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Firestone Tire and Rubber Company
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Firestone Tire and Rubber Company
Type
Subsidiary
Industry
Manufacturing
Founded
Akron, Ohio, United States (August 3, 1900; 117 years ago (1900-08-03))
Founder
Harvey Firestone
Headquarters
200 4th Ave S, Nashville, Tennessee, United States
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
Gordon Knapp (CEO and President)
Bill Thompson (COO)
Products
Tires
Revenue
US$ 2.09 billion (2004)
Number of employees
40,000
Parent
Bridgestone (1988–present)
Website
firestone.com
The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company is an American tire company founded by Harvey Samuel Firestone in 1900 to supply pneumatic tires for wagons, buggies, and other forms of wheeled transportation common in the era. Firestone soon saw the huge potential for marketing tires for automobiles. The company was a pioneer in the mass production of tires. Harvey Firestone had a friendship with Henry Ford. Firestone used this relationship to become the original equipment supplier of Ford Motor Company automobiles, and was also active in the replacement market.[1]
In 1988, the company was sold to the Japanese Bridgestone Corporation.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early-to-mid-20th century
1.2 Restructuring and sale to Bridgestone
2 In motorsport
3 Corporate troubles
3.1 Great American streetcar scandal
3.2 Firestone 500 tread separation problem
3.3 Liberian rubber plantation
3.4 Ford Explorer rollover problem
4 Television advertisement jingle
5 Other brands
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Early-to-mid-20th century[edit]
The First Firestone store
Firestone newspaper ad from 1919, explaining the benefits of their cord tire.
Firestone was originally based in Akron, Ohio, also the hometown of its archrival, Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, and another two mid-sized competitors, General Tire and Rubber and BF Goodrich. Founded on August 3, 1900,[2] the company initiated operations with 12 employees.[3] Together, Firestone and Goodyear were the largest suppliers of automotive tires in North America for over 75 years. In 1906 Henry Ford chose Firestone for Model T original equipment tires.[4]
In 1918, Firestone Tire and Rubber Company of Canada was incorporated in Hamilton, Ontario and in 1922, the first Canadian-made tire rolled off the line on September 15.[5] During the 1920s, Firestone produced the Oldfield tire, named for racing driver Barney Oldfield.
In 1926, the company opened one of the world's biggest rubber plantations in Liberia, West Africa, spanning more than 1 million acres. 1926 was also the year that the company opened its first Firestone Complete Auto Care store (Firestone Complete Auto Care is a division of Firestone that offers automotive maintenance and repair).
In 1927, Henry Ford and tire maven Harvey Firestone took a trip to Los Angeles to select locations for their new factories. Friends say Ford wanted to be near the ocean and picked Long Beach and suggested Firestone go to South Gate, California. The tiny community southeast of Downtown was mostly agriculture at the time and Firestone found 40 acres of beanfield to house his new manufacturing plant. Architects Curlett and Beelman created a spectacular four-storey Italianate complex, with its own power plant and gorgeous polychrome murals by Gladding McBean depicting the tire and rubber-making process. A year after the plant opened in 1928 it doubled in size. By 1954, when they added the Corporal guided missile to their offerings, the plant was nearly a million square feet. The town grew around Firestone, they named the main boulevard through town after Harvey, and Los Angeles became the number one tire market in the country. By the mid-1970s Ford and GM had massive layoffs as Firestone and other manufacturers opened new plants in non-union locales like Wilson, North Carolina. After much downsizing the end came in 1980 when 1,300 workers were laid off and the plant closed. East Los Angeles College has proposed a new satellite campus at the site.[6]
In 1928 the company built a factory in Brentford, England, a longtime Art Deco landmark on a major route into the city. This closed in 1979.
In 1936 the company opened a plant in Memphis, Tennessee. With a work force exceeding 3,000 employees, the Memphis plant was the largest tire manufacturer in the company's worldwide operation. On July 1, 1963, the company celebrated the production of 100 million tires in Memphis.[7] The plant was closed in 1982.[8]
During World War II the company was called on by the U.S. Government to make artillery shells, aluminum kegs for food transport and rubberized military products. Firestone ranked 55th among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts.[9] In the 1940s, Firestone was given a defense contract to produce plastic helmet liners. While outproduced by Westinghouse Electric they still made a fair amount for the M1 Helmet.
Corporal Missile
In 1951, Firestone was given the defense contract for the MGM-5 Corporal missile. Firestone was given a total of US$6,888,796 for the first 200 Missiles. This missile was known as the "Embryo of the Army" and was a surface-to-surface guided missile which could deliver a high-explosive warhead up to 75 nautical miles (139 km). It was later modified to be able to carry a nuclear payload for use in the event of Cold War hostilities in Eastern Europe. This missile was replaced in 1962 by the MGM-29 Sergeant system.[10]
In 1961, Firestone acquired the Dayton Tire division from the Dayco Corporation.
Restructuring and sale to Bridgestone[edit]
Firestone Firehawk 700 195/55 R 15 (2017)
Firestone operates a chain of repair shops which perform maintenance on cars. A service representative in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey.
In late 1979, Firestone brought in John Nevin, the ex-head of Zenith Electronics, as president to save the hemorrhaging company from total collapse. It was more than a billion dollars in debt at the time, and losing 250 million dollars a year. Nevin closed nine of the company's seventeen manufacturing plants, including six in one day. He relocated the company from its ancestral home in Akron to Chicago. He spun off non-tire related businesses, including the Firestone Country Club. It was considered a deliberate plan to boost the stock price, and it paid off. In 1988, after discussions with Pirelli, Nevin negotiated the sale of the company to the Japanese company Bridgestone. Bridgestone Corporation Japan was able to buy the company for much less than it had been worth a decade and a half earlier.[11][12][13] The combined Bridgestone / Firestone North American operations are now based in Nashville, Tennessee. In 2008, the companies celebrated a 20-year anniversary of the merger, and changed the tire division name to Bridgestone Americas Tire Operations, LLC. In 2012, Bridgestone Americas opened a $100 million technical center in Akron.
Firestone tires used for the Indianapolis 500 race.
Apart from tires, several companies and divisions operate with the Firestone brand in its name. These companies include Firestone Building Products, LLC, Firestone Industrial Products, LLC, Firestone Complete Auto Care, Firestone Natural Rubber Company and Firestone Specialty Products. Firestone Building Products and Firestone Industrial Products are headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana and operate in 23 U.S. states and ten countries, with 11,000 employees worldwide. The company reports annual sales of more than $2.5 billion.[14]
In 1972, Firestone received a ten-year import "concession" by the Kenyan government to secure Firestone's investment in a domestic tire plant, which gave it a virtual monopoly.[15] This included both general price and foreign exchange controls.[16] When the 10-year period came to an end in 1979, Firestone retaliated by increasing production, making entry less attractive.[15] Headquarters eventually canceled expansion and failed negotiations lead to no further investments.[16]
In motorsport[edit]
The 1911 Indianapolis 500 auto race was won by a car running Firestone tires. Firestone-shod cars won all editions of the race from 1920 to 1966. The company also provided tires to Formula One from 1950 to 1974. Citing rising costs as the cause, Firestone announced its withdrawal from professional motorsport in August 1974 with the exception of Formula 5000 and Formula One. The change was forecast to reduce Firestone's annual race testing budget from between $6 and $8 million dollars to around $500,000.[17] Shortly afterwards, Firestone extended this to a complete withdrawal by the end of the 1974 season.[18] The manufacturer returned in 1995 to the CART series with technical assistance from Bridgestone. Goodyear retired after 1999, thereby leaving Firestone as the single supplier of the IndyCar Series as of 2017.
Corporate troubles[edit]
A service manager explains periodic recommended engine part replacements.
Great American streetcar scandal[edit]
In 1950, Firestone along with General Motors and Standard Oil were charged and convicted of criminal conspiracy for their part in the Great American streetcar scandal. The scandal included purchasing streetcar systems throughout the United States and dismantling and replacing them with buses.[19]
Firestone 500 tread separation problem[edit]
Radial tires were introduced to the U.S. market by rivals Goodrich and Michelin in the late 1960s, and Firestone lacked their own radial tire. The first radial tire developed and produced by Firestone was the ill-fated Firestone 500 Radial. Manufacturing of the new tire was performed on equipment designed to manufacture bias-ply tires.[20]
During the 1970s, Firestone experienced major problems with the Firestone 500 radial. The Firestone 500 steel-belted radials began to show signs of separation of the tread at high speeds. While the cause was never proved, it is believed that the failure of bonding cements, used by Firestone to hold the tread to the tire carcass, may have allowed water to penetrate the tire which in turn may have caused the internal steel wire to corrode. In March 1978, the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) announced publicly a formal investigation into defects of the Firestone 500. The NHTSA investigation found that the tread separation problem was most probably a design defect affecting all Firestone 500's.
In 1973, only two years after the 500's debut, Thomas A. Robertson, Firestone's director of development wrote an internal memo stating "We are making an inferior quality radial tire which will subject us to belt-edge separation at high mileage".[21] Firestone introduced strict quality control measures in an attempt to fix the inherent problems, however they were not successful in totally eliminating the basic faults. In 1977 a recall of 400,000 tires produced at the problematic Decatur plant was initiated. Firestone was considered to be less than cooperative with the NHTSA during the agency's investigation into the Firestone 500. Firestone blamed the problems on the consumer, stating underinflation and poor maintenance.
On October 20, 1978, Firestone recalled over 7 million Firestone 500 tires,[22] the largest tire recall to date. Congressional hearings into the 500 also took place in 1978. The tire was found to be defective and the cause of 250 deaths. In May 1980 after finding that they knew the tires were defective, the NHTSA fined Firestone $500,000 USD, which at that time was the largest fine imposed on any U.S. corporation and the largest civil penalty imposed since passage of the 1966 National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Act. Multiple lawsuits were settled out of court and the constant negative publicity crippled the company's sales and share price.[23]
Harvard Business School and Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania taught classes and wrote papers on the issues of misjudgments and poor decision-making by the management of Firestone.[23][24] After years of bad publicity and millions paid out in compensation to victims, Firestone was losing vast amounts of money, and its name was severely damaged.[25][26][27]
Liberian rubber plantation[edit]
Latex collection
Main article: Firestone Natural Rubber Company
Firestone established the Firestone Natural Rubber plantation in Harbel, Liberia in 1926. From 1926 until the outbreak of the First Liberian Civil War in 1990, the Firestone Natural Rubber Company was the largest plantation of its kind in the world.[28] In September 1990, rebel NPFL forces (led by Charles Taylor, who would later be convicted of war crimes) executed sitting Liberian president Samuel Doe[29] and seized the Harbel plantation.[28] Firestone had to evacuate its American workers as a result. In June 1991, Firestone sent a delegation to Monrovia in an attempt to restart operations in Harbel.[30] After a month of waiting, the delegation was brought to meet Taylor, and after a further six months of negotiations the company signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the National Patriotic Reconstruction Assembly Government's Ministry of Finance in January 1991.[31] This MOU provided for taxes to be paid by Firestone to the Taylor government, and for the Taylor government to provide protection to Firestone's employees and assets in Liberia. Firestone resumed operations in March 1992, but once again had to halt in October that same year as hostilites escalated.[32] Over this period, the company had paid $2.3 million in taxes to the Taylor government, which some say helped legitimize Taylor's Greater Liberia government and finance and enable its attack on ECOMOG controlled Monrovia.[33] Operations did not fully restart until 2003 at the conclusion of the Second Liberian Civil War. Since the end of the war, Firestone has invested over $100 million[34] in restoring and rebuilding its facilities in Liberia.
The company's ventures in Liberia have been the subject of considerable scrutiny and criticism, including a 2005 Alien Tort Claims Act case[35] brought in California by the International Labor Rights Fund and a 2014 investigative report by ProPublica entitled "Firestone and the Warlord",[36] and a PBS Frontline documentary by the same name.[37]
Ford Explorer rollover problem[edit]
Main article: Firestone and Ford tire controversy
In 1996, several state agencies in Arizona began experiencing major issues with Firestone tires on Explorers. According to news reports, various agencies demanded new tires, and Firestone conducted an investigation of the complaints, tested the tires and tried to assert that the tires had been abused or under-inflated.
On September 6, 2000, in a statement before the U.S. Senate Appropriations Transportation subcommittee the president of the consumer advocacy group Public Citizen, Joan Claybrook, stated:
...There are a number of parallels between this recall in 2000 and the 1978 recall of the Firestone 500...there was a documented coverup by Firestone of the 500 defect, spurred by the lack of a Firestone replacement tire. When the coverup was disclosed, the top management of the company was replaced as Firestone was severely damaged in reputation and economically. But a key difference is that the Firestone 500 was used on passenger cars, which rarely rolled over with tire failure. NHTSA documented 41 deaths with the 500, a recall, involving seven million tires.[38]
The report went on to indicate that Ford also had been complicit, stating that The Ford Motor Company had instructed Firestone to add a nylon ply to the tires it manufactured in Venezuela for additional strength and that Ford had made suspension changes to the Explorer model available in Venezuela. Ford did not specify adding the nylon ply for U.S.-made Firestone tires nor did it change the Explorer suspension on U.S. models at this time.
Ford Explorer
An abnormally high failure rate in Firestone's Wilderness AT, Firestone ATX, and ATX II tires resulted in multiple lawsuits, as well as an eventual mandatory recall. In 2001 Bridgestone/Firestone severed its ties to Ford citing a lack of trust. The lack of trust stemmed from concerns that Ford had not heeded warnings by Bridgestone/Firestone relating to the design of the Ford Explorer.[39] In 2006, Firestone announced renewed efforts to recall tires of the same model recalled in 2000 after the tires were linked to recent deaths and injuries. According to Firestone's last filing with the National Highway Transportation Administration, only 90,259 of more than 2.5 million recalled tires were confirmed as removed from service.[40] In November 2013, two recalled Wilderness AT tires were found in Atlanta, Georgia.[41] One of the tires was offered for sale as new at a used tire retail shop.[41]
Some outside observers have speculated about the blame worthiness of both parties. Firestone's tires being prone to tread separation and failure, and the SUVs being especially prone to rolling over if a tire fails at speed compared to other vehicles. A subsequent NHTSA investigation of real world accident data showed that the Ford Explorer SUVs in question were no more likely to roll over than any other SUV, after a tread separation.
Television advertisement jingle[edit]
Early Firestone Advertisement
Where the Rubber Meets the Road[42] is an advertisement jingle that was frequently used in the 1960s and 1970s, especially on televised sporting events. The jingle was sung by Don Rondo.
Wherever wheels are rolling,
No matter what the load,
The name that's known is Firestone
Where the rubber meets the road
Other brands[edit]
Bridgestone/Firestone also produces tires under the Fuzion brand name. Fuzion is a tire manufactured in China for Bridgestone/ Firestone as a budget replacement tire.
Makes include the Fuzion UHP Sport A/S, SUV, and Touring.
See also[edit]
Bridgestone
Firestone-Apsley Rubber Company
Formula One tires
Tom Gegax
IndyCar Series
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Newton, James (June 1989). Uncommon Friends: Life with Thomas Edison, Henry Ford, Harvey Firestone, Alexis Carrel, and Charles Lindbergh. Mariner Books. ISBN 978-0-15-692620-1.
Jump up ^ "A Global Dream". Bridgestone Americas. Retrieved 3 August 2013.
Jump up ^ "History of Bridgestone/Firestone". Bridgestone/Firestone Canada. 2009. Archived from the original on 10 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Firestone 8000 Tire Order by Ford Ford Chooses Firestone for Model T
Jump up ^ Canada manufactures first Firestone tire Archived 2010-05-10 at the Wayback Machine. Firestone Canada Incorporated
Jump up ^ Chris Nichols (2013-03-01). "DispL.A. Case #52: L.A.'s First Firestone Tire - Los Angeles Magazine". Lamag.com. Retrieved 2015-12-17.
Jump up ^ Lost Memphis Firestone Tire & Rubber Company
Jump up ^ Firestone Closings
Jump up ^ Peck, Merton J. & Scherer, Frederic M. The Weapons Acquisition Process: An Economic Analysis (1962) Harvard Business School p.619
Jump up ^ "Corporal". Redstone Arsenal. Archived from the original on 2007-03-10. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ "Old & Dangerous?". Tire Review Online. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ "Tire industry loses two giants". Tire Business. 2006-06-05. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ Stephen Koepp (1997-02-16). "The Companies". Time. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ Firestone Diversified Products
^ Jump up to: a b Robert Bates. Markets and States in Tropical Africa: University of California Press, 1981. p. 68
^ Jump up to: a b Stopford, Strange and Henley. Rival States, Rival Firms: Competition for world market shares, Press syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1991, p. 148
Jump up ^ "Firestone Cutback Likely". The Kingsport Times. Ancestry.com #Newspapers.com. 14 August 1974. (Subscription required (help)). |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ "Andretti Dream Threatened". The Los Angeles Times. Ancestry.com #Newspapers.com. 30 August 1974. (Subscription required (help)). development, production and service of U.S Auto Club championship and Formula racing cars will be phased out by the end of the 1974 season. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Chomsky, Noam (1999). Year 501: the Conquest Continues. South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-444-2.
Jump up ^ "History". Jags.org. Retrieved 2015-12-17.
Jump up ^ "Forewarnings of Fatal Flaws". Time. 1979-06-25. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ "Timeline of key events in the history of Ford and Firestone". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
^ Jump up to: a b "Firestone's Second Big Tire Blowout". Wharton School of University of Pennsylvania. 2000-08-30. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ Donald N. Sull (2000-11-27). "The Dynamics of Standing Still: Firestone Tire & Rubber and the Radial Revolution". Harvard Business School. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ "Joint Committees Deliver Opening Statements at Congressional Hearing on Firestone Recall". CNN. 2000-09-06. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ Keith Bradsher (2000-09-04). "Stricter Rules for Tire Safety Were Scrapped by Reagan". The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
Jump up ^ "A bumpy road for the radial-ply tire". USA Today. 2000-12-26. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
^ Jump up to: a b Miller, T. Christian. "Firestone and the Warlord - Intro". www.propublica.org. Pro Publica.
Jump up ^ "Liberia Profile - Timeline". BBC - British Broadcasting Company.
Jump up ^ Miller, T. Christian. "Firestone and the Warlord - Chapter 3". www.propublica.org. Pro Publica.
Jump up ^ Miller, T. Christian. "Firestone and the Warlord - Chapter 4". www.propublica.org. Pro Publica.
Jump up ^ "Frequently Asked Questions". firestonenaturalrubber.com. Firestone Natural Rubber.
Jump up ^ Fienstein A (2011) The shadow world: Inside the global arms trade. New York, USA: Farrar, Straus and Giroux
Jump up ^ "Investing in Liberia". firestonenaturalrubber.com. Firestone Natural Rubber.
Jump up ^ "Firestone Claim". socialfunds.com.
Jump up ^ Miller, T. Christian. "Firestone and the Warlord". www.propublica.org. ProPublica.
Jump up ^ "Firestone and the Warlord". www.pbs.org. PBS Frontline.
Jump up ^ "Statement of Joan Claybrook On Firestone Tire Defect and Ford Explorer Rollovers Before the Transportation Subcommittee United States Senate Committee on Appropriations". Public Citizen. 2000-09-06. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
Jump up ^ Isidore, Chris (May 21, 2001). "Firestone severs ties to Ford". CNN.
Jump up ^ NHTSA Recall Campaign 01T-016 Q4 Vehicle Safety Recall Quarterly Report Information, January 25, 2008 (Amended March 26, 2009) (from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration)
^ Jump up to: a b Channel 2 Investigation Finds Recalled Tires for Sale, November 4, 2013 Archived November 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Firestone Jingle" (QuickTime). Firestone. Retrieved 2007-03-22.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Firestone Tire and Rubber Company.
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Address Resolution Protocol
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used for discovering the link layer address, such as a MAC address, associated with a given network layer address, typically an IPv4 address. This mapping is a critical function in the Internet protocol suite. ARP was defined in 1982 by RFC 826,[1] which is Internet Standard STD 37.
ARP has been implemented with many combinations of network and data link layer technologies, such as IPv4, Chaosnet, DECnet and Xerox PARC Universal Packet (PUP) using IEEE 802 standards, FDDI, X.25, Frame Relay and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM). IPv4 over IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11 is the most common usage.
In Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) networks, the functionality of ARP is provided by the Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP).
Contents
[hide]
1 Operating scope
2 Packet structure
3 Example
4 ARP probe
5 ARP announcements
6 ARP mediation
7 Inverse ARP and Reverse ARP
8 ARP spoofing and Proxy ARP
9 Alternatives to ARP
10 ARP stuffing
11 Standards documents
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Operating scope[edit]
The Address Resolution Protocol is a request-response protocol whose messages are encapsulated by a link layer protocol. It is communicated within the boundaries of a single network, never routed across internetworking nodes. This property places ARP into the link layer of the Internet protocol suite.[2]
Packet structure[edit]
The Address Resolution Protocol uses a simple message format containing one address resolution request or response. The size of the ARP message depends on the upper layer and lower layer address sizes, which are given by the type of networking protocol (usually IPv4) in use and the type of hardware or virtual link layer that the upper layer protocol is running on. The message header specifies these types, as well as the size of addresses of each. The message header is completed with the operation code for request (1) and reply (2). The payload of the packet consists of four addresses, the hardware and protocol address of the sender and receiver hosts.
The principal packet structure of ARP packets is shown in the following table which illustrates the case of IPv4 networks running on Ethernet. In this scenario, the packet has 48-bit fields for the sender hardware address (SHA) and target hardware address (THA), and 32-bit fields for the corresponding sender and target protocol addresses (SPA and TPA). Thus, the ARP packet size in this case is 28 bytes. The EtherType for ARP is 0x0806. (This appears in the Ethernet frame header when the payload is an ARP packet. Not to be confused with PTYPE below, which appears within this encapsulated ARP packet.)
Internet Protocol (IPv4) over Ethernet ARP packet
octet offset
0
1
0
Hardware type (HTYPE)
2
Protocol type (PTYPE)
4
Hardware address length (HLEN) Protocol address length (PLEN)
6
Operation (OPER)
8
Sender hardware address (SHA) (first 2 bytes)
10
(next 2 bytes)
12
(last 2 bytes)
14
Sender protocol address (SPA) (first 2 bytes)
16
(last 2 bytes)
18
Target hardware address (THA) (first 2 bytes)
20
(next 2 bytes)
22
(last 2 bytes)
24
Target protocol address (TPA) (first 2 bytes)
26
(last 2 bytes)
Hardware type (HTYPE)
This field specifies the network protocol type. Example: Ethernet is 1.
Protocol type (PTYPE)
This field specifies the internetwork protocol for which the ARP request is intended. For IPv4, this has the value 0x0800. The permitted PTYPE values share a numbering space with those for EtherType.[3][4][5]
Hardware length (HLEN)
Length (in octets) of a hardware address. Ethernet addresses size is 6.
Protocol length (PLEN)
Length (in octets) of addresses used in the upper layer protocol. (The upper layer protocol specified in PTYPE.) IPv4 address size is 4.
Operation
Specifies the operation that the sender is performing: 1 for request, 2 for reply.
Sender hardware address (SHA)
Media address of the sender. In an ARP request this field is used to indicate the address of the host sending the request. In an ARP reply this field is used to indicate the address of the host that the request was looking for. (Not necessarily address of the host replying as in the case of virtual media.) Switches do not pay attention to this field, particularly in learning MAC addresses. The ARP PDU is encapsulated in Ethernet frame, and that is what Layer 2 devices examine.
Sender protocol address (SPA)
Internetwork address of the sender.
Target hardware address (THA)
Media address of the intended receiver. In an ARP request this field is ignored. In an ARP reply this field is used to indicate the address of the host that originated the ARP request.
Target protocol address (TPA)
Internetwork address of the intended receiver.
ARP protocol parameter values have been standardized and are maintained by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA).[6]
Example[edit]
Two computers in an office (computer 1 and computer 2) are connected to each other in a local area network by Ethernet cables and network switches, with no intervening gateways or routers. Computer 1 has a packet to send to Computer 2. Through DNS, it determines that Computer 2 has the IP address 192.168.0.55. To send the message, it also requires Computer 2's MAC address. First, Computer 1 uses a cached ARP table to look up 192.168.0.55 for any existing records of Computer 2's MAC address (00:eb:24:b2:05:ac). If the MAC address is found, it sends an Ethernet frame with destination address 00:eb:24:b2:05:ac, containing the IP packet onto the link. If the cache did not produce a result for 192.168.0.55, Computer 1 has to send a broadcast ARP message (destination FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF MAC address), which is accepted by all computers, requesting an answer for 192.168.0.55. Computer 2 responds with its MAC and IP addresses. Computer 2 may insert an entry for Computer 1 into its ARP table for future use. Computer 1 caches the response information in its ARP table and can now send the packet.[7]
ARP probe[edit]
An ARP probe is an ARP request constructed with an all-zero sender IP address (SPA). The term is used in the IPv4 Address Conflict Detection specification (RFC 5227). Before beginning to use an IPv4 address (whether received from manual configuration, DHCP, or some other means), a host implementing this specification must test to see if the address is already in use, by broadcasting ARP probe packets.[8]
ARP announcements[edit]
ARP may also be used as a simple announcement protocol. This is useful for updating other hosts' mappings of a hardware address when the sender's IP address or MAC address has changed. Such an announcement, also called a gratuitous ARP message, is usually broadcast as an ARP request containing the sender's protocol address (SPA) in the target field (TPA=SPA), with the target hardware address (THA) set to zero. An alternative way is to broadcast an ARP reply with the sender's hardware and protocol addresses (SHA and SPA) duplicated in the target fields (TPA=SPA, THA=SHA).
The gratuitous ARP request message and the gratuitous ARP reply messages are standards-based methods,[9][10] but the "ARP Request" is preferred.[11] Some devices may be configured for the use of either of these two types of GARP.[12]
An ARP announcement is not intended to solicit a reply; instead it updates any cached entries in the ARP tables of other hosts that receive the packet. The operation code may indicate a request or a reply because the ARP standard specifies that the opcode is only processed after the ARP table has been updated from the address fields.[13][14][15]
Many operating systems perform gratuitous ARP during startup. That helps to resolve problems which would otherwise occur if, for example, a network card was recently changed (changing the IP-address-to-MAC-address mapping) and other hosts still have the old mapping in their ARP caches.
Gratuitous ARP is also used by some interface drivers to provide load balancing for incoming traffic. In a team of network cards, it is used to announce a different MAC address within the team that should receive incoming packets.
ARP announcements can be used to defend link-local IP addresses in the Zeroconf protocol (RFC 3927), and for IP address takeover within high-availability clusters.[clarification needed][example needed]
ARP mediation[edit]
ARP mediation refers to the process of resolving Layer 2 addresses through a Virtual Private Wire Service (VPWS) when different resolution protocols are used on the connected circuits, e.g., Ethernet on one end and Frame Relay on the other. In IPv4, each Provider Edge (PE) device discovers the IP address of the locally attached Customer Edge (CE) device and distributes that IP address to the corresponding remote PE device. Then each PE device responds to local ARP requests using the IP address of the remote CE device and the hardware address of the local PE device. In IPv6, each PE device discovers the IP address of both local and remote CE devices and then intercepts local Neighbor Discovery (ND) and Inverse Neighbor Discovery (IND) packets and forwards them to the remote PE device.[16]
Inverse ARP and Reverse ARP[edit]
Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (Inverse ARP or InARP) is used to obtain Network Layer addresses (for example, IP addresses) of other nodes from Data Link Layer (Layer 2) addresses. It is primarily used in Frame Relay (DLCI) and ATM networks, in which Layer 2 addresses of virtual circuits are sometimes obtained from Layer 2 signaling, and the corresponding Layer 3 addresses must be available before those virtual circuits can be used.[17]
Since ARP translates Layer 3 addresses to Layer 2 addresses, InARP may be described as its inverse. In addition, InARP is implemented as a protocol extension to ARP: it uses the same packet format as ARP, but different operation codes.
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (Reverse ARP or RARP), like InARP, translates Layer 2 addresses to Layer 3 addresses. However, in ARP the requesting station queries the Layer 3 address of another node, whereas RARP is used to obtain the Layer 3 address of the requesting station itself for address configuration purposes. RARP is obsolete; it was replaced by BOOTP, which was later superseded by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).[18]
ARP spoofing and Proxy ARP[edit]
A successful ARP spoofing attack allows an attacker to perform a man-in-the-middle attack.
Main article: ARP spoofing
Main article: Proxy ARP
Because ARP does not provide methods for authenticating ARP replies on a network, ARP replies can come from systems other than the one with the required Layer 2 address. An ARP proxy is a system which answers the ARP request on behalf of another system for which it will forward traffic, normally as a part of the network's design, such as for a dialup internet service. By contrast, in ARP spoofing the answering system, or spoofer, replies to a request for another system's address with the aim of intercepting data bound for that system. A malicious user may use ARP spoofing to perform a man-in-the-middle or denial-of-service attack on other users on the network. Various software exists to both detect and perform ARP spoofing attacks, though ARP itself does not provide any methods of protection from such attacks.[19]
Alternatives to ARP[edit]
Each computer maintains a database of the mapping of Layer 3 addresses (e.g., IP addresses) to Layer 2 addresses (e.g., Ethernet MAC addresses), which is maintained primarily by the reception of ARP packets form the local network link. Thus, it is often called the ARP cache. Traditionally, other methods were also used to maintain this table, such as static configuration files,[20] or centrally maintained lists.
Since at least the 1980s,[21] networked computers have a utility called 'arp' for interrogating or manipulating this table.[22][23][24]
ARP stuffing[edit]
Embedded systems such as networked cameras[25] and networked power distribution devices,[26] which lack a user interface, can use so-called ARP stuffing to make an initial network connection, although this is a misnomer, as ARP is not involved.
This is a solution to an issue in network management of consumer devices, specifically the allocation of IP addresses of ethernet devices where:
the user doesn't have the ability to control DHCP or similar address allocation protocols
the device doesn't have a user interface to configure it with
the user's computer can't communicate with it because it has no suitable IP address.
The solution adopted is as follows:
The user's computer has an IP address stuffed manually into its address table (normally with the arp command with the MAC address taken from a label on the device)
The computer sends special packets to the device, typically a ping packet with a non-default size.
The device then adopts this IP address
The user then communicates with it by telnet or web protocols to complete the configuration.
Such devices typically have a method to disable this process once the device is operating normally, as it is vulnerable to attack.
Standards documents[edit]
RFC 826 - Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol, Internet Standard STD 37.
RFC 903 - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol, Internet Standard STD 38.
RFC 2390 - Inverse Address Resolution Protocol, draft standard
RFC 5227 - IPv4 Address Conflict Detection, proposed standard
See also[edit]
ARP spoofing
Arping
Arptables
Arpwatch
Bonjour Sleep Proxy
Cisco HDLC
Neighbor Discovery Protocol
Proxy ARP
References[edit]
Jump up ^ David C. Plummer (November 1982). "RFC 826, An Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol -- or -- Converting Network Protocol Addresses to 48.bit Ethernet Address for Transmission on Ethernet Hardware". Internet Engineering Task Force, Network Working Group.
Jump up ^ Braden, R. (October 1989). "RFC 1122 - Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers". Internet Engineering Task Force.
Jump up ^ IANA ARP - "Protocol Type"
Jump up ^ IANA - Ethertype values
Jump up ^ RFC 5342
Jump up ^ "IANA ARP parameter assignments". IANA. 2009-04-24.
Jump up ^ Chappell, Laura A. and Tittel, Ed. Guide to TCP/IP, Third Edition. Thomson Course Technology, 2007, pp. 115-116.
Jump up ^ Cheshire, S. (July 2008). "RFC 5227 - IPv4 Address Conflict Detection". Internet Engineering Task Force.
Jump up ^ Perkins, C. (November 2010). "RFC 5944 - IP Mobility Support for IPv4, Revised". Internet Engineering Task Force. A gratuitous ARP MAY use either an ARP Request or an ARP Reply packet. [...] any node receiving any ARP packet (Request or Reply) MUST update its local ARP cache with the Sender Protocol and Hardware Addresses in the ARP packet [...]
Jump up ^ Perkins, C. (October 1996). "RFC 2002 - IP Mobility Support". Internet Engineering Task Force.
Jump up ^ Cheshire, S. (July 2008). "RFC 5227 - IPv4 Address Conflict Detection". Internet Engineering Task Force. Why Are ARP Announcements Performed Using ARP Request Packets and Not ARP Reply Packets?
Jump up ^ "FAQ: The Firewall Does not Update the Address Resolution Protocol Table". Citrix. 2015-01-16. [...] garpReply enabled [...] generates ARP packets that [...] are of OPCODE type REPLY, rather than REQUEST.
Jump up ^ Gratuitous ARP in DHCP vs. IPv4 ACD Draft Archived October 12, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ RFC 2002 Section 4.6
Jump up ^ RFC 2131 DHCP – Last lines of Section 4.4.1
Jump up ^ Shah, H.; et al. (June 2012). "RFC 6575 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) Mediation for IP Interworking of Layer 2 VPNs". Internet Engineering Task Force.
Jump up ^ T. Bradley; et al. (September 1998). "RFC 2390 - Inverse Address Resolution Protocol". Internet Engineering Task Force.
Jump up ^ Finlayson, Mann, Mogul, Theimer (June 1984). "RFC 903 - A Reverse Address Resolution Protocol". Internet Engineering Task Force. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Steve Gibson (2005-12-11). "ARP Cache Poisoning". GRC.
Jump up ^ Sun Microsystems. "SunOS manual page for ethers(5) file". Retrieved 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ University of California, Berkeley. "BSD manual page for arp(8C) command". Retrieved 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ Canonical. "Ubuntu manual page for arp(8) command". Archived from the original on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ Apple Computer. "Mac OS X manual page for arp(8) command". Retrieved 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ Microsoft. "Windows help for arp command". Retrieved 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ Axis Communication. "Axis P13 Network Camera Series Installation Guide" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-09-28.
Jump up ^ American Power Corporation. "Switched Rack Power Distribution Unit Installation and Quick Start Manual" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-09-28.
This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the "relicensing" terms of the GFDL, version 1.3 or later.
External links[edit]
Wikiversity has learning resources about Address Resolution Protocol
ARP Sequence Diagram (pdf)
Gratuitous ARP
ARP-SK ARP traffic generation tools
Sample Capture file from WireSharkWiki
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text:
Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd
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High Trees case
Court
King's Bench Division
Decided
18 July 1946
Citation(s)
[1947] KB 130; [1956] 1 All ER 256; 62 TLR 557; [1947] LJR 77; 175 LT 333
Court membership
Judge(s) sitting
Denning J
Keywords
Promissory estoppel
Central London Property Trust Ltd v High Trees House Ltd [1947] KB 130 (or the High Trees case) is an English contract law decision in the High Court. It reaffirmed and extended the doctrine of promissory estoppel in contract law in England and Wales. However, the most significant part of the judgment is obiter dicta as it relates to hypothetical facts; that is, the landlord did not seek repayment of the full wartime rent.
Denning J held estoppel to be applicable if ...
... a promise was made which was intended to create legal relations and which, to the knowledge of the person making the promise, was going to be acted on by the person to whom it was made and which was in fact so acted on.
Contents
[hide]
1 Facts
2 Judgment
3 Significance
4 See also
5 References
Facts[edit]
In 1937, High Trees House Ltd leased a block of flats in Clapham, London, for a rate £2500/year from Central London Property Trust Ltd. Due to the conditions during the beginning of World War II occupancy rates were drastically lower than normal.
In January 1940, to ameliorate the situation, the parties made an agreement in writing to reduce rent by half. However, neither party stipulated the period for which this reduced rental was to apply. Over the next five years, High Trees paid the reduced rate while the flats began to fill, and by 1945, the flats were back at full occupancy. Central London sued for payment of the full rental costs from June 1945 onwards (i.e. for last two quarters of 1945).
Judgment[edit]
Based on previous judgments as Hughes v Metropolitan Railway Co, Denning J held that the full rent was payable from the time that the flats became fully occupied in mid-1945. However, he continued in an obiter statement that if Central London had tried to claim for the full rent from 1940 onwards, they would not have been able to. This was reasoned on the basis that if a party leads another party to believe that he will not enforce his strict legal rights, then the Courts will prevent him from doing so at a later stage. Being obiter dicta and in a court of first instance this was doubly not a binding precedent, yet it essentially created the doctrine of promissory estoppel.
If I were to consider this matter without regard to recent developments in the law, there is no doubt that had the plaintiffs claimed it, they would have been entitled to recover ground rent at the rate of £2,500 a year from the beginning of the term, since the lease under which it was payable was a lease under seal which, according to the old common law, could not be varied by an agreement by parol (whether in writing or not), but only by deed. Equity, however stepped in, and said that if there has been a variation of a deed by a simple contract (which in the case of a lease required to be in writing would have to be evidenced by writing), the courts may give effect to it as is shown in Berry v. Berry [1929] 2 K. B. 316. That equitable doctrine, however, could hardly apply in the present case because the variation here might be said to have been made without consideration. With regard to estoppel, the representation made in relation to reducing the rent was not a representation of an existing fact. It was a representation, in effect, as to the future, namely, that payment of the rent would not be enforced at the full rate but only at the reduced rate. Such a representation would not give rise to an estoppel, because, as was said in Jorden v. Money (1854) 5 H. L. C. 185, a representation as to the future must be embodied as a contract or be nothing.
But what is the position in view of developments in the law in recent years? The law has not been standing still since Jorden v. Money (1854) 5 H. L. C. 185. There has been a series of decisions over the last fifty years which, although they are said to be cases of estoppel are not really such. They are cases in which a promise was made which was intended to create legal relations and which, to the knowledge of the person making the promise, was going to be acted on by the person to whom it was made and which was in fact so acted on. In such cases the courts have said that the promise must be honoured. The cases to which I particularly desire to refer are: Fenner v. Blake [1900] 1 Q. B. 426, In re Wickham (1917) 34 T. L. R. 158, Re William Porter & Co., Ld. [1937] 2 All E. R. 361 and Buttery v. Pickard [1946] W. N. 25. As I have said they are not cases of estoppel in the strict sense. They are really promises - promises intended to be binding, intended to be acted on, and in fact acted on. Jorden v. Money (1854) 5 H. L. C. 185 can be distinguished, because there the promisor made it clear that she did not intend to be legally bound, whereas in the cases to which I refer the proper inference was that the promisor did intend to be bound. In each case the court held the promise to be binding on the party making it, even though under the old common law it might be difficult to find any consideration for it. The courts have not gone so far as to give a cause of action in damages for the breach of such a promise, but they have refused to allow the party making it to act inconsistently with it. It is in that sense, and that sense only, that such a promise gives rise to an estoppel. The decisions are a natural result of the fusion of law and equity: for the cases of Hughes v. Metropolitan Ry. Co. (1877) 2 App. Cas. 439 , 448, Birmingham and District Land Co. v. London & North Western Ry. Co. (1888) 40 Ch. D. 268 , 286 and Salisbury (Marquess) v. Gilmore [1942] 2 K. B. 38 , 51, afford a sufficient basis for saying that a party would not be allowed in equity to go back on such a promise. In my opinion, the time has now come for the validity of such a promise to be recognized. The logical consequence, no doubt is that a promise to accept a smaller sum in discharge of a larger sum, if acted upon, is binding notwithstanding the absence of consideration: and if the fusion of law and equity leads to this result, so much the better. That aspect was not considered in Foakes v. Beer (1884) 9 App. Cas. 605. At this time of day however, when law and equity have been joined together for over seventy years, principles must be reconsidered in the light of their combined effect. It is to be noticed that in the Sixth Interim Report of the Law Revision Committee, pars. 35, 40, it is recommended that such a promise as that to which I have referred should be enforceable in law even though no consideration for it has been given by the promisee. It seems to me that, to the extent I have mentioned, that result has now been achieved by the decisions of the courts.
I am satisfied that a promise such as that to which I have referred is binding and the only question remaining for my consideration is the scope of the promise in the present case. I am satisfied on all the evidence that the promise here was that the ground rent should be reduced to £1,250 a year as a temporary expedient while the block of flats was not fully, or substantially fully let, owing to the conditions prevailing. That means that the reduction in the rent applied throughout the years down to the end of 1944, but early in 1945 it is plain that the flats were fully let, and, indeed the rents received from them (many of them not being affected by the Rent Restrictions Acts), were increased beyond the figure at which it was originally contemplated that they would be let. At all events the rent from them must have been very considerable. I find that the conditions prevailing at the time when the reduction in rent was made, had completely passed away by the early months of 1945. I am satisfied that the promise was understood by all parties only to apply under the conditions prevailing at the time when it was made, namely, when the flats were only partially let, and that it did not extend any further than that. When the flats became fully let, early in 1945, the reduction ceased to apply.
In those circumstances, under the law as I hold it, it seems to me that rent is payable at the full rate for the quarters ending September 29 and December 25, 1945.
If the case had been one of estoppel, it might be said that in any event the estoppel would cease when the conditions to which the representation applied came to an end, or it also might be said that it would only come to an end on notice. In either case it is only a way of ascertaining what is the scope of the representation. I prefer to apply the principle that a promise intended to be binding, intended to be acted on and in fact acted on, is binding so far as its terms properly apply. Here it was binding as covering the period down to the early part of 1945, and as from that time full rent is payable.
I therefore give judgment for the plaintiff company for the amount claimed.
Significance[edit]
Advances have been made in promissory estoppel since its inception in High Trees to create a new inroad into the rule in Pinnel's case that an agreement to accept part payment of a debt in full satisfaction of it is unenforceable for want of consideration. Denning commented that such an agreement should now be enforceable under the doctrine of promissory estoppel, and indeed the plaintiff did not seek the full debt on the basis of what was fair and, perhaps, thought was the law. However, the courts were at first reluctant to overrule or distinguish cases like Pinnel's case and Foakes v Beer having formed part of the common law for so long. Lady Justice Arden in Collier v P & MJ Wright (Holdings) Ltd (2007)[1] accepted in principle that High Trees could be used to extinguish a creditor's right to full payment of a debt in such circumstances.
In Amalgamated Investment Co v Texas Bank[2] it was decided that proprietory estoppel can act as a sword and not merely as a shield (that is, it can be used as a cause of action rather than merely providing a defence to an action).
See also[edit]
English contract law
Estoppel
Promise
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Collier v P & MJ Wright (Holdings) Ltd [2007] EWCA Civ 1329
Jump up ^ Amalgamated Investment Co v Texas Bank , [1982] EWHC 84 (QB).
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Central_London_Property_Trust_Ltd_v_High_Trees_House_Ltd&oldid=837737647"
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text:
New Earswick
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
New Earswick
New Earswick
New Earswick shown within North Yorkshire
Population
2,737 (2011)
OS grid reference
SE609555
Civil parish
New Earswick
Unitary authority
City of York
Ceremonial county
North Yorkshire
Region
Yorkshire and the Humber
Country
England
Sovereign state
United Kingdom
Post town
YORK
Postcode district
YO32
Dialling code
01904
Police
North Yorkshire
Fire
North Yorkshire
Ambulance
Yorkshire
EU Parliament
Yorkshire and the Humber
UK Parliament
York Outer
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UK
England
Yorkshire
53°59′31″N 1°04′21″W / 53.992020°N 1.072380°W / 53.992020; -1.072380Coordinates: 53°59′31″N 1°04′21″W / 53.992020°N 1.072380°W / 53.992020; -1.072380
New Earswick is a model village and civil parish in the unitary authority of City of York in North Yorkshire, England, near the River Foss, north of York and south of Haxby. According to the 2001 census the parish had a population of 2,812, reducing to 2,737 at the 2011 Census.[1] Before 1996 it had been part of the Ryedale district.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Governance
3 Community
4 Geography
5 Economy
6 Transport
7 Education
8 Religious sites
9 Sport
10 Gallery
11 References
12 External links
History[edit]
The village of New Earswick was built as a genuine mixed community. There was housing for both workers and managers, in a green setting with gardens for each home with its own 2 fruit trees. It was founded by the York philanthropist, Joseph Rowntree, who was quoted as saying, "I do not want to establish communities bearing the stamp of charity but rather of rightly ordered and self governing communities". The first 28 houses were built between 1902 and 1904 by the architect Raymond Unwin, after which the Joseph Rowntree Village Trust (now the Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust) was established to continue building and manage the new village. The Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust is part of the Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
The village had contemporaries such as Bournville, Saltaire, Port Sunlight and others. This was in sharp contrast to the slums that had developed in York and other cities during the previous century, the deprivation of which had been revealed in Seebohm Rowntree's report of 1901, entitled Poverty: a study of town life. It revealed appalling statistics of dark, overcrowded and insanitary housing.[2]
As a result of the report, Joseph Rowntree's conviction that it must be possible to provide better housing for people on low incomes led him to acquire 150 acres of land near the village of Earswick, two and a half miles to the north of the centre of York. The planner Raymond Unwin and the architect Barry Parker were commissioned to produce an overall plan for a new 'garden' village and the detailed designs for its first houses. They also designed the garden cities of Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City.
The building of New Earswick created a balanced village community where rents were kept low, but still represented a modest commercial return on the capital invested. Houses were open to any working people, not just Rowntree employees. The village was to be a demonstration of good practice.
The Trust Deed of the Joseph Rowntree Village Trust, which was set up in 1904 to build and manage New Earswick, safeguarded generous open green space. All the grass verges were planted with trees after which almost all the roads are named. The village was built with bricks that were made in the brickworks on the outskirts of New Earswick. From 1950 the brickyard, which closed down in the 1930s, was developed into a nature reserve.[3]
Due to their religious beliefs, The Rowntree family decreed there would not be a public house in the village. There never has been,[4] although the Sports Club obtained a drink's license in the 1980s.
Governance[edit]
New Earswick is part of the Huntington & New Earswick Ward of the City of York Council. As of 2010 it is represented by Keith Hyman, Keith Orrel and Carol Runciman who are all members of the local Liberal Democrat Party.[5]
A Parish Council was created in 1934 consisting of ten elected councillors and a clerk.[6]
Community[edit]
There is a local community centre, the Folk Hall, which hosts activities such as keep-fit, yoga, snooker, and a junior youth club. New Earswick has recreational facilities, including a swimming pool (due for closure without public consultation), tennis courts and football, rugby and cricket pitches at the New Earswick Sports and Social Club. There were two open access play areas close to the Folk Hall, including a hard surface play area which have recently been bulldozed for a development of houses. There is a library based in the Integrated Children’s Centre at the local primary school, a doctor’s surgery and a range of shops, including two general stores, a pet shop and Post Office.[6] As of 2017 the Post Office is situated within the Folk Hall.
The village has 36 allotments in two areas, Willow Bank and Sleeper Path.[6]
In the 1960s, the Folk Hall was a live music venue featuring the likes of Procol Harum and Pink Floyd.[7]
Geography[edit]
The River Foss runs along the eastern boundary of New Earswick with the York to Scarborough Line running to the west. The Nestle factory and grounds mark the southern border with the northern border being the A1237 York Outer Ring Road. The village was built using bricks from the brickworks on the outskirts of the village. From 1950 the brickyard was developed into a nature reserve. The reserve is the home of New Earswick Angling Club, which was formed in 1948.[6]
Economy[edit]
Unlike the villages of Port Sunlight, Saltaire and Bournville the village was not designed specifically for the workforce of the nearby Joseph Rowntree Cocoa Works although some do earn their living at the factory which was taken over by Swiss firm, Nestle.[citation needed]
Transport[edit]
Transdev York operate a bus service that stops in the village as part of the Askham Bar to Clifton Moor route.[8] First Group operate two bus services that stop in the village as part of the Wigginton to Acomb and Haxby to York City Centre routes.[9]
New Earswick was served by Earswick railway station on the York to Beverley Line between 1847 and 1965.[10]
Education[edit]
There are both primary and secondary schools in New Earswick. New Earswick Primary School was built in 1912. The primary school is one of eight Integrated Children’s Centres in York.[11] Joseph Rowntree School is a secondary school and was built in 1941. In 2006, the Joseph Rowntree School secured £27million for a complete rebuild that was completed in late 2009.[6] The catchement area for the secondary school is from the village itself, Huntington, The Groves and the villages of Haxby and Wigginton.[12]
Religious sites[edit]
In 1914 the Anglican church of St. Andrew's was built on the edge of the parish. The church was extended in 1939 to cater for the new housing in South Huntington just across the River Foss. A Methodist chapel and meeting house for the Society of Friends were added later. St. Andrew's Church is now part of the ecclesiastical parish of Huntington and New Earswick.[6]
Sport[edit]
New Earswick Cricket Club play at the recreation ground on White Rose Avenue. As of 2014 their two teams will play in Division 3 (South) and Division 4 (Central) of the York and District Senior Cricket League.[13]
The recreation ground is shared with New Earswick All Blacks, an open age rugby league club that was founded in the 1980s and currently play in The Pennines Amateur Rugby League competition, in 2013/4, playing in the Championship (the second tier).[14]
Steve Webster, 10 times FIM Sidecar World Championships, world champion was born and raised in the village.[15] .
Gallery[edit]
Views of New Earswick
The Folk Hall in New Earswick
White Rose Avenue in New Earswick
Westfield Beck behind housing on the west of New Earswick
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Civil Parish population 2011". Neighbourhood Statistics. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 19 February 2016.
Jump up ^ "Village History". Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Village planning". Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "New Earswick: a village of new ideas". BBC. Retrieved 29 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Couoncillors". Retrieved 12 December 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f "Village Information" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Procol Harum and Pink Floyd play New Earswick". Archived from the original on 30 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "Transdev Bus Service". Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "First Bus Services". Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Jump up ^ Butt, R. V. J. (1995). The Directory of Railway Stations: details every public and private passenger station, halt, platform and stopping place, past and present (1st ed.). Sparkford: Patrick Stephens Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85260-508-7. OCLC 60251199.
Jump up ^ "Primary School". Retrieved 12 December 2010.
Jump up ^ "Catchment Area" (PDF). Retrieved 12 December 2010. [permanent dead link]
Jump up ^ "Cricket". Retrieved 16 March 2014.
Jump up ^ "New Earswick All Blacks". Archived from the original on 16 January 2008.
Jump up ^ Havard, Jane (1992). A Bit On The Side. Menoshire. p. 1. ISBN 0947981667.
External links[edit]
"New Earswick, York". The Joseph Rowntree Housing Trust. Retrieved 4 March 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_Earswick&oldid=826057861"
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