text:
List of World War I battles
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It has been suggested that this article be merged into List of military engagements of World War I. (Discuss) Proposed since May 2016.
List of Canadian battles during the First World War on the Western Front plaque in Currie Hall, Royal Military College of Canada
Notre-Dame-de-Lorette National Cemetery at Ablain-Saint-Nazaire - the largest single military cemetery in France, holding an ossuary and burials of 40,051 soldiers.
Tyne Cot Cemetery at Ypres Salient, Belgium - the largest British military cemetery in the world with more than 35,000 soldiers.
World War I, which lasted from July 1914 to November 1918 was, at the time, the largest single war ever to have occurred. There were a large number of allies on each side of the conflict, and their geographical location and that of their imperial provinces meant that parts of the war were fought all over Europe, and in other places such as North Africa, the Middle East, and even minor skirmishes in the Pacific Ocean. A battle is a smaller conflict between two military enemies that often makes up part of a war. This is a list (though not exhaustive) of the battles of World War I, in chronological order. They are organized as to the opening date of the battle.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Contents
[hide]
1 1914
1.1 August
1.2 September
1.3 October
1.4 November
1.5 December
2 1915
2.1 January
2.2 February
2.3 March
2.4 April
2.5 May
2.6 June
2.7 July
2.8 August
2.9 September
2.10 October
2.11 November
2.12 December
3 1916
3.1 January
3.2 February
3.3 March
3.4 April
3.5 May
3.6 June
3.7 July
3.8 August
3.9 September
3.10 October
3.11 November
3.12 December
4 1917
4.1 January
4.2 February
4.3 March
4.4 April
4.5 May
4.6 June
4.7 July
4.8 August
4.9 September
4.10 October
4.11 November
4.12 December
5 1918
5.1 March
5.2 April
5.3 May
5.4 June
5.5 July
5.6 August
5.7 September
5.8 October
5.9 November
6 See also
7 References
1914[edit]
August[edit]
5 Battle of Liège
5 Battle of the Frontiers
7 Battle of Mulhouse
12 Battle of Halen
14 Battle of Lorraine
17 Battle of Stallupönen
21 Battle of Charleroi
21 Battle of the Ardennes
22 Battle of Rossignol
23 Battle of Mons
23 Battle of Galicia
24 Battle of the Trouée de Charmes
26 Battle of Tannenberg
26 Battle of Le Cateau
29 Battle of St. Quentin
September[edit]
6 First Battle of the Marne
7 First Battle of the Masurian Lakes
13 First Battle of the Aisne
19 Battle of Flirey
22 First Battle of Picardy
25 Battle of Albert
29 Battle of the Vistula River
October[edit]
1 Battle of Arras
10 Battle of La Bassée
12 Battle of Messines
13 Battle of Armentières
16 Battle of the Yser
21 Battle of Langemarck (part of the First Battle of Ypres)
28 Battle of Gheluvelt (part of the First Battle of Ypres)
November[edit]
9 Battle of Nonne Bosschen (part of the First Battle of Ypres)
11 Battle of Łódź
December[edit]
1 Battle of Limanowa
8 Battle of the Falkland Islands
20 First Battle of Champagne
22 Battle of Sarikamish
1915[edit]
January[edit]
18 Battle of Jassin
February[edit]
3 Defense of the Suez Badick
7 Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes
19 Dardanelles Bombardment
March[edit]
10 Battle of Neuve Chapelle
April[edit]
12 Battle of Shaiba
22 Battle of Gravenstafel (part of Second Battle of Ypres)
24 Battle of St Juliaan (part of Second Battle of Ypres)
25 Anzac Cove
25 Landing at Cape Helles
28 First Battle of Krithia
May[edit]
1 Eski Hissarlik
6 Second Battle of Krithia
8 Battle of Frezenberg (part of Second Battle of Ypres)
15 Battle of Festubert
19 Turkish attack at Anzac Cove
24 Battle of Bellewaarde (final part of Second Battle of Ypres )
31 Capture of Amara
June[edit]
4 Third Battle of Krithia
18 Attempt to Force the Narrows
23 First Battle of the Isonzo
27 Battle of Nasiriyeh
28 Battle of Gully Ravine
July[edit]
12 Attack on Ache Baba
18 Second Battle of the Isonzo
August[edit]
6 Battle of Sari Bair
17 Great Retreat (Russian)
21 Battle of Hill 60
21 Battle of Scimitar Hill
September[edit]
Langemark German war cemetery, in Belgium. This is a German war cemetery, consisting of a mass grave and other individual and group graves, as well as a memorial to the German missing of the war.
25 Third Battle of Artois
25 Battle of Loos
25 Second Battle of Champagne
28 Battle of Es Sinn
October[edit]
14 Morava Offensive
14 Ovče Pole Offensive
18 Third Battle of the Isonzo
November[edit]
10 Fourth Battle of the Isonzo
10 Kosovo Offensive (1915)
22 Battle of Ctesiphon
December[edit]
7 Siege of Kut-al-Amara
18 Evacuation of Gallipoli
1916[edit]
January[edit]
5 Montenegrin Campaign of World War I
6 Battle of Mojkovac
6 Battle of Sheikh Sa'ad
10 Battle of Koprukoy
13 Battle of the Wadi
21 Battle of Hanna
February[edit]
21 Battle of Verdun
March[edit]
8 Battle of Dujaila
9 Fifth Battle of the Isonzo
18 Battle of Lake Naroch
April[edit]
5 First Battle of Kut
May[edit]
15 Battle of Ninigalo
15 Trentino Offensive
31 Battle of Jutland
June[edit]
4 Battle of Lutsk
4 Battle of Khanaqin
July[edit]
Canadian soldiers going 'over the top' at the start of the Battle of the Somme.
1 Battle of the Somme
1 Battle of Albert
14 Battle of Bazentin Ridge
14 Battle of Delville Wood
19 Battle of Fromelles
23 Battle of Pozières
August[edit]
3 Battle of Romani
6 Sixth Battle of the Isonzo
6 Battle of Gorizia
September[edit]
3 Battle of Guillemont
14 Seventh Battle of the Isonzo
15 Battle of Flers-Courcelette
October[edit]
10 Eighth Battle of the Isonzo
November[edit]
1 Ninth Battle of the Isonzo
December[edit]
14 Battle of Magdhaba
13 Second Battle of Kut
1917[edit]
January[edit]
9 Battle of Khadairi Bend [1]
February[edit]
26 Battle of Nahr-al Kalek
March[edit]
11 Capture of Baghdad
13 Samarrah Offensive
19 Seizure of Falluja
25 Battle of Mount Hamrin
26 First Battle of Gaza
April[edit]
9 Second Battle of Arras
11 First Battle of Bullecourt
22 Battle of Doiran (1917)
May[edit]
3-11 Second Battle of Bullecourt
12 Tenth Battle of the Isonzo
14 Battle of Otranto Straits
June[edit]
7 Battle of Messines
July[edit]
The ruins of Ypres, after its three battles. The battle of Ypres was also known as the 'Battle of the Bulge,' because of the bulge effect it had on the lines of allied trenches. Due to Ypres' strategic importance, the battles fought over it had huge death tolls.
31 Third Battle of Ypres
31 Battle of Passchendaele
August[edit]
19 Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo
20 Battle of Liege
September[edit]
28 Battle of Ramadi
October[edit]
24 Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo
24 Battle of Caporetto
31 Third Battle of Gaza
31 Battle of Beersheba (Palestine)
November[edit]
5 Capture of Tikrit
13 Battle of Mughar Ridge
20 Battle of Cambrai
December[edit]
8 Fall of Jerusalem
1918[edit]
March[edit]
21 Second Battle of Somme/Operation Michael
April[edit]
9 Battle of the Lys/Operation Georgette
23 Raid on Zeebrugge
May[edit]
27 Third Battle of the Aisne/Operation Blücher-Yorck
28 Battle of Cantigny
June[edit]
1 Battle of Belleau Wood
18 Battle of Chateau-Thierry
15 Battle of the Piave River
18 Action of 18 June 1918
July[edit]
4 Battle of Hamel
14 Battle of Abu Tellul
15 Second Battle of the Marne
18 Battle of Soissons
21 Attack on Orleans
August[edit]
8 Battle of Amiens
27 Battle of Ambos Nogales
31 Battle of Mont St. Quentin
September[edit]
12 Battle of Havrincourt
12 Battle of Saint-Mihiel
18 Battle of Epehy
19 Battle of Megiddo
26 Battle of the Argonne Forest
27 Battle of the Canal du Nord
29 Battle of St. Quentin Canal
October[edit]
8 Battle of Cambrai
17 Battle of the Selle
23 Battle of Vittorio Veneto
23 Battle of Sharqat
November[edit]
1 Battle of Valenciennes
4 Second Battle of the Sambre
4 Second Battle of Guise (Part of The Battle Of Sambre)
4 Battle of Thierache (Part of The Battle Of Sambre)
See also[edit]
Timeline of World War I
List of military engagements of World War I
List of battles 1901–2000
References[edit]
http://www.firstworldwar.com/battles/all.htm - comprehensive list of battles.
http://www.spartacus-educational.com/FWWbattles.htm - supporting information and list of battles.
https://web.archive.org/web/20080724211204/http://uktv.co.uk/history/item/aid/595496
Britannica Encyclopaedia - detailed information on many of the more significant battles.
http://www.guidedbattlefieldtours.co.uk/education-resource/ - detailed information of battles
Specific
Jump up ^ http://www.warmuseum.ca/the-battle-of-vimy-ridge/
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_battles&oldid=819486587"
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Eastern coastal plains
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This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. (May 2015)
View of Fields at Biccavolu, Eastern coastal plains, Andhra Pradesh
The Eastern Coastal Plains refers to a wide stretch of landmass of India, lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It is wider and leveled than the western coastal plains and stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north through Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Chilka Lake is a brackish water lake along the eastern coastal plain. It lies in the state of Odisha and stretches to the south of the Mahanadi Delta.[1]
Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast & Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 and 3,000 mm (39 and 118 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 to 80 miles).
It is locally known as Utkal Plains in the Northern part between Cossye and Rushikulya Rivers, Northern Circars in the Central part between Rushikulya and Krishna Rivers and, as Coromandel Coast in the Southern part from the south of river Krishna till the Southern tip of Mainland India at Cape Comorin where it merges with the Western Coastal Plains.
See also[edit]
Western Coastal Plains
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sr.Bimcy; Sr.Sisily; Charlotte. Bibliographic information. Scholar Publishing House. pp. 20–21. ISBN 8171725163.
[hide]
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text:
Group 3 element
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For the other group formerly named Group III (boron group), see Group 13 element.
Group 3 in the periodic table
Hydrogen Helium
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury (element) Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
alkaline earth metals ← → group 4
IUPAC group number
3
Name by element scandium group
CAS group number
(US, pattern A-B-A)
IIIB
old IUPAC number
(Europe, pattern A-B)
IIIA
↓ Period
4
Scandium (Sc)
21 Transition metal
5
Yttrium (Y)
39 Transition metal
6
Lanthanum (La*)
57 Lanthanide
7
Actinium (Ac*)
89 Actinide
* Whether the elements lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr), in period 6 and 7, are in group 3 is disputed. The grouping used in this article places La and Ac in group 3, which is the most common form. For other groupings, see group 3 borders.
Legend
primordial element
synthetic element
Atomic number color:
black=solid
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Group 3 is a group of elements in the periodic table. This group, like other d-block groups, should contain four elements, but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group. Scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) are always included, but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or by lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr); less frequently, it is considered the group should be expanded to 32 elements (with all the lanthanides and actinides included) or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium. When the group is understood to contain all of the lanthanides, its trivial name is the rare-earth metals.
Three group 3 elements occur naturally, scandium, yttrium, and either lanthanum or lutetium. Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general chemical behavior, while lutetium behaves more similarly to yttrium. While the choice of lutetium would be in accordance with the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similarly to their upper periodic table neighbors, the choice of lanthanum is in accordance with the trends in the s-block, which the group 3 elements are chemically more similar to. They all are silvery-white metals under standard conditions. The fourth element, either actinium or lawrencium, has only radioactive isotopes. Actinium, which occurs only in trace amounts, continues the trend in chemical behavior for metals that form tripositive ions with a noble gas configuration; synthetic lawrencium is calculated and partially shown to be more similar to lutetium and yttrium. So far, no experiments have been conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element. Unbiunium (Ubu), which could be considered a group 3 element if preceded by lanthanum and actinium, might be synthesized in the near future, it being only three spaces away from the current heaviest element known, oganesson.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Characteristics
2.1 Chemical
2.2 Physical
3 Composition of group 3
4 Occurrence
5 Production
6 Biological chemistry
7 Notes
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 Links to related articles
History[edit]
In 1787, Swedish part-time chemist Carl Axel Arrhenius found a heavy black rock near the Swedish village of Ytterby, Sweden (part of the Stockholm Archipelago).[1] Thinking that it was an unknown mineral containing the newly discovered element tungsten,[2] he named it ytterbite.[note 1] Finnish scientist Johan Gadolin identified a new oxide or "earth" in Arrhenius' sample in 1789, and published his completed analysis in 1794;[3] in 1797, the new oxide was named yttria.[4] In the decades after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier developed the first modern definition of chemical elements, it was believed that earths could be reduced to their elements, meaning that the discovery of a new earth was equivalent to the discovery of the element within, which in this case would have been yttrium.[note 2] Until the early 1920s, the chemical symbol "Yt" was used for the element, after which "Y" came into common use.[5] Yttrium metal was first isolated in 1828 when Friedrich Wöhler heated anhydrous yttrium(III) chloride with potassium to form metallic yttrium and potassium chloride.[6][7]
In 1869, Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table, which had empty spaces for elements directly above and under yttrium.[8] Mendeleev made several predictions on the upper neighbor of yttrium, which he called eka-boron. Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson and his team discovered the missing element in the minerals euxenite and gadolinite and prepared 2 grams of scandium(III) oxide of high purity.[9][10] He named it scandium, from the Latin Scandia meaning "Scandinavia". Chemical experiments on the element proved that Mendeleev's suggestions were correct; along with discovery and characterization of gallium and germanium this proved the correctness of the whole periodic table and periodic law. Nilson was apparently unaware of Mendeleev's prediction, but Per Teodor Cleve recognized the correspondence and notified Mendeleev.[11] Metallic scandium was produced for the first time in 1937 by electrolysis of a eutectic mixture, at 700–800 °C, of potassium, lithium, and scandium chlorides.[12]
In 1751, the Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt discovered a heavy mineral from the mine at Bastnäs, later named cerite. Thirty years later, the fifteen-year-old Vilhelm Hisinger, from the family owning the mine, sent a sample of it to Carl Scheele, who did not find any new elements within. In 1803, after Hisinger had become an ironmaster, he returned to the mineral with Jöns Jacob Berzelius and isolated a new oxide which they named ceria after the dwarf planet Ceres, which had been discovered two years earlier.[13] Ceria was simultaneously independently isolated in Germany by Martin Heinrich Klaproth.[14] Between 1839 and 1843, ceria was shown to be a mixture of oxides by the Swedish surgeon and chemist Carl Gustaf Mosander, who lived in the same house as Berzelius: he separated out two other oxides which he named lanthana and didymia.[15] He partially decomposed a sample of cerium nitrate by roasting it in air and then treating the resulting oxide with dilute nitric acid.[16] Since lanthanum's properties differed only slightly from those of cerium, and occurred along with it in its salts, he named it from the Ancient Greek λανθάνειν [lanthanein] (lit. to lie hidden).[14] Relatively pure lanthanum metal was first isolated in 1923.[17]
Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain,[18] Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach, and American chemist Charles James[19] as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia, which was thought by most chemists to consist entirely of ytterbium. Welsbach proposed the names cassiopeium for element 71 (after the constellation Cassiopeia) and aldebaranium (after the star Aldebaran) for the new name of ytterbium but these naming proposals were rejected, although many German scientists in the 1950s called the element 71 cassiopeium. Urbain chose the names neoytterbium (Latin for "new ytterbium") for ytterbium and lutecium (from Latin Lutetia, for Paris) for the new element. The dispute on the priority of the discovery is documented in two articles in which Urbain and von Welsbach accuse each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other.[20][21] The Commission on Atomic Mass, which was responsible for the attribution of the names for the new elements, settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones. An obvious problem with this decision was that Urbain was one of the four members of the commission.[22] The separation of lutetium from ytterbium was first described by Urbain and the naming honor therefore went to him, but neoytterbium was eventually reverted to ytterbium and in 1949, the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium.[23][24] Ironically, Charles James, who had modestly stayed out of the argument as to priority, worked on a much larger scale than the others, and undoubtedly possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time.[25]
André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist, announced the discovery of actinium in 1899. He separated it from pitchblende residues left by Marie and Pierre Curie after they had extracted radium. In 1899, Debierne described the substance as similar to titanium[26] and (in 1900) as similar to thorium.[27] Friedrich Oskar Giesel independently discovered actinium in 1902[28] as a substance being similar to lanthanum and called it "emanium" in 1904.[29] After a comparison of the substances half-lives determined by Debierne,[30] Hariett Brooks in 1904, and Otto Hahn and Otto Sackur in 1905, Debierne's chosen name for the new element was retained because it had seniority, despite the contradicting chemical properties he claimed for the element at different times.[31][32]
Lawrencium, the only synthetic element in the group, was named after American physicist Ernest Lawrence, the inventor of the cyclotron atom-smasher and founder of discovery place, then-called Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory)
Lawrencium was first synthesized by the Albert Ghiorso and his team on February 14, 1961, at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (now called the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory) at the University of California in Berkeley, California, United States. The first atoms of lawrencium were produced by bombarding a three-milligram target consisting of three isotopes of the element californium with boron-10 and boron-11 nuclei from the Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator (HILAC).[33] The nuclide 257103 was originally reported, but then this was reassigned to 258103. The team at the University of California suggested the name lawrencium (after Ernest O. Lawrence, the inventor of cyclotron particle accelerator) and the symbol "Lw",[33] for the new element, but "Lw" was not adopted, and "Lr" was officially accepted instead. Nuclear-physics researchers in Dubna, Soviet Union (now Russia), reported in 1967 that they were not able to confirm American scientists' data on 257103.[34] Two years earlier, the Dubna team reported 256103.[35] In 1992, the IUPAC Trans-fermium Working Group officially recognized element 103, confirmed its naming as lawrencium, with symbol "Lr", and named the nuclear physics teams at Dubna and Berkeley as the co-discoverers of lawrencium.[36]
So far, no experiments were conducted to synthesize any element that could be the next group 3 element; if lutetium and lawrencium are considered to be group 3 elements, then the next element in the group should be element 153, unpenttrium (Upt). However, after element 120, filling electronic configurations stops obeying Aufbau principle. According to the principle, unpenttrium should have an electronic configuration of [Og]8s25g186f147d1[note 3] and filling the 5g-subshell should be stopped at element 138. However, the 7d-orbitals are calculated to start being filled on element 137, while the 5g-subshell closes only at element 144, after filling of 7d-subshell begins. Therefore, it is hard to calculate which element should be the next group 3 element.[37] Calculations suggest that unpentpentium (Upp, element 155) could also be the next group 3 element.[38] If lanthanum and actinium are considered group 3 elements, then element 121, unbiunium (Ubu), should be the fifth group 3 element. The element is calculated have electronic configuration of [Og]8s28p1/21, which is not associated with transition metals, without having a partially filled d-subshell.[37] No experiments have been performed to create unpenttrium, unbiunium or any element that could be considered the next group 3 element; however, unbiunium is the element with the lowest atomic number that has not been tried to be created and thus has chances to be,[39] while unpenttrium, unpentpentium or any other element considered if preceded by lawrencium is very unlikely to be created due to drip instabilities that imply that the periodic table ends soon after the island of stability at unbihexium.[40]
Characteristics[edit]
Chemical[edit]
Electron configurations of the group 3 elements[note 4]
Z
Element
Electron configuration
21 scandium 2, 8, 9, 2
39 yttrium 2, 8, 18, 9, 2
57 lanthanum 2, 8, 18, 18, 9, 2
89 actinium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2
Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations, especially the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior. However, lawrencium is an exception, since its last electron is transferred to the 7p1/2 subshell due to relativistic effects.[41][42]
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group; chemical properties of both actinium and especially lawrencium are not well-characterized. The remaining elements of the group (scandium, yttrium, lutetium) are reactive metals with high melting points (1541 °C, 1526 °C, 1652 °C respectively). They are usually oxidized to the +3 oxidation state, even though scandium,[43] yttrium[44][45] and lanthanum[17] can form lower oxidation states. The reactivity of the elements, especially yttrium, is not always obvious due to the formation of a stable oxide layer, which prevents further reactions. Scandium(III) oxide, yttrium(III) oxide, lanthanum(III) oxide and lutetium(III) oxide are white high-temperature-melting solids. Yttrium(III) oxide and lutetium(III) oxide exhibit weak basic character, but scandium(III) oxide is amphoteric.[46] Lanthanum(III) oxide is strongly basic.[citation needed]
Physical[edit]
Elements that show tripositive ions with electronic configuration of a noble gas (scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, actinium) show a clear trend in their physical properties, such as hardness. At the same time, if group 3 is continued with lutetium and lawrencium, several trends are broken. For example, scandium and yttrium are both soft metals. Lanthanum is soft as well; all these elements have their outermost electrons quite far from the nucleus compared to the nuclei charges. Due to the lanthanide contraction, lutetium, the last in the lanthanide series, has a significantly smaller atomic radius and a higher nucleus charge,[47] thus making the extraction of the electrons from the atom to form metallic bonding more difficult, and thus making the metal harder. However, lutetium suits the previous elements better in several other properties, such as melting[48] and boiling points.[49] Very little is known about lawrencium, and none of its physical properties have been confirmed.[50][51]
Properties of the group 3 elements[note 5]
Name
Scandium
Yttrium
Lanthanum
Actinium
Melting point[48] 1814 K, 1541 °C 1799 K, 1526 °C 1193 K, 920 °C 1323 K, 1050 °C
Boiling point[49] 3109 K, 2836 °C 3609 K, 3336 °C 3737 K, 3464 °C 3471 K, 3198 °C
Density 2.99 g·cm−3[52] 4.47 g·cm−3[53] 6.162 g·cm−3 10 g·cm−3
Appearance silver metallic silver white gray silvery
Atomic radius[47] 162 pm 180 pm 187 pm 215 pm
Composition of group 3[edit]
It is disputed whether lanthanum and actinium should be included in group 3, rather than lutetium and lawrencium. Other d-block groups are composed of four transition metals,[note 6] and group 3 is sometimes considered to follow suit. Scandium and yttrium are always classified as group 3 elements, but it is controversial which elements should follow them in group 3, lanthanum and actinium or lutetium and lawrencium. Scerri has proposed a resolution to this debate on the basis of moving to a 32-column table and consideration of which option results in a continuous sequence of atomic number increase. He thereby finds that group 3 should consist of Sc, Y, Lu, Lr.[54] The current IUPAC definition of the term "lanthanoid" includes fifteen elements including both lanthanum and lutetium, and that of "transition element"[55] applies to lanthanum and actinium, as well as lutetium but not lawrencium, since it does not correctly follow the Aufbau principle. Normally, the 103rd electron would enter the d-subshell, but quantum mechanical research has found that the configuration is actually [Rn]7s25f147p1[note 7] due to relativistic effects.[41][42] IUPAC thus has not recommended a specific format for the in-line-f-block periodic table, leaving the dispute open.
Lanthanum and actinium are sometimes considered the remaining members of group 3.[56] In their most commonly encountered tripositive ion forms, these elements do not possess any partially filled f-orbitals, thus continuing the scandium—yttrium—lanthanum—actinium trend, in which all the elements have relationship similar to that of elements of the calcium—strontium—barium—radium series, the elements' left neighbors in s-block. However, different behavior is observed in other d-block groups, especially in group 4, in which zirconium, hafnium and rutherfordium share similar chemical properties lacking a clear trend. It has however been argued that this is irrelevant because the principle of increasing basicity down the table is more fundamental, and because the behavior of the group 3 elements is more similar to their s-block neighbors than their d-block neighbors.
In other tables, lutetium and lawrencium are classified as the remaining members of group 3.[57] In these tables, lutetium and lawrencium end (or sometimes succeed) the lanthanide and actinide series, respectively. Since the f-shell is nominally full in the ground state electron configuration for both of these metals, they behave most similarly to other period 6 and period 7 transition metals compared to the other lanthanides and actinides, and thus logically exhibit properties similar to those of scandium and yttrium. However, this resemblance in not unique to lutetium and lawrencium, but is common among all the late lanthanides and actinides.
Some tables, including the one published by IUPAC[58] refer to all lanthanides and actinides as being in group 3: 30 lanthanide and actinide elements together with scandium and yttrium. Lanthanides, as electropositive trivalent metals, all have a closely related chemistry, and all show many similarities to scandium and yttrium, but they also show additional properties characteristic of their partially filled f-orbitals which are not common to scandium and yttrium.
Exclusion of all elements is based on properties of earlier actinides, which show a much wider variety of chemistry (for instance, in range of oxidation states) within their series than the lanthanides, and comparisons to scandium and yttrium are even less useful.[59] However, these elements are destabilized,[60] and if they were stabilized to more closely match chemistry laws, they would be similar to lanthanides as well. Also, the later actinides from californium onwards behave more like the corresponding lanthanides, with only the valence +3 (and sometimes +2) shown.[59]
In 2015, IUPAC initiated a project to decide
... group 3 of the periodic table as consisting either of
the elements Sc, Y, Lu and Lr, or
the elements Sc, Y, La and Ac.
—  IUPAC, [61]
The project is led by Eric Scerri. Apparently, group 3 comprising 32 elements (as older periodic tables show) is not considered.
The La and Ac variant remains the most common in the literature, despite some calls for a change to the Lu and Lr variant. In terms of chemical behaviour,[62] and trends going down group 3 for properties such as melting point, electronegativity and ionic radius,[63][64] scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and actinium are similar to their group 1–2 counterparts. In this variant, the number of f electrons in the most common (trivalent) ions of the f-block elements consistently matches their position in the f-block.[65] For example, the f-electron counts for the trivalent ions of the first three f-block elements are Ce 1, Pr 2 and Nd 3.[66]
Occurrence[edit]
Scandium, yttrium, lanthanum, and lutetium tend to occur together with the other lanthanides (except promethium) in the Earth's crust, and are often harder to extract from their ores. The abundance of elements in Earth's crust for group 3 is quite low — all the elements in the group are uncommon, the most abundant being yttrium with abundance of approximately 30 parts per million (ppm); the abundance of scandium is 16 ppm, while that of lutetium is about 0.5 ppm. The abundance of lanthanum is greater, being about 35 ppm. For comparison, the abundance of copper is 50 ppm, that of chromium is 160 ppm, and that of molybdenum is 1.5 ppm.[56]
Scandium is distributed sparsely and occurs in trace amounts in many minerals.[67] Rare minerals from Scandinavia[68] and Madagascar[69] such as gadolinite, euxenite, and thortveitite are the only known concentrated sources of this element, the latter containing up to 45% of scandium in the form of scandium(III) oxide.[68] Yttrium has the same trend in occurrence places; it is found in lunar rock samples collected during the American Apollo Project in a relatively high content as well.[70]
Monazite, the most important lutetium ore
The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare-earth phosphate mineral monazite, (Ce,La,etc.)PO4, which contains 0.003% of the element. The main mining areas are China, United States, Brazil, India, Sri Lanka and Australia. Pure lutetium metal is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare-earth metals with the price about 10,000 USD/kg, or about one-fourth that of gold. Lanthanum is much more common, being the second most abundant rare earth, and in addition to monazite can also be extracted economically from bastnäsite.[71][72]
Production[edit]
The most available element in group 3 is yttrium, with annual production of 8,900 tonnes in 2010. Yttrium is mostly produced as oxide, by a single country, China (99%).[73] Lutetium and scandium are also mostly obtained as oxides, and their annual production by 2001 was about 10 and 2 tonnes, respectively.[74]
Group 3 elements are mined only as a byproduct from the extraction of other elements.[75] The metallic elements are extremely rare; the production of metallic yttrium is about a few tonnes, and that of scandium is in the order of 10 kg per year;[75][76] production of lutetium is not calculated, but it is certainly small. The elements, after purification from other rare-earth metals, are isolated as oxides; the oxides are converted to fluorides during reactions with hydrofluoric acid.[77] The resulting fluorides are reduced with alkaline earth metals or alloys of the metals; metallic calcium is used most frequently.[77] For example:
Sc2O3 + 3 HF → 2 ScF3 + 3 H2O
2 ScF3 + 3 Ca → 3 CaF2 + 2 Sc
Biological chemistry[edit]
Group 3 elements are generally hard metals with low aqueous solubility, and have low availability to the biosphere. No group 3 element has any documented biological role in living organisms. The radioactivity of the actinides generally makes them highly toxic to living cells, causing radiation poisoning.
Scandium has no biological role, but it is found in living organisms. Once reached a human, scandium concentrates in the liver and is a threat to it; some its compounds are possibly carcinogenic, even through in general scandium is not toxic.[78] Scandium is known to have reached the food chain, but in trace amounts only; a typical human takes in less than 0.1 micrograms per day.[78] Once released into the environment, scandium gradually accumulates in soils, which leads to increased concentrations in soil particles, animals and humans. Scandium is mostly dangerous in the working environment, due to the fact that damps and gases can be inhaled with air. This can cause lung embolisms, especially during long-term exposure. The element is known to damage cell membranes of water animals, causing several negative influences on reproduction and on the functions of the nervous system.[78]
Yttrium has no known biological role, though it is found in most, if not all, organisms and tends to concentrate in the liver, kidney, spleen, lungs, and bones of humans.[79] There is normally as little as 0.5 milligrams found within the entire human body; human breast milk contains 4 ppm.[80] Yttrium can be found in edible plants in concentrations between 20 ppm and 100 ppm (fresh weight), with cabbage having the largest amount.[80] With up to 700 ppm, the seeds of woody plants have the highest known concentrations.[80]
Lutetium has no biological role as well, but it is found even in the highest known organism, the humans, concentrating in bones, and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys.[81] Lutetium salts are known to cause metabolism and they occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides.[81] Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content, so it is not known how much the average human takes in, but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year, all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants. Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic, but insoluble ones are not.[81] Lanthanum is not essential for humans and has a low to moderate level of toxicity. However, it is essential for the methanotrophic bacterium Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum SolV, although the general similarity of the rare earths means that it may be substituted by some of the other early lanthanides with no ill effects.[82]
The high radioactivity of lawrencium would make it highly toxic to living cells, causing radiation poisoning. The same is true for actinium.
Notes[edit]
The Scandium sub-group comprises Scandium (sc),yttrium (Y) Lanthanum (La) and Actinium (Ac). In addition, the element of the cerium and thorium families are also included in the sub-group. the main characteristics of scandium and its analogous are summarised below: Atomic No. ( Sc)21 ( Y)39 ( La )57 Atomic wt. (44.95) (88A^9) (138;9) Valency electron. (3d'4s2) Scandium and its analogous are the first d-elements of thair period i.e.they are the first whose d-subs-hell of the penultimate shell being to be filled the presency of just one electron in the d-state accounts for the stabiliry oxidation state of III in scandium and its analogous. the stable co-ordonationv number increases in the transition from scandium to yttrium and
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^ Jump up to: a b c Hoffman, Darleane C.; Lee, Diana M.; Pershina, Valeria (2006). "Transactinides and the future elements". In Morss; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean. The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3rd ed.). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 1-4020-3555-1.
Jump up ^ Pyykkö, Pekka (2011). "A suggested periodic table up to Z ≤ 172, based on Dirac–Fock calculations on atoms and ions". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. 13 (1): 161–8. Bibcode:2011PCCP...13..161P. doi:10.1039/c0cp01575j. PMID 20967377.
Jump up ^ van der Krogt, Peter. "Elementymology & Elements Multidict". Elements.vanderkrogt.net. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Seaborg, G. T. (c. 2006). "transuranium element (chemical element)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Eliav, E.; Kaldor, U.; Ishikawa, Y. (1995). "Transition energies of ytterbium, lutetium, and lawrencium by the relativistic coupled-cluster method". Phys. Rev. A. 52: 291–296. Bibcode:1995PhRvA..52..291E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.52.291.
^ Jump up to: a b Zou, Yu; Froese, Fischer C. (2002). "Resonance Transition Energies and Oscillator Strengths in Lutetium and Lawrencium". Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (18): 183001. Bibcode:2002PhRvL..88b3001M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.023001. PMID 12005680.
Jump up ^ Corbett, J. D. (1981). "Extended metal-metal bonding in halides of the early transition metals". Acc. Chem. Res. 14 (8): 239–246. doi:10.1021/ar00068a003.
Jump up ^ Nikolai B., Mikheev; Auerman, L. N.; Rumer, Igor A.; Kamenskaya, Alla N.; Kazakevich, M. Z. (1992). "The anomalous stabilisation of the oxidation state 2+ of lanthanides and actinides". Russian Chemical Reviews. 61 (10): 990–998. Bibcode:1992RuCRv..61..990M. doi:10.1070/RC1992v061n10ABEH001011.
Jump up ^ Kang, Weekyung; Bernstein, E. R. (2005). "Formation of Yttrium Oxide Clusters Using Pulsed Laser Vaporization". Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 26 (2): 345–348. doi:10.5012/bkcs.2005.26.2.345.
Jump up ^ Cotton, S. A. (1994). "Scandium, Yttrium and the Lanthanides: Inorganic and Coordination Chemistry". Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-93620-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Dean, John A. (1999). Lange's handbook of chemistry (Fifteenth edition). McGraw-Hill, Inc. pp. 589–592. ISBN 0-07-016190-9.
^ Jump up to: a b Barbalace, Kenneth. "Periodic Table of Elements Sorted by Melting Point". Environmental Chemistry.com. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
^ Jump up to: a b Barbalace, Kenneth. "Periodic Table of Elements Sorted by Boiling Point". Environmental Chemistry.com. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ Fournier, Jean-Marc (1976). "Bonding and the electronic structure of the actinide metals". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 37 (2): 235–244. Bibcode:1976JPCS...37..235F. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(76)90167-0.
Jump up ^ Penneman, R. A.; Mann, J. B. (1976). "'Calculation chemistry' of the superheavy elements; comparison with elements of the 7th period". Proceedings of the Moscow Symposium on the Chemistry of Transuranium Elements: 257–263. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-020638-7.50053-1.
Jump up ^ Barbalace, Kenneth. "Scandium". Chemical Book. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ Barbalace, Kenneth. "Yttrium". Chemical Book. Retrieved 2011-05-18.
Jump up ^ Scerri, Eric (2012). "Mendeleev's Periodic Table Is Finally Completed and What To Do about Group ?". Chem. Int. 34 (4): 28–31. doi:10.1515/ci.2012.34.4.28.
Jump up ^ IUPAC, Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the "Gold Book") (1997). Online corrected version: (2006–) "transition element".
^ Jump up to: a b Barbalace, Kenneth. "Periodic Table of Elements". Environmental Chemistry.com. Retrieved 2007-04-14.
Jump up ^ "WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements". Webelements.com. Retrieved 2010-04-03.
Jump up ^ "Periodic Table of the Elements". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Retrieved 2010-04-03.
^ Jump up to: a b "Visual Elements". Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
Jump up ^ Dolg, Michael. "Lanthanides and Actinides" (PDF). Max-Planck-Institut für Physik komplexer Systeme, Dresden, Germany. CLA01. Retrieved 4 July 2011.
Jump up ^ IUPAC (2015). "The constitution of group 3 of the periodic table". Retrieved 2016-11-10.
Jump up ^ Greenwood, N. N.; Harrington, T. J. (1973). The chemistry of the transition elements. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 50. ISBN 0-19-855435-4.
Jump up ^ Aylward, G.; Findlay, T. (2008). SI chemical data (6th ed.). Milton, Queensland: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-81638-7.
Jump up ^ Wiberg, N. (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
Jump up ^ Wulfsberg, G. (2006). "Periodic table: Trends in the properties of the elements". Encyclopedia of Inorganic Chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-470-86210-0.
Jump up ^ Cotton, S. (2007). Lanthanide and Actinide Chemistry. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-470-01006-8.
Jump up ^ Bernhard, F. (2001). "Scandium mineralization associated with hydrothermal lazurite-quartz veins in the Lower Austroalpie Grobgneis complex, East Alps, Austria". Mineral Deposits in the Beginning of the 21st Century. Lisse: Balkema. ISBN 90-265-1846-3.
^ Jump up to: a b Kristiansen, Roy (2003). "Scandium – Mineraler I Norge" (PDF). Stein (in Norwegian): 14–23. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 8, 2010.
Jump up ^ von Knorring, O.; Condliffe, E. (1987). "Mineralized pegmatites in Africa". Geological Journal. 22: 253. doi:10.1002/gj.3350220619.
Jump up ^ Stwertka, Albert (1998). "Yttrium". Guide to the Elements (Revised ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-19-508083-1.
Jump up ^ Hedrick, James B. "Rare-Earth Metals" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Jump up ^ Castor, Stephen B.; Hedrick, James B. "Rare Earth Elements" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-06-06.
Jump up ^ "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2010: Yttrium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2011-07-07.
Jump up ^ Emsley 2001, p. 241
^ Jump up to: a b Deschamps, Y. "Scandium" (PDF). mineralinfo.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 25, 2009. Retrieved 2008-10-21.
Jump up ^ "Mineral Commodity Summaries 2010: Scandium" (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2011-07-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Holleman, Arnold F.; Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils (1985). Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie (in German) (91–100 ed.). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 3-11-007511-3.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lenntech (1998). "Scandium (Sc) — chemical properties of scandium, health effects of scandium, environmental effects of scandium". Lenntech. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
Jump up ^ MacDonald, N. S.; Nusbaum, R. E.; Alexander, G. V. (1952). "The Skeletal Deposition of Yttrium" (PDF). Journal of Biological Chemistry. 195 (2): 837–841. PMID 14946195.
^ Jump up to: a b c Emsley 2001, pp. 495–498
^ Jump up to: a b c Emsley 2001, p. 240
Jump up ^ Pol, Arjan; Barends, Thomas R. M.; Dietl, Andreas; Khadem, Ahmad F.; Eygensteyn, Jelle; Jetten, Mike S. M.; Op Den Camp, Huub J. M. (2013). "Rare earth metals are essential for methanotrophic life in volcanic mudpots". Environmental Microbiology. 16 (1): 255–64. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.12249. PMID 24034209.
Jump up ^ Ytterbite was named after the village it was discovered near, plus the -ite ending to indicate it was a mineral.
Jump up ^ Earths were given an -a ending and new elements are normally given an -ium ending.
Jump up ^ Unpenttrium, according to calculations, should have an electronic configuration of [Og]8s25g186f117d28p1/22.[37]
Jump up ^ If lutetium and lawrencium are included instead, the table ends with the following lines:
Electron configurations of the group 3 elements
Z
Element
Electron configuration
71 lutetium 2, 8, 18, 32, 9, 2
103 lawrencium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 8, 3
Jump up ^ If lutetium and lawrencium are included instead, the table ends with the following lines (the data for lawrencium is approximate):
Properties of the group 3 elements
Name
Lutetium
Lawrencium
Melting point 1925 K, 1652 °C ? 1900 K, ? 1627 °C
Boiling point 3675 K, 3402 °C ?
Density 9.84 g·cm−3 ? 16 g·cm−3
Appearance silver gray ?
Atomic radius 174 pm ?
Source: Lide, D. R., ed. (2003). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (84th ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Jump up ^ However, the group 12 elements are not always considered to be transition metals.
Jump up ^ The expected configuration of lawrencium if it did obey the Aufbau principle would be [Rn]7s25f146d1, with the normal incomplete 6d-subshell in the neutral state.
Bibliography[edit]
Emsley, John (2001). Nature's building blocks: an A-Z guide to the elements. US: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-850341-5.
Links to related articles[edit]
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Group 3 elements
Scandium
Sc
Atomic Number: 21
Atomic Weight: 44.955912
Melting Point: 1812 K
Boiling Point: 3109 K
Specific mass: 2.989 g/cm3
Electronegativity: 1.36
Yttrium
Y
Atomic Number: 39
Atomic Weight: 88.90585
Melting Point: 1799 K
Boiling Point: 3609 K
Specific mass: 4.469 g/cm3
Electronegativity: 1.22
Lanthanum
La
Atomic Number: 57
Atomic Weight: 138.90547
Melting Point: 1193 K
Boiling Point: 3737 K
Specific mass: 6.145 g/cm3
Electronegativity: 1.1
Actinium
Ac
Atomic Number: 89
Atomic Weight: [227]
Melting Point: 1323 K
Boiling Point: 3471 K
Specific mass: 10.07 g/cm3
Electronegativity: 1.1
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value: List of chemical element name etymologies

value: List of chemical elements naming controversies

value: List of places used in the names of chemical elements

value: List of scientists whose names are used in chemical element names

value: Chemical elements in East Asian languages

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