if the character seems only a slight twist on the similar role he played in A River Runs Through It. (He even becomes a bootlegger!)"[13]
On the other hand, Rita Kempley of The Washington Post stated that the film's "yarn doesn't so much sweep as sprawl across the screen in all its panoramic idiocy".[14] Janet Maslin of The New York Times commented, "Before it turns exhaustingly hollow, this film shows the potential for bringing Mr. Harrison's tough, brooding tale to life. And the actors may have captured the spirit of the story, but that's impossible to know." She concluded, "These are performances that lost too much in the editing room, smothered by music and overshadowed by a picture-postcard vision of the American West."[15]
Accolades[edit]
The film was nominated for the Academy Awards for Best Cinematography (John Toll), Best Art Direction (Lilly Kilvert, Dorree Cooper), and Best Sound (Paul Massey, David E. Campbell, Chris David and Douglas Ganton), and won the category for Best Cinematography.[2][16] In addition, the film was nominated for the Golden Globes for Best Picture – Drama, Best Actor – Drama (Brad Pitt), Best Director (Edward Zwick), and Best Original Score (James Horner).[17]
Home media[edit]
Legends of the Fall was first released on DVD on April 29, 1997, and once again on October 17, 2000.[18] The film was later released on Blu-ray on February 8, 2011, with bonus content that includes two audio commentaries, deleted scenes with optional commentary and two behind-the-scenes featurettes.[19]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Legends of the Fall (1994)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 2017-09-23.
^ Jump up to: a b Hicks, Chris (13 January 1995). "Legends of the Fall". Deseret News. Retrieved 11 December 2012. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ Tristram, Hildegard L. C. (2007). The Celtic Languages in Contact. Potsdam University Library#Potsdam University Press. p. 204. ISBN 978-3-940793-07-2.
Jump up ^ "Hopkins lines up Beethoven role". Reading Eagle. 27 August 1993. p. 51. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Reel Adventures Alberta Movie Maps". Alberta SouthWest. pp. 1–9. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Ansen, David (16 January 1994). "The Flowering Of A Late Bloomer". The Daily Beast. p. 2. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Weekend Box Office Results for January 13-16, 1995". IMDB. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Legends of the Fall (1994)". IMDB. Box Office Mojo. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Legends of the Fall – Rotten Tomatoes". Flixster. Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Legends of the Fall". CBS Interactive. Metacritic. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (13 January 1995). "Legends of the Fall". Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Travers, Peter (13 January 1995). "Legends of the Fall | Movie Reviews". Rolling Stone. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Hicks, Chris (17 January 1995). "Film review: Legends of the Fall". Deseret News. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Kempley, Rita (13 January 1995). "'Legends of the Fall' (R)". The Washington Post. Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Jump up ^ Maslin, Janet (23 December 1994). "Grit vs. Good Looks In the American West". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "The 67th Academy Awards (1995) Nominees and Winners". oscars.org. Retrieved 2011-08-05.
Jump up ^ "Golden Globes, USA 1995". Lucy Media. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
Jump up ^ "Legends of the Fall". 9 October 2000. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
Jump up ^ Calonge, Juan (29 November 2010). "Legends of the Fall Blu-ray Announced, A River Runs through It in Regular Case". Blu-ray.com. Retrieved 12 December 2012.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Legends of the Fall
Legends of the Fall on IMDb
Legends of the Fall at AllMovie
Legends of the Fall at the TCM Movie Database
Legends of the Fall at the American Film Institute Catalog
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Edward Zwick
About Last Night (1986)
Glory (1989)
Leaving Normal (1992)
Legends of the Fall (1994)
Courage Under Fire (1996)
The Siege (1998)
The Last Samurai (2003)
Blood Diamond (2006)
Defiance (2008)
Love & Other Drugs (2010)
Pawn Sacrifice (2014)
Jack Reacher: Never Go Back (2016)
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 232515313
GND: 4684122-2
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Legends_of_the_Fall&oldid=816810561"
Categories:
1994 films
English-language films
American films
1990s drama films
Western Front films (World War I)
American romantic drama films
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Films based on American novels
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Films set in Montana
Films set in the 1910s
Films set in the 1920s
Films set in the 1930s
Films set in the 1960s
Films shot in Alberta
Films shot in Vancouver
Films whose cinematographer won the Best Cinematography Academy Award
TriStar Pictures films
Films scored by James Horner
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