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Currency intervention
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US lawmakers discussing the Currency Harmonization Initiative Through Neutralizing Action (CHINA) Act of 2005
Currency intervention, also known as foreign exchange market intervention or currency manipulation is a monetary policy operation. It occurs when a government or central bank buys or sells foreign currency in exchange for their own domestic currency, generally with the intention of influencing the exchange rate and trade policy.
Policymakers may intervene in foreign exchange markets in order to advance a variety of economic objectives: controlling inflation, maintaining competitiveness, or maintaining financial stability. The precise objectives are likely to depend on the stage of a country's development, the degree of financial market development and international integration, and the country's overall vulnerability to shocks, among other factors.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Purposes
2 Historical context
2.1 Direct intervention
2.2 Indirect intervention
3 Effectiveness
3.1 Nonsterilization intervention
3.2 Sterilization intervention
4 Modern examples
4.1 Swiss franc
4.2 Japanese yen
4.3 Chinese yuan
4.4 Russian ruble
5 See also
6 References
Purposes[edit]
There are many reasons why a country's monetary and/or fiscal authority may want to intervene in the foreign exchange market. Central banks generally agree that the primary objective of foreign exchange market intervention is to manage the volatility and/or influence the level of the exchange rate. Governments prefer to stabilize the exchange rate because excessive short-term volatility erodes market confidence and affects both the financial market and the real goods market. When there is inordinate instability, exchange rate uncertainty generates extra costs and reduces profits for firms. As a result, investors are unwilling to make investment in foreign financial assets. Firms are reluctant to engage in international trade. Moreover, the exchange rate fluctuation would spill over into the financial markets. If the exchange rate volatility increases the risk of holding domestic assets, then prices of these assets would also become more volatile. The increased volatility of financial markets would threaten the stability of the financial system and make monetary policy goals more difficult to attain. Therefore, authorities conduct currency intervention. In addition, when economic conditions change or when the market misinterprets economic signals, authorities use foreign exchange intervention to correct exchange rates, in order to avoid overshooting of either direction. Anna Schwartz contended that the central bank can cause the sudden collapse of speculative excess, and that they can limit growth by constricting the money supply.[2]
Today, forex market intervention is largely used by the central banks of developing countries, and less so by developed countries. There are a few reasons why most developed countries no longer actively intervene:
Research and experience suggest that the instrument is only effective (at least beyond the very short term) if seen as foreshadowing interest rate or other policy adjustments. Without a durable and independent impact on the nominal exchange rate, intervention is seen as having no lasting power to influence the real exchange rate and thus competitive conditions for the tradeable sector.
Large-scale intervention can undermine the stance of monetary policy.
Developing countries, on the other hand, do sometimes intervene, presumably because they believe the instrument to be an effective tool in the circumstances and for the situations they face. Objectives include: to control inflation, to achieve external balance or enhance competitiveness to boost growth, or to prevent currency crises, such as large depreciation/appreciation swings.[3]
In a Bank for International Settlements (BIS) paper published in 2015, the authors describe the common reasons central banks intervene. Based on a BIS survey, in foreign exchange markets "emerging market central banks" use the strategy of "leaning against the wind" "to limit exchange rate volatility and smooth the trend path of the exchange rate".[4]:5,6 In their 2005 meeting on foreign exchange market intervention, central bank governors had noted that, "Many central banks would argue that their main aim is to limit exchange rate volatility rather than to meet a specific target for the level of the exchange rate". Other reasons cited (that do not target the exchange rate) were to "slow the rate of change of the exchange rate", "dampen exchange rate volatility", "supply liquidity to the forex market", or "influence the level of foreign reserves".[5]:1
Historical context[edit]
In the Cold War-era United States, under the Bretton Woods system of fixed exchange rates, intervention was used to help maintain the exchange rate within prescribed margins and was considered to be essential to a central bank’s toolkit. The dissolution of the Bretton Woods system between 1968 and 1973 was largely due to President Richard Nixon’s “temporary” suspension of the dollar’s convertibility to gold in 1971, after the dollar struggled throughout the late 1960s in light of large increases in the price of gold. An attempt to revive the fixed exchange rates failed, and by March 1973 the major currencies began to float against each other. Since the end of the traditional Bretton Woods system, IMF members have been free to choose any form of exchange arrangement they wish (except pegging their currency to gold), such as: allowing the currency to float freely, pegging it to another currency or a basket of currencies, adopting the currency of another country, participating in a currency bloc, or forming part of a monetary union. The end of the traditional Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s and the move to managed currencies led to a large scale increase in currency intervention throughout the 1970s and 80’s.[6]
From 2008 through 2013, central banks in emerging market economies (EMEs) had to "re-examine their foreign exchange market intervention strategies" because of "huge swings in capital flows to and from EMEs.[7]:1
Quite unlike their experiences in the early 2000s, several countries that had at different times resisted appreciation pressures suddenly found themselves having to intervene against strong depreciation pressures. The sharp rise in the US long-term interest rate from May to August 2013 led to heavy pressures in currency markets. Several EMEs sold large amounts of forex reserves, raised interest rates and – equally important – provided the private sector with insurance against exchange rate risks.
—  M S MohantyBIC 2013
Direct intervention[edit]
Direct currency intervention is generally defined as foreign exchange transactions that are conducted by the monetary authority and aimed at influencing the exchange rate. Depending on whether it changes the monetary base or not, currency intervention could be distinguished between sterilized intervention and non-sterilized intervention, respectively.
Sterilized intervention
Sterilized intervention is a policy that attempts to influence the exchange rate without changing the monetary base. The procedure is a combination of two transactions. First, the central bank conducts a nonsterilized intervention by buying (selling) foreign currency bonds using domestic currency that it issues. Then the central bank “sterilizes” the effects on the monetary base by selling (buying) a corresponding quantity of domestic-currency-denominated bonds to soak up the initial increase (decrease) of the domestic currency. The net effect of the two operations is the same as a swap of domestic-currency bonds for foreign-currency bonds with no change in the money supply.[8] With sterilization, any purchase of foreign exchange is accompanied by an equal-valued sale of domestic bonds, and vice versa.
For example, desiring to decrease the exchange rate/price of domestic currency without changing the monetary base, authorities purchase foreign-currency bonds, the same action as in the last section. After this action, in order to keep the monetary base, governments conduct a new transaction, selling an equal amount of domestic-currency bonds, so that the total money supply is back to the original level.
Non-sterilized intervention
Non-sterilized intervention is a policy that alters the monetary base. Specifically, authorities affect the exchange rate through purchasing or selling foreign money or bonds with domestic currency.;
For example, aiming at decreasing the exchange rate/price of the domestic currency, authorities could purchase foreign currency bonds. During this transaction, extra supply of domestic currency will drag down domestic currency price, and extra demand of foreign currency will push up foreign currency price. As a result, the exchange rate drops.
Indirect intervention[edit]
Indirect currency intervention is a policy that influences the exchange rate indirectly. Some examples are capital controls (taxes or restrictions on international transactions in assets), and exchange controls (the restriction of trade in currencies).[9] Those policies may lead to inefficiencies or reduce market confidence, but can be used as an emergency damage control.
Effectiveness[edit]
Imports and exports from Argentina 1992 to 2004
Nonsterilization intervention[edit]
In general, there is a consensus in the profession that non-sterilized intervention is effective. Similarly to the monetary policy, nonsterilized intervention influences the exchange rate by inducing changes in the stock of the monetary base, which, in turn, induces changes in broader monetary aggregates, interest rates, market expectations and ultimately the exchange rate.[10] As we have shown in the previous example, the purchase of foreign-currency bonds leads to the increase of home-currency money supply and thus a decrease of the exchange rate.
Sterilization intervention[edit]
On the other hand, the effectiveness of sterilized intervention is more controversial and ambiguous. By definition, the sterilized intervention has little or no effect on domestic interest rates, since the level of the money supply has remained constant. However, according to some literature, sterilized intervention can influence the exchange rate through two channels: the portfolio balance channel and the expectations or signaling channel.[11]
The Portfolio Balance Channel
In the portfolio balance approach, domestic and foreign bonds are not perfect substitutes. Agents balance their portfolios among domestic money and bonds, and foreign currency and bonds. Whenever aggregate economic condition changes, agents adjust their portfolios to a new equilibrium, based on a variety of considerations, i.e., wealth, tastes, expectation, etc.. Thus, these actions to balance portfolios will influence exchange rates.
The Expectations or Signaling Channel
Even if domestic and foreign assets are perfect substitutability of each other, sterilized intervention is still effective. According to the signaling channel theory, agents may view exchange rate intervention as a signal about the future stance of policy. Then the change of expectation will affect the current level of the exchange rate.
Modern examples[edit]
According to the Peterson Institute, there are four groups that stand out as frequent currency manipulators: longstanding advanced and developed economies, such as Japan and Switzerland, newly industrialized economies such as Singapore, developing Asian economies such as China, and oil exporters, such as Russia.[12] China's currency intervention and foreign exchange holdings are unprecedented.[13] It is common for countries to manage their exchange rate via central bank to make their exports cheap. That method is being used extensively by the emerging markets of Southeast Asia, in particular.
The American dollar is generally the primary target for these currency managers. The dollar is the global trading system's premier reserve currency, meaning dollars are freely traded and confidently accepted by international investors.[14] System Open Market Account is a monetary tool of the Federal Reserve system that may intervene to counter disorderly market conditions.[15] In 2014, a number of large investment banks, including UBS, JPMorgan Chase, Citigroup, HSBC and the Royal Bank of Scotland were fined for currency manipulations.[16]
Swiss franc[edit]
As the financial crisis of 2007–08 hit Switzerland, the Swiss franc appreciated "owing to a flight to safety and to the repayment of Swiss franc liabilities funding carry trades in high yielding currencies." On March 12, 2009, the Swiss National Bank (SNB) announced that it intended to buy foreign exchange to prevent the Swiss franc from further appreciation. Affected by the SNB purchase of euros and US dollars, the Swiss franc weakened from 1.48 against the euro to 1.52 in a single day. At the end of 2009, the currency risk seemed to be solved; the SNB changed its attitude to preventing substantial appreciation. Unfortunately, the Swiss franc began to appreciate again. Thus, the SNB stepped in one more time and intervened at a rate of more than CHF 30 billion per month. By the end of June 17, 2010, when the SNB announced the end of its intervention, it had purchased an equivalent of $179 billion of Euros and U.S. dollars, amounting to 33% of Swiss GDP.[17] Furthermore, in September 2011, the SNB influenced the foreign exchange market again, and set a minimum exchange rate target of SFr 1.2 to the Euro.
On January 15, 2015, the SNB suddenly announced that it would no longer hold the Swiss Franc at the fixed exchange rate with the euro it had set in 2011. The franc soared in response; the euro fell roughly 40 percent in value in relation to the franc, falling as low as 0.85 francs (from the original 1.2 francs).[18]
As investors flocked to the franc during the financial crisis, they dramatically pushed up its value. An expensive franc may have large adverse effects on the Swiss economy; the Swiss economy is heavily reliant on selling things abroad. Exports of goods and services are worth over 70% of Swiss GDP. To maintain price stability and lower the franc’s value, the SNB created new francs and used them to buy euros. Increasing the supply of francs relative to euros on foreign-exchange markets caused the franc’s value to fall (ensuring the euro was worth 1.2 francs). This policy resulted in the SNB amassing roughly $480 billion-worth of foreign currency, a sum equal to about 70% of Swiss GDP.
The Economist asserts that the SNB dropped the cap for the following reasons: first, rising criticisms among Swiss citizens regarding the large build-up of foreign reserves. Fears of runaway inflation underlie these criticisms, despite inflation of the franc being too low, according to the SNB. Second, in response to the European Central Bank's decision to initiate a quantitative easing program to combat euro deflation. The consequent devaluation of the euro would require the SNB to further devalue the franc had they decided to maintain the fixed exchange rate. Third, due to recent euro depreciation in 2014, the franc lost roughly 12% of its value against the USD and 10% against the rupee (exported goods and services to the U.S. and India account for roughly 20% Swiss exports).
Following the SNB's announcement, the Swiss stock market sharply declined; due to a stronger franc, Swiss companies would have had a more difficult time selling goods and services to neighboring European citizens.[19]
In June 2016, when the results of the Brexit referendum were announced, the SNB gave a rare confirmation that it had increased foreign currency purchases again, as evidenced by a rise of commercial deposits to the national bank. Negative interest rates coupled with targeted foreign currency purchases have helped to limit the strength of the Swiss Franc in a time when the demand for safe haven currencies is increasing. Such interventions assure the price competitiveness of Swiss products in the European Union and global markets.[20]
Japanese yen[edit]
From 1989 to 2003, Japan was suffering from a long deflationary period. After experiencing economic boom, the Japanese economy slowly declined in the early 1990s and entered a deflationary spiral in 1998. Within this period, Japanese output activities were stagnating; the deflation, in the sense of a negative inflation rate, was continuing to fall, and the unemployment rate was increasing. Simultaneously, confidence in the financial sector waned, and several banks failed. During the period, the Bank of Japan, having become legally independent in March 1998, aimed at stimulating the economy by ending deflation and stabilizing the financial system.[21] The "availability and effectiveness of traditional policy instruments was severely constrained as the policy interest rate was already virtually at zero, and the nominal interest rate could not become negative (the zero bound problem)."[22]
In response of deflationary pressures, the Bank of Japan, in coordination with the Ministry of Finance, launched a reserve targeting program. The BOJ increased the commercial bank current account balance to ¥35 trillion. Subsequently, the MoF used those funds to purchase $320 billion in U.S. treasury bonds and agency debt.[23]
By 2014, critics of Japanese currency intervention asserted that the central bank of Japan was artificially and intentionally devaluing the yen. Some state that the 2014 US-Japan trade deficit — $261.7 billion — was increased unemployment in the United States.[citation needed] Bank of Korea Governor Kim Choong Soo has urged Asian countries to work together to defend themselves against the side-effects of Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe’s reflation campaign. Some have (who?) stated this campaign is in response to Japan’s stagnant economy and potential deflationary spiral.[citation needed]
In 2013, Japanese Finance Minister Taro Aso stated Japan planned to use its foreign exchange reserves to buy bonds issued by the European Stability Mechanism and euro-area sovereigns, in order to weaken the yen.[citation needed] The U.S. criticized Japan for undertaking unilateral sales of the yen in 2011, after Group of Seven economies jointly intervened to weaken the currency in the aftermath of the record earthquake and tsunami that year.[citation needed]
By 2013, Japan held $1.27 trillion in foreign reserves according to finance ministry data.[24]
Chinese yuan[edit]
Currency intervention has led to the devaluing of the Yuan, 1989 to 2008
In the 1990s and 2000s, there was a marked increase in American imports of Chinese goods. China’s central bank allegedly devalued yuan by buying large amounts of US dollars with yuan, thus increasing the supply of the yuan in the foreign exchange market, while increasing the demand for US dollars, thus increasing the price of USD.[citation needed] According to an article published in KurzyCZ by Vladimir Urbanek, by December 2012, China’s foreign exchange reserve held roughly $3.3 trillion, making it the highest foreign exchange reserve in the world. Roughly 60% of this reserve was composed of US government bonds and debentures.[25]
There has been much disagreement on how the United States should respond to Chinese devaluation of the yuan. This is partly due to disagreement over the actual effects of the undervalued yuan on capital markets, trade deficits, and the US domestic economy.[citation needed]
Paul Krugman argued in 2010, that China intentionally devalued its currency to boost its exports to the United States and as a result, widening its trade deficit with the US. Krugman suggested at that time, that the United States should impose tariffs on Chinese goods. Krugman stated:[26]
The more depreciated China’s exchange rate — the higher the price of the dollar in yuan — the more dollars China earns from exports, and the fewer dollars it spends on imports. (Capital flows complicate the story a bit, but don’t change it in any fundamental way). By keeping its current artificially weak — a higher price of dollars in terms of yuan — China generates a dollar surplus; this means the Chinese government has to buy up the excess dollars.
—  Paul Krugman 2010 The New York Times
Greg Mankiw, on the other hand, asserted in 2010 the U.S. protectionism via tariffs will hurt the U.S. economy far more than Chinese devaluation. Similarly, others[who?] have stated that the undervalued yuan has actually hurt China more in the long run insofar that the undervalued yuan doesn’t subsidize the Chinese exporter, but subsidizes the American importer. Thus, importers within China have been substantially hurt due to the Chinese government’s intention to continue to grow exports.[27]
The view that China manipulates its currency for its own benefit in trade has been criticized by Cato Institute trade policy studies fellow Daniel Pearson,[28] National Taxpayers Union Policy and Government Affairs Manager Clark Packard,[29] entrepreneur and Forbes contributor Louis Woodhill,[30] Henry Kaufman Professor of Financial Institutions at Columbia University Charles W. Calomiris,[31] economist Ed Dolan,[32] William L. Clayton Professor of International Economic Affairs at the Fletcher School, Tufts University Michael W. Klein,[33] Harvard University Kennedy School of Government Professor Jeffrey Frankel,[34] Bloomberg columnist William Pesek,[35] Quartz reporter Gwynn Guilford,[36][37] The Wall Street Journal Digital Network Editor-In-Chief Randall W. Forsyth,[38] United Courier Services,[39] and China Learning Curve.[40]
Russian ruble[edit]
On November 10, 2014, the Central Bank of Russia decided to fully float the ruble in response to its biggest weekly drop in 11 years (roughly 6 percent drop in value against USD).[41] In doing so, the central bank abolished the dual-currency trading band within which the ruble had previously traded. The central bank also ended regular interventions that had previously limited sudden movements in the currency's value. Earlier steps to raise interest rates by 150 basis points to 9.5 percent failed to stop the ruble's decline. The central bank sharply adjusted its macroeconomic forecasts. It stated that Russia's foreign exchange reserves, then the fourth largest in the world at roughly $480 billion, were expected to decrease to $422 billion by the end of 2014, $415 billion in 2015, and under $400 billion in 2016, in an effort to prop up the ruble.[42]
On December 11, the Russian central bank raised the key rate by 100 basis points, from 9.5 percent to 10.5 percent.[43]
Declining oil prices and economic sanctions imposed by the West in response to the Russian annexation of Crimea led to worsening Russian recession. On December 15, 2014, the ruble dropped as much as 19 percent, the worst single-day drop for the ruble in 16 years.[44][45]
The Russian central bank response was twofold: first, continue using Russia's large foreign currency reserve to buy rubles on the forex market in order to maintain its value through artificial demand on a larger scale. The same week of the December 15 drop, the Russian central bank sold an additional $700 million in foreign currency reserves, in addition to the nearly $30 billion spent over previous months to stave off decline. Russia's reserves then sat at $420 billion, down from $510 billion in January 2014.
Second, increase interest rates dramatically. The central bank increased the key interest rate 650 basis points from 10.5 percent to 17 percent, the world's largest increase since 1998, when Russian rates soared past 100 percent and the government defaulted on its debt. The central bank hoped the higher rates would provide incentives to the forex market to maintain rubles.[46][47]
From February 12 to 19, 2015, the Russian central bank spent an additional $6.4 billion in reserves. Russian foreign reserves at this point stood at $368.3 billion, greatly below the central bank's initial forecast for 2015. Since the collapse in global oil prices in June 2014, Russian reserves have fallen by over $100 billion.[48]
As oil prices began to stabilize in February–March 2015, the ruble likewise stabilized. The Russian central bank has decreased the key rate from its high of 17 percent to its current 15 percent as of February 2015. Russian foreign reserves currently sit at $360 billion.[49][50]
In March and April 2015, with the stabilization of oil prices, the ruble has made a surge, which Russian authorities have deemed a "miracle". Over three months, the ruble gained 20 percent against the US dollar, and 35 percent against the euro. The ruble was the best performing currency of 2015 in the forex market. Despite being far from its pre-recession levels (in January 2014, 1 USD equaled roughly 33 Russian rubles), it is currently trading at roughly 52 rubles to 1 USD (an increase in value from 80 rubles to 1 USD in December 2014).[51]
Current Russian foreign reserves sit at $360 billion. In response to the ruble's surge, the Russian central bank lowered its key interest rate further to 14 percent in March 2015. The ruble's recent gains have been largely accredited to oil price stabilization and the calming of conflict in Ukraine.[52][53]
See also[edit]
Numismatics portal
Business and Economics portal
Open market operation
Quantitative Easing
United Kingdom's Exchange Equalisation Account
United States's Exchange Stabilization Fund
References[edit]
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White Heat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see White Heat (disambiguation).
White Heat
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Raoul Walsh
Produced by
Louis F. Edelman
Screenplay by
Ivan Goff
Ben Roberts
Based on
White Heat by Virginia Kellogg
Starring
James Cagney
Virginia Mayo
Edmond O'Brien
Margaret Wycherly
Steve Cochran
Music by
Max Steiner
Cinematography
Sidney Hickox
Edited by
Owen Marks
Distributed by
Warner Bros.
Release date
September 2, 1949 (1949-09-02)
Running time
114 minutes
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$1 million[1]
Box office
$1.9 million[2]
White Heat is a 1949 film noir directed by Raoul Walsh. It stars James Cagney, Virginia Mayo, Edmond O'Brien, Margaret Wycherly and Steve Cochran. Written by Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts, White Heat is based on a story by Virginia Kellogg, and is considered to be one of the best gangster movies of all time.[citation needed] In 2003, it was added to the National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Pre-production
3.1 Background
3.2 Writing
4 Production
4.1 Principal photography
5 Reception
6 Awards and honors
7 Cultural references
8 Notes
9 References
9.1 Further reading
10 External links
Plot[edit]
Arthur "Cody" Jarrett is a ruthless, psychotic criminal and leader of the Jarrett gang. Although married to Verna, he is overly attached to his equally crooked and determined mother, "Ma" Jarrett, his only true confidante.
Cody and his gang rob a mail train in the Sierra Nevada, resulting in the deaths of four members of the train crew. With the help of informants, the authorities close in on a motor court in Los Angeles where Cody, Verna and Ma are holed up. Cody shoots and wounds US Treasury investigator Philip Evans and makes his escape. He then comes up with a scheme: to confess to a lesser crime committed in Springfield, Illinois, which an associate committed at the same time as the train robbery, thus providing him with a false alibi. He turns himself in and is sent back to Illinois, where he receives a one to three-year sentence in state prison. This does not fool Evans, however, who plants undercover agent Hank Fallon (aka Vic Pardo) in Cody's cell in the Illinois State Penitentiary. His task is to find the "Trader", a fence who launders stolen money for Cody.
On the outside, "Big Ed" Somers, Cody's ambitious right-hand man, takes charge of the gang. Verna betrays Cody and joins Ed, feeling assured Cody will never make it out of prison because Big Ed has paid Roy Parker, an inmate, to kill Cody. In the prison workshop, Parker drops a heavy piece of machinery on Cody, but Hank pushes him out of the way, saving his life. Ma visits and vows to take care of Big Ed, despite Cody's frantic attempts to dissuade her. He starts worrying and decides to break out, but before he can, he learns of Ma's death and goes berserk in the mess hall, hitting a number of guards before being overpowered and dragged to the infirmary. He concocts a plan to escape by feigning a psychosis. In the infirmary, he's diagnosed as having a "homicidal psychosis" and is recommended for a transfer to an asylum.
Cody takes hostages and escapes, along with his cellmates, including Hank. He takes Parker along and later shoots him in cold blood. He then heads for California with his men. On hearing of Cody's escape, Big Ed anxiously awaits his arrival. Verna tries slipping away, but Cody catches her. Although Verna murdered Ma, she convinces Cody that Big Ed did it, so Cody guns him down. The gang welcome the escapees, including Hank, whom Cody likes and trusts.
A stranger shows up at the gang's isolated hideout, asking to use the phone. To Hank's surprise, Cody introduces the stranger as Daniel "The Trader" Winston. Cody plans to steal the payroll at a chemical plant in Long Beach, California, by using a large, empty tanker truck as a Trojan horse. Hank manages to get a message to Evans and an ambush is prepared. The gang get into the plant and makes their way to the payroll office, but as they begin to cut through the safe, the tanker's driver, "Bo" Creel, recognizes Hank as the man who arrested him four years prior.
The police surround the building and call on Cody to surrender, but Cody decides to fight it out. When the police fire tear gas into the office, Hank escapes. In the ensuing gun battle, the police kill most of Cody's gang. Cody shoots one of his men for trying to surrender. Verna, in a getaway car across from the plant, is arrested. She tries to barter with Evans for leniency, saying she can convince Cody to surrender, but Evans turns her down. Cody flees to the top of a gigantic, globe-shaped gas storage tank. After Hank shoots Cody several times with a rifle, Cody starts firing at the tank and shouts, "Made it, Ma! Top of the world!" Then the tank explodes.
Cast[edit]
Mayo and Cagney
James Cagney as Arthur "Cody" Jarrett[3][4]
Virginia Mayo as Verna Jarrett[3][4]
Edmond O'Brien as Hank Fallon, alias "Vic Pardo"[3][5]
Margaret Wycherly as "Ma" Jarrett[3][4]
Steve Cochran as "Big Ed" Somers[3][5]
John Archer as Philip Evans
Wally Cassell as "Cotton" Valletti
Fred Clark as Daniel "The Trader" Winston
Uncredited:
G. Pat Collins as "Reader" Curtin
Paul Guilfoyle as Roy Parker
Ian MacDonald as "Bo" Creel
Robert Osterloh as Tommy Ryley
Ford Rainey as "Zuckie" Hommel
Pre-production[edit]
Background[edit]
"I used to like to walk out on him, frankly, whenever my contract didn't suit me. I'd cuss him out in Yiddish, which I had learned from Jewish friends in my days at Stuyvesant High School. Drove him wild. 'What'd he say?!' he'd yell. 'What'd he just call me?!'"
— Cagney on his relationship with Jack Warner, Rolling Stone Magazine (1982).[6]
After winning an Oscar for Yankee Doodle Dandy, Cagney left Warner Brothers in 1942 to form his own production company with his business manager and brother, William. After making four unsuccessful movies (including the well-regarded, but "financially disastrous" adaptation of William Saroyan's The Time of Your Life),[5] Cagney returned to Warner in mid-1949.[4] His decision to return was purely financial; Cagney admitted he "needed the money,"[5] and that he never forgot the "hell" Warner put him through in the 1930s when it came to renewing his contract. Likewise, the last thing Jack Warner wanted to see was Cagney back on his lot; referring to him as "that little bastard",[4] he vowed to never take him back.[7] Cagney's new contract with Warner enabled him to make $250,000 per film on a schedule of one film per year, plus script approval and the opportunity to develop projects for his own company.[5]
To make good on his comeback, Cagney settled on the script for White Heat;[5] on May 6, 1949, he signed on to portray Arthur "Cody" Jarrett.[1] Much to Jack Warner's dismay, it was writers Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts who suggested him for the lead, claiming "there's only one man who can play [Jarrett] and make the rafters rock."[7] For years, Cagney resisted gangster roles in an effort to avoid typecasting, but decided to return to the genre after feeling his box office power waning.[5] Following Cagney's attachment, Warner increased the production budget to $1 million[1] and hired Raoul Walsh to direct. Walsh had previously worked with Cagney on The Roaring Twenties (in 1939) and The Strawberry Blonde (in 1941). However, Cagney was unhappy with the studio's decision to hire Walsh; in part, because he requested Frank McHugh be in the film, but Warner turned his friend down in an attempt to cut costs.[5]
Writing[edit]
Warner bought the rights to the story from Virginia Kellogg for $2,000.[1] Being "methodical craftsmen", it took Goff and Roberts six months to complete the first draft. They "would plot in complete detail before even beginning to write, then write their dialogue together, line by line."[7] When Walsh saw it, he pleaded with Cagney's brother, William, to talk Cagney out of doing the picture. According to him, the draft was "bad - a real potboiler," but William reassured Walsh that "Jimmy [would] rewrite it as much as possible."[8]
Cagney in the film's opening robbery scene
White Heat was meant to be based on the true story of Ma Barker, a bank robber who raised her four sons as criminals. However, this was changed along with Cagney's involvement; Ma Barker became Ma Jarrett, and her four children were reduced to one. Arthur Barker became Arthur "Cody" Jarrett, a psychopath with a mother fixation.[9][5] Cody's mental illness and the exact cause of his migraines remain a mystery throughout the film. This was done intentionally, enabling viewers to use their imaginations and draw their own conclusions.[5] In total, the script received several rewrites, with input being given from some of Cagney's closest friends. Humphrey Bogart and Frank McHugh worked "after hours" on revisions; with McHugh writing the film's opening scene.[8]
The script is notable for reworking many themes from Cagney's previous films with Warner. Most notably, in The Public Enemy, Cagney smashed a grapefruit into Mae Clarke's face; in White Heat he kicks Virginia Mayo off a chair. In Each Dawn I Die, his character suffers the ill effects of prison; while here, his character has a breakdown in the prison mess hall. Furthermore, in The Roaring Twenties Cagney fought with rival gangsters in a similar fashion to how Cody Jarrett stalks the double-crossing "Big Ed" Somers (portrayed by Steve Cochran).[5]
Production[edit]
Principal photography[edit]
Filming began on May 6, 1949 and lasted six weeks; until completion on June 20. Walsh made use of a number of locations in southern California; first by going to the Santa Susana Mountains (near his home) to shoot "chase scenes".[4] He then moved on to an old Southern Pacific tunnel near Chatsworth to stage the opening robbery scenes.[10] Urban street scenes along with the "Milbank Hotel" were shot in and around Van Nuys.[10] The "hideaway lodge sequences" were shot at the Warner ranch, the interior scenes in the studio itself, and the climax scene at an oil refinery near Torrance, south of Los Angeles on 198th Street and Figueroa.[4][10] The drive-in theater scenes were shot at the now demolished San Val Drive-In in Burbank.[11]
The prison mess hall scene was shot in under three hours, and involved 600 extras
Jack Warner wanted the prison mess hall scene replaced for budgetary reasons, stating the "cost of a single scene with 600 extras and only one line of dialogue would be exorbitant." For this reason, Warner wanted the scene shot in a chapel, but relented when "the writers pointed out that, apart from the fact that Jarrett would [never be willingly caught in a] chapel", the whole point of the scene was to "have a lot of noise, with rattling knives and forks and chatter, that suddenly goes completely silent when Jarrett first screams." The scream was improvised by Cagney, and the shock on everyone's face was real, for neither Cagney nor Walsh informed any of the extras of what was going to happen.[10] Warner agreed to the scene on the condition that it be shot in three hours, so "that the extras were through by lunchtime."[7]
A number of scenes were improvised; Walsh's "personal touches go beyond the script." When Cody and his gang hide out in their cabin just after the train heist, Cody has one of his "debilitating headaches", causing him to fall from his chair and fire off a round from his .45. This was Walsh's idea, as was the showing of Virginia Mayo's upper thigh on screen. Another scene involved Cody giving his wife, Verna, a "seething look", but Walsh improvised and had Cagney knock her off of her chair.[7] Cagney claimed it was his idea "to have Cody climb onto Ma Jarrett's lap and sit there; being soothed during one of his psychotic [episodes]", but Walsh has always denied this; claiming many years later that it was his idea.[12]
Reception[edit]
Critical reaction to the film was positive, and today it is considered a classic. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times called it "the acme of the gangster-prison film" and praised its "thermal intensity".[3]
This classic film anticipated the heist films of the early '50s (for example John Huston's 1950 The Asphalt Jungle and Stanley Kubrick's 1956 The Killing), accentuated the semi-documentary style of films of the period (the 1948 The Naked City), and contained film-noirish elements, including the shady black-and-white cinematography, the femme fatale character, and the twisted psyche of the criminal gangster.
—  Tim Dirks
White Heat was listed in Time magazine's top 100 films of all time. Based upon both contemporary and more recent film reviews, the film has a 100% "fresh" rating on film review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes.[13]
Awards and honors[edit]
In 1950, Virginia Kellogg was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Story, while Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts were nominated for the Edgar Award for Best Motion Picture. In 2003, the United States Library of Congress selected White Heat for preservation in the National Film Registry.[14]
List of awards and nominations
Date of ceremony
Award / Film festival
Category
Recipient(s) and nominee(s)
Result
Ref(s)
March 23, 1950
Academy Awards
Best Story Virginia Kellogg Nominated [15]
1950 (exact date unknown)
Edgar Awards
Best Motion Picture Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts Nominated [16]
On June 4, 2003, the American Film Institute named Cody Jarrett in its list of the best heroes and villains of the past 100 years.[N 1] Furthermore, in June 2005, "Made it, Ma! Top of the World!" was voted 18th in AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes;[18] while, in June 2008, White Heat was voted 4th in AFI's 10 Top 10 list of gangster movies.[19]
Cultural references[edit]
Scenes of the film are featured in the 1992 crime-drama film Juice as well as the 1982 Hart to Hart episode "Hart and Sole." In the noir parody Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid Steve Martin acts in scenes with Cagney's character through special effects and cross-cutting.
The "Made it ma, top of the world" line is used in the 1991 film Ricochet, in which Denzel Washington recites the quote in the final scene atop a tower. A variation of the quote appears in the 1986 movie Tough Guys during a scene in which Eli Wallach shoots at cops from a train. It has also been quoted in a fifth season episode of Cheers, a second season episode of Breaking Bad and the series finale of Mixels.
The film has inspired songs such as Madonna's "White Heat" on True Blue; the song was also dedicated to Cagney.[20] Sam Baker's "White Heat" references the plot and dialogue on his 2013 album Say Grace.[21] The film is also alluded to in E-40's "Back In Business" on his 2010 album Revenue Retrievin': Day Shift.
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Cody Jarrett was voted 26th.[17]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Nollen, chapter 15, page 1.
Jump up ^ "Top-Grossers of 1949", Variety, published January 4, 1950. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Crowther, Bosley. "James Cagney Back as Gangster in 'White Heat,' Thriller Now at the Strand", The New York Times, published September 3, 1949. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Moss, Ann Marilyn. Film Essay for White Heat, National Film Preservation Board, publishing date unknown. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k Eagan, pages 424-425.
Jump up ^ White, Timothy. "James Cagney: Looking Backward", Rolling Stone Magazine, published February 18, 1982. Retrieved July 29, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Vallance, Tom. "Obituary: Ivan Goff", The Independent, published September 27, 1999. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Moss, page 169.
Jump up ^ Hughes, chapter 4, page 4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Hughes, chapter 4, pages 5-6.
Jump up ^ Gabel, William. San Val Drive-In, Cinema Treasures, publishing date unknown. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ Moss, pages 192-195.
Jump up ^ "White Heat (1949)", Rotten Tomatoes, publishing date unknown. Retrieved August 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ Cannady, Sheryl. "Librarian of Congress Adds 25 Films to National Film Registry", Library of Congress, published December 16, 2003. Retrieved August 1, 2017.
Jump up ^ 22nd Academy Award Winners and Nominees, Academy Awards, first published March 23, 1950. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ 1950 Edgar Award Winners and Nominees for Best Motion Picture, Edgar Awards, published 1950. Retrieved July 31, 2017.
Jump up ^ "AFI's 100 YEARS...100 HEROES & VILLAINS", American Film Institute, published June 4, 2003. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ "AFI'S 100 YEARS...100 MOVIE QUOTES", American Film Institute, published June 21, 2005. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ "TOP 10 GANGSTER", American Film Institute, published June 17, 2008. Retrieved August 2, 2017.
Jump up ^ True Blue (Madonna album)#Background and development
Jump up ^ "white heat lyrics". Sam Baker. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
Further reading[edit]
Eagan, Daniel (2009). America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry. United States: Bloomsbury. ISBN 1441116478.
Hughes, Howard (2015). Crime Wave: The Filmgoers' Guide to Great Crime Movies. United States: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 0857730487.
Moss, Ann Marilyn (2011). Raoul Walsh: The True Adventures of Hollywood's Legendary Director. United States: University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 0813133947.
Nollen, Scott Allen (2007). Warners Wiseguys : All 112 Films That Robinson, Cagney and Bogart Made for the Studio. United States: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0786432624.
External links[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to: White Heat
Wikimedia Commons has media related to White Heat (film).
White Heat at the American Film Institute Catalog
White Heat on IMDb
White Heat at Rotten Tomatoes
[hide]
v
t
e
Films directed by Raoul Walsh
The Life of General Villa (1914)
Regeneration (1915)
Peer Gynt (1915)
Carmen (1915)
The Serpent (1916)
The Honor System (1917)
The Silent Lie (1917)
Betrayed (1917)
The Conqueror (1917)
The Pride of New York (1917)
The Prussian Cur (1918)
Every Mother's Son (1918)
Evangeline (1919)
The Deep Purple (1920)
Kindred of the Dust (1922)
Lost and Found on a South Sea Island (1923)
The Thief of Bagdad (1924)
East of Suez (1925)
The Spaniard (1925)
The Wanderer (1925)
The Lucky Lady (1926)
The Lady of the Harem (1926)
What Price Glory? (1926)
The Monkey Talks (1927)
The Loves of Carmen (1927)
Sadie Thompson (1928)
The Red Dance (1928)
Me, Gangster (1928)
The Cock-Eyed World (1929)
Hot for Paris (1929)
The Big Trail (1930)
The Man Who Came Back (1931)
Women of All Nations (1931)
The Yellow Ticket (1931)
Wild Girl (1932)
Me and My Gal (1932)
Sailor's Luck (1933)
Hello, Sister! (1933)
The Bowery (1933)
Going Hollywood (1933)
Under Pressure (1935)
Baby Face Harrington (1935)
Every Night at Eight (1935)
Klondike Annie (1936)
Big Brown Eyes (1936)
Spendthrift (1936)
Artists and Models (1937)
Hitting a New High (1937)
O.H.M.S. (1937)
Jump for Glory (1937)
College Swing (1938)
St. Louis Blues (1939)
The Roaring Twenties (1939)
Dark Command (1940)
They Drive by Night (1940)
High Sierra (1941)
The Strawberry Blonde (1941)
Manpower (1941)
They Died with Their Boots On (1941)
Desperate Journey (1942)
Gentleman Jim (1942)
Background to Danger (1943)
Northern Pursuit (1943)
Uncertain Glory (1944)
Objective, Burma! (1945)
Salty O'Rourke (1945)
The Horn Blows at Midnight (1945)
The Man I Love (1947)
Pursued (1947)
Cheyenne (1947)
Silver River (1948)
Fighter Squadron (1948)
One Sunday Afternoon (1948)
Colorado Territory (1949)
White Heat (1949)
Captain Horatio Hornblower (1951)
Along the Great Divide (1951)
Distant Drums (1951)
Glory Alley (1952)
The World in His Arms (1952)
Blackbeard the Pirate (1952)
The Lawless Breed (1953)
Sea Devils (1953)
A Lion Is in the Streets (1953)
Gun Fury (1953)
Saskatchewan (1954)
Battle Cry (1955)
The Tall Men (1955)
The Revolt of Mamie Stover (1956)
The King and Four Queens (1956)
Band of Angels (1957)
The Naked and the Dead (1958)
The Sheriff of Fractured Jaw (1958)
A Private's Affair (1959)
Esther and the King (1960)
Marines, Let's Go (1961)
A Distant Trumpet (1964)
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The Rifleman
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The Rifleman
Logo of The Rifleman, 1958
Genre
Western
Created by
Arnold Laven
Starring
Chuck Connors
Johnny Crawford
Paul Fix
Composer(s)
Herschel Burke Gilbert
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of seasons
5
No. of episodes
168 (list of episodes)
Production
Producer(s)
Levy-Gardner-Laven[1]
Arthur H. Nadel (associate)
Running time
25 minutes
Production company(s)
Four Star Productions
Distributor
Peter Rodgers Organization
Release
Original network
ABC
Picture format
Black-and-white
Audio format
Monaural
Original release
September 30, 1958 – April 8, 1963
Chronology
Related shows
Law of the Plainsman
External links
Website
The Rifleman was an American Western television program starring Chuck Connors as rancher Lucas McCain and Johnny Crawford as his son Mark McCain. It was set in the 1870s and 1880s in the fictional town of North Fork, New Mexico Territory. The show was filmed in black and white, in half-hour episodes. The Rifleman aired on ABC from September 30, 1958, to April 8, 1963, as a production of Four Star Television. It was one of the first prime time series on US television to show a single parent raising a child.
The program was titled to reflect McCain's use of a Winchester Model 1892 rifle, customized to allow repeated firing by cycling its lever action. He demonstrated this technique in the opening credits of every episode, as well as a second modification that allowed him to cycle the action with one hand.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Cast
2.1 Main
2.2 Recurring
2.3 Guest stars
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Opening credits
3.3 Rifle
3.4 Directing and writing
4 Reception
4.1 U.S. Nielsen ratings
5 Home media
6 Spin-offs and remakes
6.1 Law of the Plainsman (1959)
6.2 The Gambler Returns (1991)
6.3 2011 attempted remake
7 Merchandising
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Overview[edit]
Main article: List of The Rifleman episodes
Sammy Davis Jr., Johnny Crawford, and Chuck Connors in 1962.
The series centers on Lucas McCain, a Union Civil War veteran and widower. McCain had been a lieutenant in the 11th Indiana Infantry Regiment, and he had received a battlefield commission at the Battle of Five Forks just before the end of the war.[2] Having previously been a homesteader, McCain buys a ranch outside the fictitious town of North Fork, New Mexico Territory, in the pilot episode. He and his son Mark had come from Enid, Oklahoma, following the death of his wife when his son was six years old.[citation needed]
Beverly Englander and Chuck Connors in the 1961 episode "Lariat".
The series was set during the 1880s; a wooden plaque next to the McCain home states that the home was rebuilt by Lucas McCain and his son Mark in August 1881.[3]
A common thread in the series is that people deserve a second chance; Marshal Micah Torrance is a recovering alcoholic, and McCain gives a convict a job on his ranch in "The Marshal". Royal Dano appeared in "The Sheridan Story" as a former Confederate soldier who is given a job on the McCain ranch and encounters General Philip Sheridan, the man who cost him his arm in battle. Learning why the man wants him dead, Sheridan arranges for medical care for his wounded former foe, quoting Abraham Lincoln's last orders to "... bind up the nation's wounds".[4]
McCain has human flaws. In "Death Trap", an episode with Philip Carey as former gunman (and old adversary) Simon Battles, he is unwilling to believe the man has changed and become a doctor. It takes a gunfight (with Battles fighting alongside him) to make him admit he is wrong. In "Two Ounces Of Tin", with Sammy Davis Jr. as Tip Corey (a former circus trick-shot artist turned gunman), McCain angrily orders him off the ranch when he finds him demonstrating his skills to Mark. Corey suggests he is a hypocrite, because McCain has an equally deadly reputation in the Indian Territory of Oklahoma, where he first acquired the nickname "the Rifleman", and where his wife had died in a smallpox epidemic.[citation needed]
Cast[edit]
Main[edit]
Chuck Connors as Lucas McCain, a rancher, a Union Army veteran of the American Civil War, father, and widower
Johnny Crawford as Mark McCain, Lucas's son
Paul Fix as Micah Torrance, marshal of North Fork, New Mexico
Recurring[edit]
Bill Quinn as Frank Sweeney, the North Fork Saloon bartender
Patricia Blair as Mallory House hotel owner Lou Mallory
Joe Higgins as blacksmith Nels Swenson
Harlan Warde as banker John Hamilton
Joan Taylor as general store owner Milly Scott
Hope Summers as general store owner Hattie Denton
John Harmon as hotel clerk Eddie Halstead
Seven actors played the town doctor during the series (usually known as "Doc Burrage"): Edgar Buchanan, Fay Roope, Rhys Williams, Jack Kruschen, Robert Burton, Ralph Moody and Bert Stevens. Several actors also played blacksmith Nels Swenson.
Guest stars[edit]
More than 500 actors made guest appearances in more than 970 credited roles during the five-year run of the series.[5] Guest stars included veteran actors: John Anderson, Richard Anderson, Whit Bissell, John Carradine, Lon Chaney, Jr., Ellen Corby, Sammy Davis, Jr., John Dehner, Jack Elam, Med Flory, Dabbs Greer, Rodolfo Hoyos, Jr., L.Q. Jones, John Milford, Rex Holman, Agnes Moorehead, Denver Pyle, Lee Van Cleef, and Adam West, most appearing multiple times in different roles. Several then-newcomers also appeared in the series, including Claude Akins, James Coburn (credited as "Jim") Mark Goddard, Dan Blocker, Dennis Hopper, Michael Landon, Warren Oates, Harry Dean Stanton, Robert Vaughn, Robert Culp, Martin Landau, and Richard Kiel. Notable people in other fields also made cameo appearances such as future baseball Hall of Famers Duke Snider and Don Drysdale, comedian Buddy Hackett and writer, director and producer Paul Mazursky.[5]
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
The series was created by Arnold Laven and developed by Sam Peckinpah, who would become a director of Western movies. Peckinpah, who wrote and directed many early episodes, based many characters and plots on his own childhood on a ranch. His insistence on violent realism and complex characterizations, as well as his refusal to sugarcoat the lessons he felt the Rifleman's son needed to learn about life, put him at odds with the show's producers at Four Star. Peckinpah left the show and created a short-lived series, The Westerner, with Brian Keith.[citation needed]
Opening credits[edit]
The opening theme at the beginning of each episode depicted McCain walking down the street of a town while rapid-firing his Winchester 44-40 1892 model rifle that had been modified at the trigger and lever. The rifle's modification allowed McCain to fire the rifle only by hand pumping the lever, which had a pin imbedded in it to trip the weapon's trigger.[6] At various points during the series, episodes would show McCain deftly handling and shooting the rifle ambidextrously.[7]
Rifle[edit]
Westerns were popular when The Rifleman premiered, and producers tried to find gimmicks to distinguish one show from another. The Rifleman's gimmick was a modified Winchester Model 1892 rifle, with a large ring lever drilled and tapped for a set screw. The lever design allowed him to cock the rifle by spinning it around his hand. In addition, the screw could be positioned to depress the trigger every time he worked the lever, allowing for rapid fire, emptying the magazine in under five seconds during the opening credits on North Fork's main street.
The trigger-trip screw pin was used in two configurations: with the screw head turned inside (close to the trigger) or, more often, outside the trigger guard with a locknut on the outside (to secure its position). In some episodes, the screw was removed, when rapid-fire action was not required. When properly adjusted, the screw “squeezed” the trigger when the lever was fully closed. The rapid-fire mechanism was originally designed to keep Connors from puncturing his finger with the trigger as he quickly cycled the action of the rifle. With this modification, it was not necessary for Connors to pull the trigger for each shot and therefore he did not have to place his finger in harm's way.
The rifle may have appeared in every episode, but it was not always fired; some plots did not require violent solutions (for example, one involving Mark's rigid new teacher). McCain attempts to solve as many problems as possible without resorting to shooting, yet still manages to kill 120 villains over the show's five-year run. It is notable that McCain almost never carried a pistol.
The rifle was an anachronism, as the show was set 12 years before John Browning designed any such rifle.
The rifle used on the set of The Rifleman, an 1892 Winchester caliber .44-40 carbine with a standard 20-inch barrel, appeared with two different types of lever. The backwards, round-D-style loop was used in the early episodes. Sometimes the rifle McCain uses has a saddle ring (the purpose of this ring is to allow a mounted soldier to carry the rifle via a sling over the opposite shoulder, keeping the rifle at the ready while his hands are free to hold the reins). The lever style later changed to a flatter lever (instead of the large loop) with no saddle ring.
McCain fires 12 shots from his rifle during the opening credits: seven shots in the first close-up and five more as the camera switches to another view. The blank cartridges are shorter than standard cartridges, so the magazine will hold more of the blanks. The soundtrack contained a dubbed 13th shot, to allow the firing to end with a section of the theme music. The rifle was chambered for the .44/40 W.C.F. (Winchester Center Fire) cartridge, which was used in both revolvers and rifles.[8] He could supposedly fire off his first round in three-tenths of a second, which certainly helped in a showdown.
Rifle replica
Gunsmith James S. Stembridge modified two Model 1892s for use in regular and close-up filming.[9] In addition, a Spanish-made Gárate y Anitúa "El Tigre" lever action, a near-copy of the Model 1892, was modified for use as a knockabout gun. The El Tigre is seen in scenes where the rifle is in a saddle scabbard and is not drawn; and in stunts where the rifle was thrown to the ground, used as a club, or in any stunt where there was the possibility of damage to the original Winchester 1892s.[10] These three rifles were the only ones used by Connors during the run of the series.
The now-defunct Stembridge Gunsmiths provided the rifles and ammunition. Ammunition was quarter-load 5-in-1 blank cartridges containing smokeless powder, which did not produce the thick clouds of smoke the genuine black powder cartridges of the 1880s did. Most (if not all) of the sound effects for the rifle shots were dubbed, which is why the rifle sounded so different from the other gunshots on the show.
The 1892 Winchester is a top-eject rifle (opening the action by pushing the finger-lever forward moves the bolt rearward and thereby opens the top of the receiver). Loaded rounds or empty cases from the chamber eject straight up when the lever is pushed fully open (forward). When Connors cycled the action by spinning the rifle to his side, the cartridge in the action could fall out. Therefore, the rifle was modified with a plunger, which would hold the round in place.
The Winchester Model 1892 rifle was designed by John Moses Browning and, other than general appearance, it has nothing in common with earlier lever-action rifles using the same class of cartridges. The significant improvement was the addition of vertical lugs that securely lock the bolt and receiver when the gun fires. Winchester originally produced this gun from 1892 to 1941; total production was slightly over 1,000,000. 27 variations in five chamberings were made over the course of production, but the basic design was largely unaltered. As with the earlier Model 1873, the light and handy Model 1892 was chambered for handgun cartridges, favored by many Westerners to simplify ammunition supply problems by using the same cartridge in both a handgun and a rifle. The Model 1892 was replaced by the Browning-designed Model 1894, which also had an impressive manufacturing history, with over 7,000,000 produced; it is still being produced to this day by a successor to Winchester. The Model 94's popularity and long production history may be related to its being the first Winchester to be designed for the then-new "smokeless" powder.
Directing and writing[edit]
The pilot episode, "The Sharpshooter", was originally telecast on CBS as part of Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre on March 7, 1958; it was repeated (in edited form) as the first episode of the series on ABC. The episode was written by Sam Peckinpah, and guest starred Dennis Hopper.
Regulars on the program included Marshal Micah Torrance (R. G. Armstrong was the original marshal for two episodes, the first and the fourth), Sweeney the bartender (Bill Quinn), and a half-dozen other residents of North Fork (played by Hope Summers, Joan Taylor, Patricia Blair, John Harmon, and Harlan Warde).
Fifty-one episodes of the series were directed by Joseph H. Lewis (director of 1950s Gun Crazy and known for his film noir style). Ida Lupino directed one episode, "The Assault".
Connors wrote several episodes. Robert Culp (of CBS's Trackdown, another Four Star-produced series), wrote one two-part episode, and Frank Gilroy wrote "End of a Young Gun".[citation needed]
Reception[edit]
U.S. Nielsen ratings[edit]
Season
Episodes
Originally aired
Rank
Rating
Season premiere
Season finale
1 40 September 30, 1958 (1958-09-30) June 30, 1959 (1959-06-30) 4 33.1[11]
2 36 September 29, 1959 (1959-09-29) May 31, 1960 (1960-05-31) 13 27.5[11]
3 34 September 27, 1960 (1960-09-27) May 16, 1961 (1961-05-16) 27 22.1[11]
4 32 October 2, 1961 (1961-10-02) May 7, 1962 (1962-05-07) 28 22.3[11]
5 26 October 1, 1962 (1962-10-01) April 8, 1963 (1963-04-08) Not in the Top 30[11]
Home media[edit]
MPI Home Video has released The Rifleman on DVD in Region 1 in a number of versions. It has released single-disc DVDs with five episodes; from 2002–2006 it released six sets, each with 20 episodes. The releases are random collections of episodes, rather than the original broadcast order. These releases are out of print, since MPI Home Video no longer owns the rights to the series. Levy-Gardner-Laven Productions, the original producer, is again the sole copyright owner of The Rifleman series.[12]
In late 2013, Levy-Gardner-Laven Productions, Inc. announced it would be the only authorized outlet to offer for the very first time all 168 episodes of The Rifleman, the original series, newly restored and assembled in DVD box sets. The episodes will be released in sequential order, by season, in high quality boxed sets with exclusive special features. The first boxed set of all Season 1 episodes were made available on December 4, 2013 for $69.95.[13] The second season was released on November 28, 2014.[14] Season 3 was released on December 2, 2015.[15] Season 4 was released on December 4, 2016.[16][17] Season 5 was released on November 27, 2017.[18]
DVD Name
Ep #
Release Date
The Complete First Season 40 December 4, 2013
The Complete Second Season 36 November 28, 2014
The Complete Third Season 34 December 2, 2015
The Complete Fourth Season 32 December 4, 2016
The Complete Fifth Season 26 November 27, 2017
Spin-offs and remakes[edit]
Law of the Plainsman (1959)[edit]
The February 17, 1959 episode of The Rifleman was a pilot for an NBC series, Law of the Plainsman, starring Michael Ansara as Marshal Sam Buckhart. In the episode "The Indian", Buckhart comes to North Fork to look for Indians suspected of murdering a Texas Ranger and his family.[19] He subsequently reappeared in "The Raid".
The Gambler Returns (1991)[edit]
Chuck Connors briefly played the same character again in 1991's The Gambler Returns: The Luck of the Draw, which featured a number of 1950s and 1960s television Western series leads reprising their roles in quick cameo appearances (Gene Barry as Bat Masterson, Hugh O'Brian as Wyatt Earp, Jack Kelly as Bart Maverick, Clint Walker as Cheyenne Bodie, David Carradine as Kung Fu's Caine).
2011 attempted remake[edit]
In late 2011, CBS announced plans to remake the original Rifleman series.[20] Chris Columbus was slated to be the executive producer and direct, with Robert Levy, Steven Gardner, and Arthur Gardner (related to original producers Levy-Gardner-Laven) as executive producers.[21] The remake project was canceled a few months later, without a pilot episode being made.[22]
Merchandising[edit]
The TV show was also adapted into a comic book by Dan Spiegle, distributed by Dell Comics.[23]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ In those episodes which Laven received director credit, the producers are credited as Levy and Gardner, only, as simultaneous producer and director credit was not then allowed.
Jump up ^ Hume, Cyril. The Rifleman, Episode 1/16, first aired January 13, 1959
Jump up ^ The Wyoming Story part 1 & 2 (season 3)
Jump up ^ Sheridan is quoting Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address, specifically the final paragraph: "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations."
^ Jump up to: a b Thoresen, Lisbet. "The Rifleman - Guest Stars". therifleman.net. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Michael Piccione (July 12, 2012). "The Rifleman's Winchester and Little Joe Cartwright's Colt go up for auction". Daily Caller. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ Mike DiMuzio (April 22, 2008). "The Rifleman's Rifle". tv.com. Retrieved March 19, 2016.
Jump up ^ The Legendary Rifle: A Closer Look
Jump up ^ http://www.northforkproduction.com/theriflemanchuckconnors/
Jump up ^ http://www.riflemanconnors.com/Rifle/Ed/ed3.html
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Thoresen. "The Rifleman - Program History". therifleman.net. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ http://www.therifleman.net/general-merchandise/
Jump up ^ Official 'Season 1' AVAILABLE TODAY! Cost, Extras, Packaging
Jump up ^ Release Date for 'The Official Season 2: Episodes 41 – 76' on DVD
Jump up ^ New Date, Cost, Details, Cover Art for 'The Official Season 3: Episodes 77 - 110'
Jump up ^ Chuck Connors Stars in the Next-to-Last Season...on DVD Soon!
Jump up ^ The Rifleman - 'Season 4' Pre-Orders TOMORROW...Ship Date Announced! The next-to-last season of the legendary Chuck Connors show ships in 2 weeks!
Jump up ^ The Rifleman - Release Date Announced for 'The Official Season 5: Episodes 143-168'...The Final Season! Available for pre-order on Thanksgiving day, and shipping on Cyber Monday...exclusively from TheRifleman.net!
Jump up ^ The Rifleman Episode Guide List
Jump up ^ Littleton, Cynthia (November 8, 2011). "CBS developing 'Rifleman' remake". Variety. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Hank, Melissa (November 10, 2011). "'The Rifleman' remake on the way". TV Guide. Retrieved August 10, 2012.
Jump up ^ Andreeva, Nellie (August 21, 2012). "David Mamet to Reboot 'Have Gun - Will Travel' for CBS". Deadline.com. Retrieved April 29, 2013.
Jump up ^ https://www.lambiek.net/artists/s/spiegle_d.htm
Further reading[edit]
Christopher Sharrett, The Rifleman (TV Milestones Series), Wayne State University Press, 2005
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Rifleman.
Official website
The Rifleman on IMDb
The Rifleman at TV.com
The Rifleman at epguides.com
The Rifleman's Rifle
The Rifleman's Rifle demonstration on YouTube.com
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Rifleman&oldid=837616878"
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value: ذا ريفلمان – Arabic

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