text:
Industrial and organizational psychology
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Part of a series on
Psychology
Outline
History
Subfields
Basic types[hide]
Abnormal
Behavioral genetics
Biological
Cognitive/Cognitivism
Comparative
Cross-cultural
Cultural
Differential
Developmental
Evolutionary
Experimental
Mathematical
Neuropsychology
Personality
Positive
Quantitative
Social
Applied psychology[hide]
Applied behavior analysis
Clinical
Community
Consumer
Counseling
Critical
Educational
Environmental
Ergonomics
Forensic
Health
Humanistic
Industrial and organizational
Interpretive
Legal
Medical
Military
Music
Occupational health
Political
Religion
School
Sport
Traffic
Lists[hide]
Disciplines
Organizations
Psychologists
Psychotherapies
Publications
Research methods
Theories
Timeline
Topics
Psychology portal
v
t
e
Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O psychology), which is also known as occupational psychology, organizational psychology, and work and organizational psychology, is an applied discipline within psychology. I/O psychology is the science of human behaviour relating to work and applies psychological theories and principles to organizations and individuals in their places of work as well as the individual's work-life more generally.[1] I/O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner model. They contribute to an organization's success by improving the performance, motivation, job satisfaction, and occupational safety and health as well as the overall health and well-being of its employees. An I/O psychologist conducts research on employee behaviours and attitudes, and how these can be improved through hiring practices, training programs, feedback, and management systems.[2]
I/O psychology is one of the 15 recognized specialties in professional psychology in the United States.[3] It is represented by Division 14 of the American Psychological Association (APA), known formally as the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). In the United Kingdom, industrial and organizational psychologists are referred to as occupational psychologists. Occupational psychology in the UK is one of nine 'protected titles' within the profession "practitioner psychologist" regulated by the Health and Care Professions Council.[4] In the UK, graduate programs in psychology, including occupational psychology, are accredited by the British Psychological Society. To become an occupational psychologist in the UK, a doctorate is required.[5]
In Australia, the title organizational psychologist is protected by law, and regulated by the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA). Organizational psychology is one of nine areas of specialist endorsement for psychology practice in Australia.[6]
In Europe someone with a specialist EuroPsy Certificate in Work and Organisational Psychology is a fully qualified psychologist and an expert in the work psychology field.[7] Industrial and organizational psychologists reaching the EuroPsy standard are recorded in the Register of European Psychologists and industrial and organizational psychology is one of the three main psychology specializations in Europe.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical overview
2 Research methods
3 Topics
3.1 Job analysis
3.2 Personnel recruitment and selection
3.3 Performance appraisal/management
3.4 Individual assessment and psychometrics
3.5 Occupational health and well-being
3.6 Workplace bullying, aggression and violence
3.7 Remuneration and compensation
3.8 Training and training evaluation
3.9 Motivation in the workplace
3.10 Occupational stress
3.11 Occupational safety
3.12 Organizational culture
3.13 Group behavior
3.13.1 Team effectiveness
3.13.2 Team composition
3.13.3 Task design
3.13.4 Organizational resources
3.13.5 Team rewards
3.13.6 Team goals
3.14 Job satisfaction and commitment
3.15 Productive behavior
3.15.1 Job performance
3.16 Organizational citizenship behavior
3.17 Innovation
3.18 Counterproductive work behavior
3.19 Leadership
3.19.1 Leader-focused approaches
3.19.2 Contingency-focused approaches
3.19.3 Follower-focused approaches
3.19.4 Organizational development
3.20 Relation to organizational behavior
4 Training
4.1 Competencies
4.2 Job outlook
5 Ethics
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Historical overview[edit]
The historical development of I/O psychology was paralleled in the US, the UK,[8] Australia, Germany, the Netherlands,[9] and eastern European countries such as Romania.[10] The roots of I/O psychology trace back nearly to the beginning of psychology as a science, when Wilhelm Wundt founded one of the first psychological laboratories in 1876 in Leipzig, Germany. In the mid 1880s, Wundt trained two psychologists, Hugo Münsterberg and James McKeen Cattell, who had a major influence on the emergence of I/O psychology.[11]
Instead of viewing performance differences as human "errors", Cattell was one of the first to recognize the importance of differences among individuals as a way of better understanding work behavior. Walter Dill Scott, who was a contemporary of Cattell, was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I/O psychologist of his time. Scott, along with Walter Van Dyke Bingham, worked at the Carnegie Institute of Technology, developing methods for selecting and training sales personnel.[12]
The "industrial" side of I/O psychology originated in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of work performance. Industrial psychology crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty. Scott and Bingham volunteered to help with the testing and placement of more than a million army recruits. In 1917, together with other prominent psychologists, they adapted a well-known intelligence test the Stanford–Binet, which was designed for testing one individual at a time, to make it suitable for group testing. The new test was called the Army Alpha.[citation needed]
After the War, the growing industrial base in the US was a source of momentum for what was then called industrial psychology.[citation needed] Private industry set out to emulate the successful testing of army personnel.[citation needed] Mental ability testing soon became commonplace in the work setting.
Elton Mayo found that rest periods improved morale and reduced turnover in a Philadelphia textile factory.[13][14] He later joined the ongoing Hawthorne studies, where he became interested in how workers' emotions and informal relationships affected productivity. The results of these studies ushered in the human relations movement.[citation needed]
World War II brought renewed interest in ability testing (to accurately place recruits in new technologically advanced military jobs), the introduction of the assessment center, and concern with morale and fatigue in war industry workers.[citation needed]
The industrial psychology division of the former American Association of Applied Psychology became a division within APA,[15] becoming Division 14 of APA. It was initially called the Industrial and Business Psychology Division. In 1962, the name was changed to the Industrial Psychology Division. In 1973, it was renamed again, this time to the Division of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. In 1982, the unit become more independent of APA, and its name was changed again, this time to the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.[15]
The name change of the division from "industrial psychology" to "industrial and organizational psychology" reflected the shift in the work of industrial psychologists who had originally addressed work behavior from the individual perspective, examining performance and attitudes of individual workers. Their work became broader. Group behavior in the workplace became a worthy subject of study.[15] The emphasis on "organizational" underlined the fact that when an individual joins an organization (e.g., the organization that hired him or her), he or she will be exposed to a common goal and a common set of operating procedures.[citation needed] In the 1970s in the UK, references to occupational psychology became more common than I/O psychology.[citation needed]
According to Bryan and Vinchur, "while organizational psychology increased in popularity through [the 1960s and 1970s], research and practice in the traditional areas of industrial psychology continued, primarily driven by employment legislation and case law" (p. 53).[16] There was a focus on fairness and validity in selection efforts as well as in the job analyses that undergirded selection instruments. For example, i/o psychology showed increased interest in behaviorally anchored rating scales.[16] What critics there were of i/o psychology accused the discipline of being responsive only to the concerns of managements.[16]
From the 1980 to 2010s other changes in i/o psychology took place. Researchers increasingly adopted a multi-level approach, attempting to understand behavioral phenomena from both the level of the organization and the level of the individual worker.[16] There was also an increased interest in the needs and expectations of employees as individuals. For example, an emphasis on organizational justice and the psychological contract took root, as well as the more traditional concerns of selection and training.[16] Methodological innovations (e.g., meta-analyses, structural equation modeling) were adopted. With the passage of the American with Disabilities Act in 1990 and parallel legislation elsewhere in the world, i/o psychology saw an increased emphasis on "fairness in personnel decisions."[16] Training research relied increasingly on advances in educational psychology and cognitive science.[16]
Research methods[edit]
As described above, I/O psychologists are trained in the scientist–practitioner model. I/O psychologists rely on a variety of methods to conduct organizational research. Study designs employed by I/O psychologists include surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments, and observational studies. I/O psychologists rely on diverse data sources including human judgments, historical databases, objective measures of work performance (e.g., sales volume), and questionnaires and surveys.
I/O researchers employ quantitative statistical methods. Quantitative methods used in I/O psychology include correlation, multiple regression, and analysis of variance. More advanced statistical methods employed in I/O research include logistic regression, structural equation modeling,[17] and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; also known as multilevel modeling).[18] I/O research has also employed meta-analysis.[19][20][21] I/O psychologists also employ psychometric methods including methods associated with classical test theory,[22] generalizability theory, and item response theory (IRT).[23]
I/O psychologists have also employed qualitative methods, which largely involve focus groups, interviews, and case studies. I/O research on organizational culture research has employed ethnographic techniques and participant observation. A qualitative technique associated with I/O psychology is Flanagan's Critical Incident Technique.[24] I/O psychologists sometimes use quantitative and qualitative methods in concert.[25] OHP researchers have also combined and coordinated quantitative and qualitative methods within a single study.[26]
Topics[edit]
Job analysis[edit]
Main article: Job analysis
Job analysis encompasses a number of different methods.[citation needed] It primarily involves the systematic collection of information about a job. A task-oriented job analysis involves an examination of the duties, tasks, and/or competencies required by the job being assessed. By contrast, a worker-oriented job analysis involves an examination of the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform the work. Information obtained from job analyses are used for many purposes, including the creation of job-relevant selection procedures, performance appraisals and the criteria they require, and the development of training programs.
Personnel recruitment and selection[edit]
Main article: Personnel selection
I/O psychologists typically work with human resource specialists to design (a) recruitment processes and (b) personnel selection systems.[citation needed] Personnel recruitment is the process of identifying qualified candidates in the workforce and getting them to apply for jobs within an organization. Personnel recruitment processes include developing job announcements, placing ads, defining key qualifications for applicants, and screening out unqualified applicants.
Personnel selection is the systematic process of hiring and promoting personnel. Personnel selection systems employ evidence-based practices to determine the most qualified candidates. Personnel selection involves both the newly hired and individuals who can be promoted from within the organization. Common selection tools include ability tests (e.g., cognitive, physical, or psycho-motor), knowledge tests, personality tests, structured interviews, the systematic collection of biographical data, and work samples. I/O psychologists must evaluate evidence regarding the extent to which selection tools predict job performance.
Personnel selection procedures are usually validated, i.e., shown to be job relevant to personnel selection, using one or more of the following types of validity: content validity, construct validity, and/or criterion-related validity. I/O psychologists must adhere to professional standards in personnel selection efforts. SIOP (e.g., Principles for validation and use of personnel selection procedures[27]) and APA together with the National Council on Measurement in Education (e.g., Standards for educational and psychological testing[28] are sources of those standards. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's Uniform guidelines[29] are also influential in guiding personnel selection decisions.
A meta-analysis of selection methods found that general mental ability was the best overall predictor of job performance and attainment in training.[30]
Performance appraisal/management[edit]
Main articles: Performance appraisal and Performance management
Performance appraisal or performance evaluation is the process in which an individual's or a group's work behaviors and outcomes are assessed against managers' and others' expectations for the job.[31] Performance appraisal is frequently used in promotion and compensation decisions, to help design and validate personnel selection procedures, and for performance management. Performance management is the process of providing performance feedback relative to expectations, and information relevant to improvement (e.g., coaching, mentoring). Performance management may also include documenting and tracking performance information for organizational evaluation purposes.
An I/O psychologist would typically use information from the job analysis to determine a job's performance dimensions, and then construct a rating scale to describe each level of performance for the job.[citation needed] Often, the I/O psychologist would be responsible for training organizational personnel how to use the performance appraisal instrument, including ways to minimize bias when using the rating scale, and how to provide effective performance feedback.[citation needed]
Individual assessment and psychometrics[edit]
Main articles: Individual assessment and Psychometrics
Individual assessment involves the measurement of individual differences. I/O psychologists perform individual assessments in order to evaluate differences among candidates for employment as well as differences among employees.[32] The constructs measured pertain to job performance. With candidates for employment, individual assessment is often part of the personnel selection process. These assessments can include written tests, aptitude tests, physical tests, psycho-motor tests, personality tests, integrity and reliability tests, work samples, simulations, and assessment centres.[32]
Occupational health and well-being[edit]
I/O psychologists are concerned with occupational health and well-being. Early in the 20th century Arthur Kornhauser examined the impact on productivity of hiring mentally unstable workers.[33] Kornhauser also examined the link between industrial working conditions and mental health as well as the spillover into a worker's personal life of having an unsatisfying job.[34][35][36]
More recently, I/O researchers have found that staying vigorous during working hours is associated with better work-related behaviour and subjective well-being as well as more effective functioning in the family domain.[37] Trait vigor and recovery experiences after work were related to vigor at work.[37] Job satisfaction has also been found to be associated with life satisfaction, happiness, well-being and positive affect, and the absence of negative affect.[35] Other research indicates that among older workers activities such as volunteering and participating in social clubs was related to a decrease in depressive symptoms over the next two years.[38] Research on job changing indicates that mobility between, but not within, organizations is associated with burnout.[36]
Workplace bullying, aggression and violence[edit]
Main articles: Workplace bullying, Workplace aggression, and Workplace violence
I/O psychologists are concerned with the related topics of workplace bullying, aggression, and violence.[39] For example, I/O research found that exposure to workplace violence elicited ruminative thinking, and ruminative thinking, in turn, is associated with poor well-being.[40] I/O research has found that interpersonal aggressive behaviours is associated with worse team performance.[41]
Remuneration and compensation[edit]
Main article: Remuneration
Compensation includes wages or salary, bonuses, pension/retirement contributions, and employee benefits that can be converted to cash or replace living expenses. I/O psychologists may be asked to conduct a job evaluation for the purpose of determining compensation levels and ranges. I/O psychologists may also serve as expert witnesses in pay discrimination cases, when disparities in pay for similar work are alleged by employees.
Training and training evaluation[edit]
Main article: Training
Training involves the systematic teaching of skills, concepts, or attitudes that results in improved performance in another environment.[42] Because many people hired for a job are not already versed in all the tasks the job requires, training may be needed to help the individual perform the job effectively. Evidence indicates that training is often effective, and that it succeeds in terms of higher net sales and gross profitability per employee.[43]
Similar to performance management (see above), an I/O psychologist would employ a job analysis in concert with the application of the principles of instructional design to create an effective training program.[citation needed] A training program is likely to include a summative evaluation at its conclusion in order to ensure that trainees have met the training objectives and can perform the target work tasks at an acceptable level. Training programs often include formative evaluations to assess the effect of the training as the training proceeds. Formative evaluations can be used to locate problems in training procedures and help I/O psychologists make corrective adjustments while training is ongoing.[citation needed]
The foundation for training programs is learning. Learning outcomes can be organized into three broad categories: cognitive, skill-based, and affective outcomes.[44] Cognitive training is aimed at instilling declarative knowledge or the knowledge of rules, facts, and principles (e.g., police officer training covers laws and court procedures). Skill-based training aims to impart procedural knowledge (e.g., skills needed to use a special tool) or technical skills (e.g., understanding the workings of software program). Affective training concerns teaching individuals to develop specific attitudes or beliefs that predispose trainees to behave a certain way (e.g., show commitment to the organization, appreciate diversity).[45]
A needs assessment, an analysis of corporate and individual goals, is often undertaken prior to the development of a training program.[46](p164) In addition, a careful needs analysis is required in order to develop a systematic understanding of where training is needed, what should be taught, and who will be trained.[42] A training needs analysis typically involves a three-step process that includes organizational analysis, task analysis and person analysis.[47]
An organizational analysis is an examination of organizational goals and resources as well as the organizational environment.[citation needed] The results of an organizational analysis help to determine where training should be directed. The analysis identifies the training needs of different departments or subunits.[citation needed] It systematically assesses manager, peer, and technological support for transfer of training. An organizational analysis also takes into account the climate of the organization and its subunits. For example, if a climate for safety is emphasized throughout the organization or in subunits of the organization (e.g., production), then training needs will likely reflect an emphasis on safety.[48] A task analysis uses the results of a job analysis to determine what is needed for successful job performance, contributing to training content. With organizations increasingly trying to identify "core competencies" that are required for all jobs, task analysis can also include an assessment of competencies.[49] A person analysis identifies which individuals within an organization should receive training and what kind of instruction they need. Employee needs can be assessed using a variety of methods that identify weaknesses that training can address.
Motivation in the workplace[edit]
Main article: Work motivation
Work motivation reflects the energy an individual applies "to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration"[50] Understanding what motivates an organization's employees is central to I/O psychology. Motivation is generally thought of as a theoretical construct that fuels behavior. An incentive is an anticipated reward that is thought to incline a person to behave a certain way.[51] Motivation varies among individuals. Studying its influence on behavior, it must be examined together with ability and environmental influences. Because of motivation's role in influencing workplace behavior and performance, many organizations structure the work environment to encourage productive behaviors and discourage unproductive behaviors.[52][53]
Motivation involves three psychological processes: arousal, direction, and intensity.[citation needed] Arousal is what initiates action. It is often fueled by a person's need or desire for something that is missing from his or her life, either totally or partially. Direction refers to the path employees take in accomplishing the goals they set for themselves. Intensity is the amount of energy employees put into goal-directed work performance. The level of intensity often reflects the importance and difficulty of the goal. These psychological processes involve four factors. First, motivation serves to direct attention, focusing on particular issues, people, tasks, etc. Second, it serves to stimulate effort. Third, motivation influences persistence. Finally, motivation influences the choice and application of task-related strategies.[53]
Occupational stress[edit]
Main article: Occupational stress
I/O psychologists are involved in the research and the practice of occupational stress and design of individual and organizational interventions to manage and reduce the stress levels and increase productivity, performance, health and wellbeing.[54][55][56] Occupational stress can have implications for organizational performance because of the emotions job stress evokes. For example, a job stressor such as conflict with a supervisor can precipitate anger that in turn motivates counterproductive workplace behaviors.[57] I/O research has examined the association between work stressors and aggression, theft, substance abuse,[58] and depressive symptoms.[59] A number of models have been developed to explain the job stress process, including the person-environment fit model[60] and the demand-control model.[61] Those models became a cornerstone of the emergence, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, of a new discipline relevant to research on occupational stress; the discipline, occupational health psychology, is an offshoot of i/o psychology, health psychology, and occupational medicine.[62][63]
Research has also examined occupational stress in specific occupations, including police,[64] general practitioners,[65] and dentists.[66] Another concern has been the relation of occupational stress to family life.[67][68] Other research has examined gender differences in leadership style and job stress and strain in the context of male- and female-dominated industries,[69] and unemployment-related distress.[70][71][72] I/O psychology is also concerned with the relation of occupational stress to career advancement.[73]
Occupational safety[edit]
Main article: Occupational health and safety
Accidents and safety in the workplace have become areas of interest to I/O psychology.[74] Examples of psychosocial injury hazards of interest to I/O psychology include fatigue, workplace violence, workplace bullying,[citation needed] and working night shifts.[75] I/O researchers conduct "stress audits" that can help organizations remain compliant with various occupational safety regulations.[76] Psychosocial hazards can affect musculoskeletal disorders.[74][77] A psychosocial factor related to accident risk is safety climate, which refers to employees' perceptions of the extent to which their work organization prioritizes safety.[78] By contrast, psychosocial safety climate refers to management's "policies, practices, and procedures" aimed at protecting workers' psychological health.[79] Research on safety leadership is also relevant to I/O psychology. Research suggests that safety-oriented transformational leadership is associated with a positive safety climate and safe worker practices.[80]
Organizational culture[edit]
Main article: Organizational culture
Organizational culture has been described as a set of assumptions shared by individuals in an organization; the assumptions influence the interpretation and actions that define appropriate behavior for various situations.[citation needed] Organizational culture has been shown to affect important organizational outcomes such as performance, attraction, recruitment, retention, employee satisfaction, and employee well-being.[citation needed] There are three levels of organizational culture: artifacts, shared values, and basic beliefs and assumptions.[citation needed] Artifacts comprise the physical components of the organization that relay cultural meaning. Shared values are individuals' preferences regarding certain aspects of the organization's culture (e.g., loyalty, customer service). Basic beliefs and assumptions include individuals' impressions about the trustworthiness and supportiveness of an organization, and are often deeply ingrained within the organization's culture.
In addition to an overall culture, organizations also have subcultures.[citation needed] Examples of subcultures include corporate culture, departmental culture, local culture, and issue-related culture.[citation needed] While there is no single "type" of organizational culture, some researchers have developed models to describe different organizational cultures.
Group behavior[edit]
Main article: Group behavior
Group behavior involves the interactions among individuals in a collective. The individuals' opinions, attitudes, and adaptations affect group behavior and group behavior, in turn, affects those opinions, etc.[81] The interactions are thought to fulfill some need satisfaction in an individual who is part of the collective.[52] A specific area of I/O research in group behavior is the team dynamics and team effectiveness.[citation needed]
Team effectiveness[edit]
Main article: Team effectiveness
Organizations often organize teams because teams can accomplish a much greater amount of work in a short period of time than an individual can accomplish.[52] I/O research has examined the harm workplace aggression does to team performance.[82]
Team composition[edit]
The selection of individuals to be assigned to specific teams bears on the resulting effectiveness of those teams. Aspects of team composition that should be considered during the team selection process include team members' knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) as well their personalities and attitudes.[52] To achieve high-quality results, teams built with members having higher skill levels are more likely to be effective than teams built around members having lesser skills; teams that include a members with a diversity of skills are also likely to show improved team performance.[83][84] Additionally, higher levels of cognitive ability of team members has been shown to consistently correlate to increased work group effectiveness.[85] Team members' personalities and attitudes have also been studied. For example, the personality factors agreeableness, conscientiousness, extraversion, and emotional stability are related to better team performance.[86][84]
Task design[edit]
Main article: Job design
A fundamental question in team task design is whether or not a task is even appropriate for a team. Those tasks that require predominantly independent work are best left to individuals, and team tasks should include those tasks that consist primarily of interdependent work.[52] When a given task is appropriate for a team, task design can play a key role in team effectiveness.[87]
Job characteristic theory identifies core job dimensions that affect motivation, satisfaction, performance, etc. These dimensions include skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.[88] The dimensions map well to the team environment. Individual contributors who perform team tasks that are challenging, interesting, and engaging are more likely to be motivated to exert greater effort and perform better than team members who are working on tasks that lack those characteristics.[52]
Organizational resources[edit]
Organizational support systems affect the team effectiveness[85] and provide resources for teams operating in the multi-team environment. During the chartering of new teams, organizational enabling resources are first identified. Examples of enabling resources include facilities, equipment, information, training, and leadership.[52] Team-specific resources (e.g., budgetary resources, human resources) are typically made available. Team-specific human resources represent the individual contributors who are selected to be team members. Intra-team processes (e.g., task design, task assignment) involve these team-specific resources.[citation needed]
Teams also function in dynamic multi-team environments. Teams often must respond to shifting organizational contingencies.[89] Contingencies affecting teams include constraints arising from conditions in which organizational resources are not exclusively earmarked for certain teams. When resources are scarce, they must be shared by multiple teams.
Team rewards[edit]
Organizational reward systems drive the strengthening and enhancing of individual team member efforts; such efforts contribute towards reaching team goals.[90] In other words, rewards that are given to individual team members should be contingent upon the performance of the entire team.[85]
Several design elements are needed to enable organizational reward systems to operate successfully. First, for a collective assessment to be appropriate for individual team members, the group's tasks must be highly interdependent. If this is not the case, individual assessment is more appropriate than team assessment.[91] Second, individual-level reward systems and team-level reward systems must be compatible.[92] For example, it would be unfair to reward the entire team for a job well done if only one team member did most of the work. That team member would most likely view teams and teamwork negatively, and would not want to work on a team in the future. Third, an organizational culture must be created such that it supports and rewards employees who believe in the value of teamwork and who maintain a positive attitude towards team-based rewards.[93]
Team goals[edit]
Goals potentially motivate team members when goals contain three elements: difficulty, acceptance, and specificity.[94] Under difficult goal conditions, teams with more committed members tend to outperform teams with less committed members.[95] When team members commit to team goals, team effectiveness is a function of how supportive members are with each other.[96] The goals of individual team members and team goals interact. Team and individual goals must be coordinated. Individual goals must be consistent with team goals in order for a team to be effective.[97]
Job satisfaction and commitment[edit]
Main article: Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is often thought to reflect the extent to which a worker likes his or her job, or individual aspects or facets of jobs.[98] It is one of the most heavily researched topics in I/O psychology. Job satisfaction has theoretical and practical utility for the field. It has been linked to important job outcomes including attitudinal variables (e.g., job involvement, organizational commitment), absenteeism, turnover intentions, actual turnover, job performance, and tension.[citation needed] A meta-analyses found job satisfaction to be related to life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect.[99]
Productive behavior[edit]
Productive behavior is defined as employee behavior that contributes positively to the goals and objectives of an organization.[52] When an employee begins a new job, there is a transition period during which he or she may not contribute significantly. To assist with this transition an employee typically requires job-related training. In financial terms, productive behavior represents the point at which an organization begins to achieve some return on the investment it has made in a new employee.[52] I/O psychologists are ordinarily more focused on productive behavior than job or task performance, including in-role and extra-role performance. In-role performance tells managers how well an employee performs the required aspects of the job; extra-role performance includes behaviors not necessarily required by job but nonetheless contribute to organizational effectiveness. By taking both in-role and extra-role performance into account, an I/O psychologist is able to assess employees' effectiveness (how well they do what they were hired to do), efficiency (outputs to relative inputs), and productivity (how much they help the organization reach its goals). Three forms of productive behavior that I/O psychologists often evaluate include job performance, organizational citizenship behavior (see below), and innovation.[52]
Job performance[edit]
Main article: Job performance
Job performance represents behaviors employees engage in while at work which contribute to organizational goals.[100] These behaviors are formally evaluated by an organization as part of an employee's responsibilities.[100] In order to understand and ultimately predict job performance, it is important to be precise when defining the term. Job performance is about behaviors that are within the control of the employee and not about results (effectiveness), the costs involved in achieving results (productivity), the results that can be achieved in a period of time (efficiency), or the value an organization places on a given level of performance, effectiveness, productivity or efficiency (utility).[52]
To model job performance, researchers have attempted to define a set of dimensions that are common to all jobs. Using a common set of dimensions provides a consistent basis for assessing performance and enables the comparison of performance across jobs. Performance is commonly broken into two major categories: in-role (technical aspects of a job) and extra-role (non-technical abilities such as communication skills and being a good team member). While this distinction in behavior has been challenged[101] it is commonly made by both employees and management.[102] A model of performance by Campbell breaks performance into in-role and extra-role categories.[100][103] Campbell labeled job-specific task proficiency and non-job-specific task proficiency as in-role dimensions, while written and oral communication, demonstrating effort, maintaining personal discipline, facilitating peer and team performance, supervision and leadership and management and administration are labeled as extra-role dimensions.[52] Murphy's model of job performance also broke job performance into in-role and extra-role categories.[104] However, task-orientated behaviors composed the in-role category and the extra-role category included interpersonally-oriented behaviors, down-time behaviors and destructive and hazardous behaviors.[52] However, it has been challenged as to whether the measurement of job performance is usually done through pencil/paper tests, job skills tests, on-site hands-on tests, off-site hands-on tests, high-fidelity simulations, symbolic simulations, task ratings and global ratings.[105] These various tools are often used to evaluate performance on specific tasks and overall job performance.[52] Van Dyne and LePine developed a measurement model in which overall job performance was evaluated using Campbell's in-role and extra-role categories.[102] Here, in-role performance was reflected through how well "employees met their performance expectations and performed well at the tasks that made up the employees' job."[106] Dimensions regarding how well the employee assists others with their work for the benefit of the group, if the employee voices new ideas for projects or changes to procedure and whether the employee attends functions that help the group composed the extra-role category.
To assess job performance, reliable and valid measures must be established. While there are many sources of error with performance ratings, error can be reduced through rater training[107] and through the use of behaviorally-anchored rating scales. Such scales can be used to clearly define the behaviors that constitute poor, average, and superior performance.[100] Additional factors that complicate the measurement of job performance include the instability of job performance over time due to forces such as changing performance criteria, the structure of the job itself[104] and the restriction of variation in individual performance by organizational forces. These factors include errors in job measurement techniques, acceptance and the justification of poor performance and lack of importance of individual performance.
The determinants of job performance consist of factors having to do with the individual worker as well as environmental factors in the workplace. According to Campbell's Model of The Determinants of Job Performance,[100][103] job performance is a result of the interaction between declarative knowledge (knowledge of facts or things), procedural knowledge (knowledge of what needs to be done and how to do it), and motivation (reflective of an employee's choices regarding whether to expend effort, the level of effort to expend, and whether to persist with the level of effort chosen).[52] The interplay between these factors show that an employee may, for example, have a low level of declarative knowledge, but may still have a high level of performance if the employee has high levels of procedural knowledge and motivation.
Regardless of the job, three determinants stand out as predictors of performance: (1) general mental ability (especially for jobs higher in complexity); (2) job experience (although there is a law of diminishing returns); and (3) the personality trait of conscientiousness (people who are dependable and achievement-oriented, who plan well).[52] These determinants appear to influence performance largely through the acquisition and usage of job knowledge and the motivation to do well. Further, an expanding area of research in job performance determinants includes emotional intelligence.[108][109]
Organizational citizenship behavior[edit]
Main article: Organizational citizenship behavior
Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) are another form of workplace behavior that I/O psychologists are involved with. OCBs tend to be beneficial to both the organization and other workers. Dennis Organ (1988) defines OCBs as "individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization."[110] Behaviors that qualify as OCBs can fall into one of the following five categories: altruism, courtesy, sportsmanship, conscientiousness, and civic virtue.[110][111][112] OCBs have also been categorized in other ways too, for example, by their intended targets (individuals, supervisors, and the organization as a whole.[113] Other alternative ways of categorizing OCBs include "compulsory OCBs," which are engaged in owing to coercive persuasion or peer pressure rather than out of good will.[114] The extent to which OCBs are voluntary has been the subject of some debate.[114]
Other research suggests that some employees perform OCBs to influence how they are viewed within the organization. While these behaviors are not formally part of the job description, performing them can influence performance appraisals.[52] Researchers have advanced the view that employees engage in OCBs as a form of "impression management," a term coined by Erving Goffman.[115] Goffman defined impression management as "the way in which the individual ... presents himself and his activity to others, the ways in which he guides and controls the impression they form of him, and the kinds of things he may and may not do while sustaining his performance before them. Some researchers have hypothesized that OCBs are not performed out of good will, positive affect, etc., but instead as a way of being noticed by others, including supervisors.[116]
Innovation[edit]
Main article: Innovation
Industrial and organizational psychologists consider innovation, more often than not, a variable of less importance and often a counter-productive one to include in conducting job performance appraisals when irrelevant to the major job functions for which a given job exists. Nonetheless, I/O psychologists see the value of that variable where its consideration would, were its reliability and validity questioned, achieve a statistically significant probability that its results are not due to chance, and that it can be replicated reliably with a statistically significant ratio of reliability, and that were a court to raise a question on its reliability and validity testing, the I/O psychologist behind its use would be able to defend it before a court of justice with the belief that it will stand before such a court as reliable, and valid.
Four qualities are generally linked to creative and innovative behaviour by individuals:[52]
Task-relevant skills (general mental ability and job specific knowledge). Task specific and subject specific knowledge is most often gained through higher education; however, it may also be gained by mentoring and experience in a given field.[52]
Creativity-relevant skills (ability to concentrate on a problem for long periods of time, to abandon unproductive searches, and to temporarily put aside stubborn problems). The ability to put aside stubborn problems is referred to by Jex & Britt as productive forgetting.[52] Creativity-relevant skills also require the individual contributor to evaluate a problem from multiple vantage points. One must be able to take on the perspective of various users. For example, an Operation Manager analyzing a reporting issue and developing an innovative solution would consider the perspective of a sales person, assistant, finance, compensation, and compliance officer.
Task motivation (internal desire to perform task and level of enjoyment).[52]
At the organizational level, a study by Damanpour identified four specific characteristics that may predict innovation:[117]
A population with high levels of technical knowledge
The organization's level of specialization
The level an organization communicates externally
Functional Differentiation.[52]
Counterproductive work behavior[edit]
Main article: Counterproductive work behavior
Counterproductive work behavior (CWB) can be defined as employee behavior that goes against the goals of an organization. These behaviors can be intentional or unintentional and result from a wide range of underlying causes and motivations. Some CWBs have instrumental motivations (e.g., theft).[57] It has been proposed that a person-by-environment interaction can be utilized to explain a variety of counterproductive behaviors (Fox and Spector, 1999). For instance, an employee who sabotages another employee's work may do so because of lax supervision (environment) and underlying psychopathology (person) that work in concert to result in the counterproductive behavior. There is evidence that an emotional response (e.g., anger) to job stress (e.g., unfair treatment) can motivate CWBs.[57]
The forms of counterproductive behavior with the most empirical examination are ineffective job performance, absenteeism, job turnover, and accidents. Less common but potentially more detrimental forms of counterproductive behavior have also been investigated including violence and sexual harassment.
Leadership[edit]
Main article: Leadership
In I/O psychology, leadership can be defined as a process of influencing others to agree on a shared purpose, and to work towards shared objectives.[118] A distinction should be made between leadership and management. Managers process administrative tasks and organize work environments. Although leaders may be required to undertake managerial duties as well, leaders typically focus on inspiring followers and creating a shared organizational culture and values. Managers deal with complexity, while leaders deal with initiating and adapting to change. Managers undertake the tasks of planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling and problem solving. In contrast, leaders undertake the tasks of setting a direction or vision, aligning people to shared goals, communicating, and motivating.[119]
Approaches to studying leadership in I/O psychology can be broadly classified into three categories: Leader-focused approaches, contingency-focused approaches, and follower-focused approaches.[citation needed]
Leader-focused approaches[edit]
Leader-focused approaches look to organizational leaders to determine the characteristics of effective leadership. According to the trait approach, more effective leaders possess certain traits that less effective leaders lack. More recently, this approach is being used to predict leader emergence. The following traits have been identified as those that predict leader emergence when there is no formal leader: high intelligence, high needs for dominance, high self-motivation, and socially perceptive.[120] Another leader-focused approached is the behavioral approach which focuses on the behaviors that distinguish effective from ineffective leaders. There are two categories of leadership behaviors: (1) consideration; and (2) initiating structure. Behaviors associated with the category of consideration include showing subordinates they are valued and that the leader cares about them. An example of a consideration behavior is showing compassion when problems arise in or out of the office. Behaviors associated with the category of initiating structure include facilitating the task performance of groups. One example of an initiating structure behavior is meeting one-on-one with subordinates to explain expectations and goals. The final leader-focused approach is power and influence. To be most effective a leader should be able to influence others to behave in ways that are in line with the organization's mission and goals. How influential a leader can be depends on their social power or their potential to influence their subordinates. There are six bases of power: coercive power, reward power, legitimate power, expert power, referent power, and informational power. A leader can use several different tactics to influence others within an organization. These common tactics include: rational persuasion, inspirational appeal, consultation, ingratiation, exchange, personal appeal, coalition, legitimating, and pressure.[121]
Contingency-focused approaches[edit]
Of the 3 approaches to leadership, contingency-focused approaches have been the most prevalent over the past 30 years. Contingency-focused theories base a leader's effectiveness on their ability to assess a situation and adapt their behavior accordingly.[121] These theories assume that an effective leader can accurately "read" a situation and skillfully employ a leadership style that meets the needs of the individuals involved and the task at hand. A brief introduction to the most prominent contingency-focused theories will follow.
Fiedler's Contingency Theory holds that a leader's effectiveness depends on the interaction between their characteristics and the characteristics of the situation. Path–Goal Theory asserts that the role of the leader is to help his or her subordinates achieve their goals. To effectively do this, leaders must skillfully select from four different leadership styles to meet the situational factors. The situational factors are a product of the characteristics of subordinates and the characteristics of the environment. The Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model focuses on how leader–subordinate relationships develop. Generally speaking, when a subordinate performs well or when there are positive exchanges between a leader and a subordinate, their relationship is strengthened, performance and job satisfaction are enhanced, and the subordinate will feel more commitment to the leader and the organization as a whole.[122] Vroom-Yetton-Jago Model focuses on decision making with respect to a feasibility set[121] which is composed of the situational attributes.
In addition to the contingency-focused approaches mentioned, there has been a high degree of interest paid to three novel approaches that have recently emerged. The first is transformational leadership, which posits that there are certain leadership traits that inspire subordinates to perform beyond their capabilities. The second is transactional leadership, which is most concerned with keeping subordinates in-line with deadlines and organizational policy. This type of leader fills more of a managerial role and lacks qualities necessary to inspire subordinates and induce meaningful change. And the third is authentic leadership which is centered around empathy and a leader's values or character. If the leader understands their followers, they can inspire subordinates by cultivating a personal connection and leading them to share in the vision and goals of the team. Although there has been a limited amount of research conducted on these theories, they are sure to receive continued attention as the field of I/O psychology matures.
Follower-focused approaches[edit]
Follower-focused approaches look at the processes by which leaders motivate followers, and lead teams to achieve shared goals. Understandably, the area of leadership motivation draws heavily from the abundant research literature in the domain of motivation in I/O psychology. Because leaders are held responsible for their followers' ability to achieve the organization's goals, their ability to motivate their followers is a critical factor of leadership effectiveness. Similarly, the area of team leadership draws heavily from the research in teams and team effectiveness in I/O psychology. Because organizational employees are frequently structured in the form of teams, leaders need to be aware of the potential benefits and pitfalls of working in teams, how teams develop, how to satisfy team members' needs, and ultimately how to bring about team effectiveness and performance.
An emerging area of I/O research in the area of team leadership is in leading virtual teams, where people in the team are geographically-distributed across various distances and sometimes even countries. While technological advances have enabled the leadership process to take place in such virtual contexts, they present new challenges for leaders as well, such as the need to use technology to build relationships with followers, and influencing followers when faced with limited (or no) face-to-face interaction.
Organizational development[edit]
Main article: Organization development
I/O psychologists are also concerned with organizational change. This effort, called organizational development (OD). Tools used to advance organization development include the survey feedback technique. The technique involves the periodic assessment (with surveys) of employee attitudes and feelings. The results are conveyed to organizational stakeholders, who may want to take the organization in a particular direction. Another tool is the team building technique. Because many if not most tasks within the organization are completed by small groups and/or teams, team building is important to organizational success. In order to enhance a team's morale and problem-solving skills, I/O psychologists help the groups to build their self-confidence, group cohesiveness, and working effectiveness.[123]
Relation to organizational behavior[edit]
The I/O psychology and organizational behavior have manifested some overlap.[124] The overlap has led to some confusion regarding how the two disciplines differ.[125]
Training[edit]
The minimum requirement for working as an I/O psychologist is a master's degree. Normally, this degree requires about 2–3 years to complete. Of all the degrees granted in I/O psychology each year, approximately two thirds are at the master's level.[123](p18)
A comprehensive list of US and Canadian master's and doctoral programs can be found at the web site of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP).[126] Admission into I/O psychology PhD programs is highly competitive given that many programs accept a small number of applicants every year.
There are graduate degree programs in I/O psychology outside of the US and Canada. The SIOP web site[126] also provides a comprehensive list of I/O programs in many other countries.
Competencies[edit]
There are many different sets of competencies for different specializations within I/O psychology and I/O psychologists are versatile behavioral scientists. For example, an I/O psychologist specializing in selection and recruiting should have expertise in finding the best talent for the organization and getting everyone on board while he or she might not need to know much about executive coaching. Some I/O psychologists specialize in specific areas of consulting whereas others tend to generalize their areas of expertise. There are basic skills and knowledge an individual needs in order to be an effective I/O psychologist, which include being an independent learner, interpersonal skills (e.g., listening skills), and general consultation skills (e.g., skills and knowledge in the problem area).[127]
Job outlook[edit]
According to the United States Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics, I/O psychology is the fastest growing occupation in the United States, based on projections between 2012 and 2022.[128] In a 2006 salary survey,[129] the median salary for a PhD in I/O psychology was $98,000; for a master's level I/O psychologist was $72,000. The highest paid PhD I/O psychologists in private industry worked in pharmaceuticals and averaged approximately $151,000 per year; the median salary for self-employed consultants was $150,000; those employed in retail, energy, and manufacturing followed closely behind, averaging approximately $133,000. The lowest earners were found in state and local government positions, averaging approximately $77,000. In 2005, I/O psychologists whose primary responsibility is teaching at private and public colleges and universities often earn additional income from consulting with government and industry.[130]
Ethics[edit]
An I/O psychologist, whether an academic, a consultant, or an employee, must maintain high ethical standards.[131] The APA's ethical principles apply to I/O psychologists. For example, ethically, the I/O psychologist should only accept projects for which he or she is qualified. With more organizations becoming global, it is important that when an I/O psychologist works outside her or his home country, the psychologist is aware of rules, regulations, and cultures of the organizations and countries in which the psychologist works, while adhering to the ethical standards set at home.[132]
See also[edit]
Applied psychology
Association of Business Psychologists
Behavioral risk management
Educational psychology
Employment law
European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology
Human resources development
Human resource management
Individual psychological assessment
Industrial sociology
Kick the cat
Kiss up kick down
Machiavellianism in the workplace
Narcissism in the workplace
Occupational stress
Occupational safety and health
Occupational health psychology
Organizational behavior
Organizational socialization
Outline of psychology
Personnel psychology
Psychopathy in the workplace
Quality of working life
Society for Occupational Health Psychology
Systems psychology
References[edit]
Footnotes
Jump up ^ Truxillo, D. M., Bauer, T. N., & Erdogan, B. (2016). Psychology and Work: Perspectives on Industrial and Organizational Psychology. New York: Psychology Press-Taylor & Francis.
Jump up ^ Building Better Organizations Brochure published by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Retrieved from SIOP.org
Jump up ^ Recognized Specialties and Proficiencies in Professional Psychology
Jump up ^ HPC – Health Professions Council – Protected titles. Hpc-uk.org. Retrieved on 2013-09-01.
Jump up ^ [Occupational psychology (for those based in the UK). Access 29 Dec. 2016 http://www.bps.org.uk/careers-education-training/society-qualifications/occupational-psychology-those-based-uk/occupational-psychology].
Jump up ^ "Psychology Board of Australia – Endorsement". Psychologyboard.gov.au. 2010-07-01. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
Jump up ^ http://www.europsy-efpa.eu/
Jump up ^ Chimiel, N. (2000). History and context for work and organizational psychology. In N. Chmiel (Ed.), Introduction to work and organizational psychology :A European perspective. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Jump up ^ Shimmin, S., & van Strien, P. J. (1998). History of the psychology of work and organization. In P. J. D. Drenth, H. Thierry, & C. J. de Wolff (Eds.), Handbook of work and organizational psychology (pp. 71–99). Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press.
Jump up ^ Pitariu, H. D. (19912). I/O psychology in Romania: Past, present and intentions. The Industrial-Organizational Psychologist, 29(4), 29–33.
Jump up ^ Landy, F. J. (1997). Early influences on the development of industrial and organizational psychology. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 467–477.
Jump up ^ Feruson, L. (1965). The heritage of industrial psychology. Hartford, CT: Finlay Press.
Jump up ^ Mayo, E. (1924). Recovery and industrial fatigue. Journal of Personnel Research, 3, 273–281.
Jump up ^ Griffin, M. A., Landy, F. J., & Mayocchi, L. (2002). Australian influences on Elton Mayo: The construct of revery in industrial society. History of Psychology, 5(4), 356–375.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kopes, L. L. (2006). A brief history of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Accessed June 3, 2013. [1]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Bryan, L. L. K., & Vinchur, A.J. (2012). A history of industrial and organizational psychology. S. W. J. Kozlowski (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of organizational psychology (pp. 22-75). New York: Oxford University Press.
Jump up ^ Hayduk, L.A. (1987). Structural equations modeling with LISREL. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Jump up ^ Raudenbush, S.W. & Bryk, A.S. (2001). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Jump up ^ Hunter, J.E. & Schmidt, F.L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Thousand Oaks, CA.
Jump up ^ Hunter, J.E. & Schmidt, F.L. (1994). Estimation of sampling error variance in the meta-analysis of correlations: Use of average correlation in the homogeneous case. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, 171–77.
Jump up ^ Rosenthal, R. & DiMatteo, M.R. (2002). Meta-analysis. In H. Pashler & J. Wixted (Eds.). Stevens' handbook of experimental psychology (3rd ed.), Vol. 4: Methodology in experimental psychology, pp. 391–428. Hoboken, NJ, US: Wiley.
Jump up ^ Nunnally, J. & Bernstein, I. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Jump up ^ Du Toit, M. (2003) IRT from SSI. Mooresville, IN: Scientific Software.
Jump up ^ Flanagan, J.C. (1954). The Critical Incident Technique. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327–58.
Jump up ^ Rogelberg, S. G., & Brooks-Laber, M. E. (2002). Securing our collective duture: Challenges facing those designing and doing research in industrial and organization psychology. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.). Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 479 – 485). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Jump up ^ Elfering, A., Grebner, S., Semmer, N.K., Kaiser-Freiburghaus, D., Lauper-Del Ponte, S., & Witschi, I. (2005). Chronic job stressors and job control: Effects on event-related coping success and well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 78, 237–252.
Jump up ^ The SIOP principles
Jump up ^ [The standards for educational and psychological testing http://www.apa.org/science/programs/testing/standards.aspx]
Jump up ^ Uniform guidelines on eemployee selection procedures
Jump up ^ Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262–74. [2]
Jump up ^ Miner, J.B. (1992). Industrial-organizational psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
^ Jump up to: a b Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Jump up ^ Zickar, M. J. (2003). Remembering Arthur Kornhauser: Industrial psychology’s advocate for worker well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 363–369. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.363
Jump up ^ Kornhauser, A. (1965). Mental health of the industrial worker. New York: Wiley.
^ Jump up to: a b Bowling, K., Eschleman, J., & Wang, Q (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 915–934.
^ Jump up to: a b Liljegren, M., & Ekberg, K. (2009). Job mobility as predictor of health and burnout. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82(2), 317–329.
^ Jump up to: a b Sonnentag, S., & Niessen, C. (2008). Staying vigorous until work is over: The role of trait vigour, day-specific work experiences and recovery. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81(3), 435–458.
Jump up ^ Potočnik, K., & Sonnentag, S., & Niessen, C. (2008). A longitudinal study of well-being in older workers and retirees: The role of engaging in different types of activities. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 89, 497–521. doi:10.1111/joop.12003
Jump up ^ Coyne, I., Garvin, F. (2013). Employee relations and motivation. In Lewis, R., & Zibarris, R. (Eds.), Work and Occupational Psychology: Integrating Theory and Practice. Sage
Jump up ^ Niven, K., Sprigg, C., Armitage, J., & Satchwell, A . (2013). Ruminative thinking exacerbates the negative effects of workplace violence Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86(1), 67–84.
Jump up ^ Aube, C, & Rousseau, V . (2011). Interpersonal aggression and team effectiveness: The mediating role of team goal commitment Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84(3), 565–580.
^ Jump up to: a b Goldstein, I. L., & Ford, J. K. (2002). Training in organizations: Needs assessment, development, and evaluation (4th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Jump up ^ Arthur, W., Bennett, W., Edens, P.S., & Bell, S.T. (2003). Effectiveness of training in organizations: A meta-analysis of design and evaluation features. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 234–245.
Jump up ^ Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 311 – 328.
Jump up ^ Campbell, J. P., McCloy, R. A., Oppler, S.H., & Sager, C. E. (1993). A theory of performance. In N. Schmitt & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel selection in organizations (pp. 35–70). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Jump up ^ Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010). Psychology and work today: An introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-205-68358-4.
Jump up ^ Dierdorff, E. C., & Surface, E. A. (2008). Assessing training needs: Do work experience and capability matter? Human Performance, 21, 28–48.
Jump up ^ Zohar, D. (2002a). Modifying supervisory practices to improve subunit safety: A leadership-based intervention model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 587–596.
Jump up ^ Shippmann, J. S. et al. (2000). The practice of competency modeling. Personnel Psychology, 53, 703–740.
Jump up ^ Pinder, C. C.(2008). Work motivation in organizational behavior (2nd edition). New York: Psychology Press
Jump up ^ Deckers, L. (2010). Motivation: Biological, psychological and environmental (3rd ed., pp. 2–3). Boston, MA: Pearson.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Jex, S.M. & Britt, T.W. (2008). Organizational psychology. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley
^ Jump up to: a b Mitchell, T.R.; Daniels, D. 2003. Motivation. Handbook of Psychology, Vol. 12. Industrial Organizational Psychology, ed. W.C. Borman, D.R. Ilgen, R.J. Klimoski, pp. 225–54. New York: Wiley.
Jump up ^ Vinchur, A.J, & Koppes, L.L. (2010). A historical survey of research and practice in industrial and organizational psychology. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jump up ^ Griffin, M.A, & Clarke, S. (2010). Stress and well-being at work. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jump up ^ Hart, P.M & Cooper, C.L. (2002). Occupational stress: Toward a more integrated framework, In D.S. Anderson, N. Ones, and H.K. Sinangil, (Eds.), Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Vol. 2, Organizational Psychology (pp.93–115). Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
^ Jump up to: a b c Spector, P.E., & Fox, S. (2005). The stressor-emotion model of counterproductive work behavior. In S. Fox and P.E. Spector (Eds.). Counterproductive workplace behavior: Investigations of actors and targets (pp. 151–174). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jump up ^ Chen, P., & Spector, P. (1992). Relationships of work stressors with workplace aggression, withdrawal, theft and substance use: An exploratory study Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 177–184.
Jump up ^ Dormann, C., & Zapf, D. (2002). Social stressors at work, irritation, and depressive symptoms: Accounting for unmeasured third variables in a multi-wave study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75(1), 33–58.
Jump up ^ Caplan, R.D., Cobb, S. French, J.R.P., Jr., Harrison, R.V., & Pinneau, S.R., Jr. (1975). Job demands and worker health: Main effects and occupational differences. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare, Publication No. (NIOSH) 75–160. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Jump up ^ Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285–307.
Jump up ^ Everly, G.S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P.A. Keller & L.G. Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (Vol. 5, pp. 331-338). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.
Jump up ^ Schonfeld, I.S., & Chang, C.-H. (2017). Occupational health psychology: Work, stress, and health. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Jump up ^ Hart, P, Wearing, A & Heady, B. (1995). Police stress and well-being: Integrating personality, coping and daily work experiences Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 68, 133–156
Jump up ^ Twellaar, M, Winnants, H & Houkes, I . (2008). Specific determinants of burnout among male and female general practitioners: A cross-lagged panel analysis Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 249–276
Jump up ^ Demattio, M, Shuggars, D & Hays, R. (1993). Occupational stress, life stress and mental health among dentists Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 66, 153–162
Jump up ^ Swanson, V, Power, K & Simpson, R. (1998). Occupational stress and family life: A comparison of male and female doctors Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 71, 237–260
Jump up ^ Vinokur A.D., Pierce P.F., Buck C.L. (1999). Work-family conflicts of women in the Air Force: their influence on mental health and functioning. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 20, 865–878.
Jump up ^ Gardiner, M., & Tiggemann, M. (1999). Gender differences in leadership style, job stress and mental health in male- and female-dominated industries Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 72(3), 301–315.
Jump up ^ Paul, K., & Moser, K. (2006). Incongruence as an explanation for the negative mental health effects of unemployment: Meta-analytic evidence. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 79(4), 595–621. doi:10.1348/096317905X70823
Jump up ^ Ullah, K. (1990). The association between income, financial strain and psychological well-being among unemployed youths. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 82, 317–330.
Jump up ^ VanYperen, M., & Schaufeli, K. (1992). Unemployment and psychological distress among graduates: A longitudinal study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65, 291–305.
Jump up ^ Yang, L, Che, H, & Spector, P. (2008). Job stress and well-being: An examination from the view of person-environment fit Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 567–587.
^ Jump up to: a b Barling, J., & Frone, M. R. (2010). Occupational injuries: Setting the stage. In J. Barling & M. R. Frone (Eds.), The psychology of workplace safety (pp. 3–12). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Jump up ^ Spector, P.E (2011). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th Edition). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Jump up ^ Munir, F., & McDermott, H. (2013). Design of environments and work: Health, safety and wellbeing. In Lewis, R., & Zibarris, L. (Eds.), Work and occupational psychology: Integrating theory and practice(pp. 217–257). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Jump up ^ Sprigg, C. A., Stride, C. B., Wall, T. D., Holman, D. J., & Smith, P. R. (2007). Work characteristics, musculoskeletal disorders, and the mediating role of psychological strain: A study of call center employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1456–1466.
Jump up ^ Zohar, D. (1980). Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 65, 96–102. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.65.1.96
Jump up ^ Dollard, M., Bakker, A. (2010). Psychosocial safety climate as a precursor to conducive work environments, psychological health problems, and employee engagement. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83, 579–599.
Jump up ^ Clarke, S. (2013). Safety leadership: A meta-analytic review of transformational and transactional leadership styles as antecedents of safety behavioursJournal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 86, 22–49.
Jump up ^ Goldstone, R., Roberts, M., & Gureckis, T. (2008). Emergent processes of group behavior. Group Behavior, 17, 1–15.
Jump up ^ Rousseau, V. & Aube, C. (2011). Interpersonal aggression and team effectiveness: The mediating role of team goal commitment Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84(3), 565–580.
Jump up ^ Guzzo, R.A., & Shea, G.P. (1992). Group performance and intergroup relations in organizations. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 269–313). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press
^ Jump up to: a b Barrick, M.R., Stewart, S.L., Neubert, M.J., & Mount, M.K. (1998). Relating member ability and personality to work-team processes and team effectiveness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83, 377–91.
^ Jump up to: a b c Sundstrom, E., De Meuse, K.P.,& Futrell, D. (1990). Work teams: Applications and effectiveness. American Psychologist, 45(2), 120–33.
Jump up ^ Van Vianen, A.E.M. & De Dreu, C.K.W. (2001). Personality in teams: Its relationship to social cohesion, task cohesion, and team performance. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10(2), 97–120.
Jump up ^ Sundstrom, E., McIntyre, M., Halfhill, T., & Richards, H. (2000) Work groups: From the Hawthorne studies to work teams of the 1990s and beyond. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 4, 44-67. doi:org/10.1037/1089-2699.4.1.44
Jump up ^ Hackman, J. R. & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of job diagnostic survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 159-170.
Jump up ^ Salas, E., Stagl, K., & Burke, C. (2004). 25 years of team effectiveness in organizations: Research themes and emerging needs, In C. Cooper & I. Robertson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology, Vol. 19 (pp. 47–91). Chichester, UK: Wiley
Jump up ^ Luthans, F., & Kreitner, R. (1985). Organizational behavior modification and beyond: An operant and social learning approach (2nd ed.). Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman
Jump up ^ Wageman, R., & Baker, G. (1997). Incentives and cooperation: The joint effects of task and reward interdependence on group performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 18, 139–58.
Jump up ^ Dematteo, J.S., Eby, L.T., & Sundstrom, E. (1998). Team-based rewards: Current empirical evidence and directions for future research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 20, 141–83.
Jump up ^ Haines, V.Y., & Taggar, S. (2006). Antecedents of team reward attitude. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 10, 194–205.
Jump up ^ Lock, E.A., & Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Jump up ^ Whitney, K. (1994). Improving group task performance: The role of group goals and group efficacy. Human Performance, 7, 55–78.
Jump up ^ Aube, C., & Rousseau, V. (2005). Team goal commitment and team effectiveness: The role of task interdependence and supportive behaviors. Group dynamics: Theory, research, and practice, 9, 189–204.
Jump up ^ Mitchell, T.R., & Silver, W.R. (1990). Individual and group goals when workers are interdependent. Effects on task strategy and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75, 185–193.
Jump up ^ Spector, P.E. (1997). Job satisfaction: Application, assessment, causes and consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Jump up ^ Bowling, K., Eschleman, J., & Wang, Q (2010). A meta-analytic examination of the relationship between job satisfaction and subjective well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(4), 915–934.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Campbell, J.P. (1990). Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and organizational psychology. In M.D. Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., Vol 1, pp. 687–732). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Jump up ^ Morrison, E.W. (1994). Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of the employee's perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1543–67.
^ Jump up to: a b Van Dyne & LePine (1998). Helping and Voice Extra-role Behaviors: Evidence of Construct and Predictive Validity, The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 41, No. 1 (Feb. 1998, pp. 108–19).
^ Jump up to: a b Campbell, J.P. (1994). Alternative models of job performance and their implications for selection and classification. In M.G. Rumsey; C.B. Walker & J.H. Harris (Eds.), Personnel selection and classification (pp. 33–51). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
^ Jump up to: a b Murphy, K.R. (1994). Toward a broad conceptualization of jobs and job performance: Impact of changes in the military environment on the structure, assessment, and prediction of job performance. In M.G. Rumsey; C.B. Walker & J.H. Harris (Eds.), Personnel selection and classification (pp. 85–102), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jump up ^ Murphy, K.R. (1989). Dimensions of job performance. In R. Dillon & J.W. Pelligrino (Eds.), Testing: Theoretical and applied perspectives (pp. 218–47). New York: Praeger
Jump up ^ Jex, S.M. & Britt, T.W. (2008). Organizational Psychology. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Jump up ^ Pulakos, E.D. (1984). A comparison of rater training programs: Error training and accuracy training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 581–88)
Jump up ^ Baron, R.; Handley R. & Fund S. (2006). The impact of emotional intelligence on performance. In V.U. Druskat; F. Sala & G. Mount (Eds.), Linking emotional intelligence and performance at work: Current research evidence with individuals and groups (pp. 3–19). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates
Jump up ^ Goleman, D. (1998). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.
^ Jump up to: a b Organ, D.W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA England: Lexington Books/D.C. Heath and Com.
Jump up ^ Organ, D.W. (1977). Inferences about trends in labor force satisfaction: A causal-correlational analysis. Academy of Management Journal, 20(4), 510–19. doi:10.2307/255353
Jump up ^ Organ, D.W. (1994). Organizational citizenship behavior and the good soldier. In M.G. Rumsey; C.B. Walker; J. Harris (Eds.), Personnel selection and classification (pp. 53–67). Hillsdale, NJ England: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Jump up ^ Williams, L.J. & Anderson, S.E. (1994). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behavior. Journal of Management, 17, 601–17
^ Jump up to: a b Vigoda-Gadot, E. (2006). Compulsory citizenship behavior: Theorizing some dark sides of the Good Soldier Syndrome in organizations. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 36, 77–93. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2006.00297.
Jump up ^ Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. New York: Anchor Books.
Jump up ^ Bolino, M.C. (1999). Citizenship and impression management: Good soldiers or good actors? Academy of Management Review, 24(1), 82–98. doi:10.2307/259038
Jump up ^ Damanpour, F. (1991). Organizational innovation: A meta-analysis of effects of determinants and moderators. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 555–90.
Jump up ^ Yukl, G. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th Ed.). New Jersey: Pearson
Jump up ^ Daft, R.L. (2011). Leadership (5th Ed.). Australia: Cengage.
Jump up ^ Hughes, R.L.; Ginnett, R.C. & Curphy, G.J. (2009). Leadership: Enhancing the lessons of experience (6th Ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.
^ Jump up to: a b c Jex, S.M. & Britt, T.W. (2008). Organizational Psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (2nd Ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Jump up ^ Goleman, Daniel (2002). Primal Leadership. USA: Harvard Business School Press.
^ Jump up to: a b Schultz, Duane P. Schultz, Sydney Ellen (2010). Psychology and work today : an introduction to industrial and organizational psychology (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-205-68358-4.
Jump up ^ Miner, J.(2006) Organizational behavior 3: Historical origins, theoretical foundations and the future. Wiley.
Jump up ^ Jex, S.M., & Britt, T.W. (2008). Organizational psychology: A scientist-practitioner approach (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
^ Jump up to: a b Graduate Training Programs (visited web site on March 22, 2009)
Jump up ^ Cummings, T.G., & Worley, C.G. (2015). Organization development and change. Boston: Cengage.
Jump up ^ http://www.businessinsider.com.au/fastest-growing-jobs-2013-12?op=1#1-industrial-organizational-psychologists-30
Jump up ^ Khanna, C., & Medsker, G. J. (2007). 2006 Income and employment survey results for the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Bowling Green, OH: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
Jump up ^ Medsker, G. J., Katkowski, D. A., & Furr, D. (2005). 2003 employment survey results for the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Bowling Green, OH: Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology.
Jump up ^ Biech, E. (Ed.) (2007). The ethics of the business. The business of consulting: The basics and beyond (pp. 231–244). San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
Jump up ^ Mobley, W. H. (2008). Rules of thumb for international consultants. In J. W. Hedge, & W. C. Borman (Eds.), The I/O consultant: Advice and insights for building a successful career (pp. 309–314). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Further reading[edit]
Anderson, N.; Ones, D.S.; Sinangil, H.K. & Viswesvaran, C. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 1: Personnel psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.
Anderson, N.; Ones, D.S.; Sinangil, H.K. & Viswesvaran, C. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of industrial, work and organizational psychology, Volume 2: Organizational psychology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.
Borman, W.C.; Ilgen, D.R. & Klimoski, R.J. (Eds.). (2003). Handbook of psychology: Vol 12 Industrial and organizational psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Borman, W.C. & Motowidlo, S.J. (1993). Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance. Chapter in N. Schmitt and W.C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel Selection. San Francisco: Josey-Bass (pp. 71–98).
Bryan, L. L. K., & Vinchur, A.J. (2012). A history of industrial and organizational psychology. S. W. J. Kozlowski (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of organizational psychology (pp. 22–75). New York: Oxford University Press.
Campbell, J.P.; Gasser, M.B. & Oswald, F.L. (1996). The substantive nature of job performance variability. In K.R. Murphy (Ed.), Individual differences and behavior in organizations (pp. 258–99). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Copley, F.B. (1923). Frederick W. Taylor father of scientific management, Vols. I and II. New York: Taylor Society.
Dunnette, M.D. (Ed.). (1976). Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.
Dunnette, M.D. & Hough, L.M. (Eds.). (1991). Handbook of industrial/organizational psychology (4 Volumes). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Guion, R.M. (1998). Assessment, measurement and prediction for personnel decisions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hunter, J.E. & Schmidt, F.L. (1990). Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Jones, Ishmael (2008). The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture. New York: Encounter Books.
Koppes, L.L. (Ed.). (2007). Historical perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Lant, T.K. "Organizational Cognition and Interpretation," in Baum, (Ed)., The Blackwell Companion to Organizations. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Lowman, R.L. (Ed.). (2002). The California School of Organizational Studies handbook of organizational consulting psychology: A comprehensive guide to theory, skills and techniques. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Rogelberg, S.G. (Ed.). (2002). Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Sackett, P.R. & Wilk, S.L. (1994). Within group norming and other forms of score adjustment in pre-employment testing. American Psychologist, 49, 929–54.
Schmidt, F.L. & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262–74.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Industrial and organizational psychology
Canadian Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
British Psychological Society's Division of Occupational Psychology's (DOP) website
Society for Industrial & Organisational Psychology of South Africa
European Association of Work and Organizational Psychology
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology
[show]
v
t
e
Aspects of organizations
Architecture
Behavior
Blame
Burnout
Capital
Cells
Chart
Citizenship behavior
Climate
Commitment
Communication
Complexity
Conflict
Culture
Design
Development
Diagnostics
Dissent
Ecology
Effectiveness
Engineering
Ethics
Field
Fit in or fuck off
Hierarchy
Identification
Intelligence
Justice
Kick the cat
Kiss up kick down
Learning
Life cycle
Machiavellianism
Mentorship
Narcissism
Network analysis
Ombudsman
Onboarding
Patterns
Perceived support
Performance
Politics
Proactivity
Psychology
Psychopathy
Resilience
Retaliatory behavior
Safety
Space
Storytelling
Structure
Suggestion box
See also templates
Aspects of corporations
Aspects of jobs
Aspects of occupations
Aspects of workplaces
[show]
v
t
e
Psychology
History
Philosophy
Portal
Psychologist
Basic psychology
Abnormal
Affective science
Affective neuroscience
Behavioral genetics
Behavioral neuroscience
Behaviorism
Cognitive/Cognitivism
Cognitive neuroscience
Comparative
Cross-cultural
Cultural
Developmental
Differential
Ecological
Evolutionary
Experimental
Gestalt
Intelligence
Mathematical
Neuropsychology
Personality
Positive
Psycholinguistics
Psychophysics
Psychophysiology
Quantitative
Social
Theoretical
Applied psychology
Anomalistic
Applied behavior analysis
Assessment
Clinical
Community
Consumer
Counseling
Critical
Educational
Ergonomics
Feminist
Forensic
Health
Industrial and organizational
Legal
Media
Military
Music
Occupational health
Pastoral
Political
Psychometrics
Psychotherapy
Religion
School
Sport and exercise
Suicidology
Systems
Traffic
Methodologies
Animal testing
Archival research
Behavior epigenetics
Case study
Content analysis
Experiments
Human subject research
Interviews
Neuroimaging
Observation
Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Self-report inventory
Statistical surveys
Psychologists
William James (1842–1910)
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
Edward Thorndike (1874–1949)
Carl Jung (1875–1961)
John B. Watson (1878–1958)
Clark L. Hull (1884–1952)
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947)
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
J. P. Guilford (1897–1987)
Carl Rogers (1902–1987)
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
Donald O. Hebb (1904–1985)
Ernest Hilgard (1904–2001)
Harry Harlow (1905–1981)
Raymond Cattell (1905–1998)
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970)
Neal E. Miller (1909–2002)
Jerome Bruner (1915–2016)
Donald T. Campbell (1916–1996)
Hans Eysenck (1916–1997)
Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001)
David McClelland (1917–1998)
Leon Festinger (1919–1989)
George Armitage Miller (1920–2012)
Richard Lazarus (1922–2002)
Stanley Schachter (1922–1997)
Robert Zajonc (1923–2008)
Albert Bandura (b. 1925)
Roger Brown (1925–1997)
Endel Tulving (b. 1927)
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987)
Noam Chomsky (b. 1928)
Ulric Neisser (1928–2012)
Jerome Kagan (b. 1929)
Walter Mischel (b. 1930)
Elliot Aronson (b. 1932)
Daniel Kahneman (b. 1934)
Paul Ekman (b. 1934)
Michael Posner (b. 1936)
Amos Tversky (1937–1996)
Bruce McEwen (b. 1938)
Larry Squire (b. 1941)
Richard E. Nisbett (b. 1941)
Martin Seligman (b. 1942)
Ed Diener (b. 1946)
Shelley E. Taylor (b. 1946)
John Anderson (b. 1947)
Ronald C. Kessler (b. 1947)
Joseph E. LeDoux (b. 1949)
Richard Davidson (b. 1951)
Susan Fiske (b. 1952)
Roy Baumeister (b. 1953)
Lists
Counseling topics
Disciplines
Important publications
Organizations
Outline
Psychologists
Psychotherapies
Research methods
Schools of thought
Timeline
Topics
Wiktionary definition
Wiktionary category
Wikisource
Wikimedia Commons
Wikiquote
Wikinews
Wikibooks
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_and_organizational_psychology&oldid=817454951"
Categories:
Industrial and organizational psychology
Applied psychology
Behavioural sciences
Systems psychology
Hidden categories:
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016
Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikiquote
Languages
Afrikaans
العربية
Български
Deutsch
Eesti
Español
Euskara
فارسی
Français
한국어
Հայերեն
हिन्दी
Bahasa Indonesia
Íslenska
Italiano
עברית
Кыргызча
Nederlands
Polski
Português
Русский
Slovenčina
Slovenščina
Српски / srpski
Suomi
Svenska
Tagalog
Türkçe
Українська
中文
Edit links
This page was last edited on 28 December 2017, at 13:56.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: class style

value: The Greek letter 'psi', a symbol for psychology

attr: href class title

tag: li

tag: ul

value: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;padding-bottom:0.35em;

value: padding:0 0.1em 0.4em;padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;

value: List of important publications in psychology

value: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #aaa; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa;border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Walter_Van_Dyke_Bingham
mw-redirect
Walter Van Dyke Bingham

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value:
/wiki/Hawthorne_studies
mw-redirect
Hawthorne studies

value:
/wiki/Statistical_survey
mw-redirect
Statistical survey

value:
/wiki/Observational_studies
mw-redirect
Observational studies

value:
/wiki/Quantitative_methods
mw-redirect
Quantitative methods

value:
/wiki/Multiple_regression
mw-redirect
Multiple regression

value:
/wiki/Hierarchical_linear_modeling
mw-redirect
Hierarchical linear modeling

value:
/wiki/Multilevel_modeling
mw-redirect
Multilevel modeling

value:
/wiki/Qualitative_methods
mw-redirect
Qualitative methods

value:
/wiki/Focus_groups
mw-redirect
Focus groups

value:
/wiki/Case_studies
mw-redirect
Case studies

value:
/wiki/Performance_appraisals
mw-redirect
Performance appraisals

value: Edit section: Personnel recruitment and selection

value:
/wiki/Personality_tests
mw-redirect
Personality tests

value: National Council on Measurement in Education

value: Edit section: Performance appraisal/management

value:
/wiki/Performance_evaluation
mw-redirect
Performance evaluation

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)

value: Edit section: Individual assessment and psychometrics

value:
/wiki/Individual_assessment
mw-redirect
Individual assessment

value:
/wiki/Individual_differences
mw-redirect
Individual differences

value: Edit section: Occupational health and well-being

value:
/wiki/Negative_affect
mw-redirect
Negative affect

value: Edit section: Workplace bullying, aggression and violence

value: Edit section: Remuneration and compensation

value: Edit section: Training and training evaluation

value:
/wiki/Summative_evaluation
mw-redirect
Summative evaluation

value:
/wiki/Formative_assessments
mw-redirect
Formative assessments

value: Edit section: Motivation in the workplace

value:
/wiki/Person-environment_fit
mw-redirect
Person-environment fit

value:
/wiki/Occupational_health_and_safety
mw-redirect
Occupational health and safety

value:
/wiki/Group_behavior
mw-redirect
Group behavior

value: Edit section: Job satisfaction and commitment

value: Edit section: Organizational citizenship behavior

value: Edit section: Counterproductive work behavior

value:
/wiki/Job_turnover
mw-redirect
Job turnover

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2017)

value: Edit section: Contingency-focused approaches

value:
/wiki/Path%E2%80%93Goal_Theory
mw-redirect
Path–Goal Theory

value:
/wiki/Vroom-Yetton_decision_model
mw-redirect
Vroom-Yetton decision model

value: Edit section: Follower-focused approaches

value: Edit section: Organizational development

value: Edit section: Relation to organizational behavior

value:
/wiki/Interpersonal_skills
mw-redirect
Interpersonal skills

value:
/wiki/Employment_law
mw-redirect
Employment law

value: European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology

value:
/wiki/Human_resources_development
mw-redirect
Human resources development

value:
/wiki/Organizational_socialization
mw-redirect
Organizational socialization

value: Society for Occupational Health Psychology

value: -moz-column-width: 18em; -webkit-column-width: 18em; column-width: 18em;

value:
nofollow
http://www.europsy-efpa.eu/
external free

value:
nofollow
http://www.uniformguidelines.com/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
https://doi.org/10.2307%2F255353

value:
nofollow
external text
https://doi.org/10.2307%2F259038

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.siop.org/gtp/gtplookup.asp

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value: q:Special:Search/Industrial and organizational psychology

value:
nofollow
http://psychology.uwo.ca/csiop/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://dop.bps.org.uk/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://www.siopsa.org.za/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://www.eawop.org/
external text

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.siop.org

value:
/wiki/Burnout_(psychology)
mw-redirect
Burnout (psychology)

value:
/wiki/Organization_design
mw-redirect
Organization design

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Pastoral_psychology
mw-redirect
Pastoral psychology

value: navigation navbox Psychology padding:3px

value: Category:Industrial and organizational psychology

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from December 2016

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2017

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2017

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: علم النفس الصناعي – Arabic

value: Индустриална и организационна психология – Bulgarian

value: Psicología del trabajo y de las organizaciones – Spanish

value: روان‌شناسی صنعتی – Persian

value: Psychologie du travail et des organisations – French

value: 조직심리학 – Korean

value: Աշխատանքի հոգեբանություն – Armenian

value: औद्योगिक मनोविज्ञान – Hindi

value: פסיכולוגיה ארגונית – Hebrew

value: Эмгек психологиясы – Kyrgyz

value: Arbeids- en organisatiepsychologie – Dutch

value: Психология труда – Russian

value: Sikolohiyang pang-industriya at pang-organisasyon – Tagalog

value: Організаційна психологія – Ukrainian

value: 工業與組織心理學 – Chinese

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Industrial_and_organizational_psychology rootpage-Industrial_and_organizational_psychology skin-vector action-view