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Zara (retailer)
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Zara España, S.A.
Type
Sociedad Anónima
Industry
Retail
Founded
Arteixo, Galicia
(24 May 1974; 43 years ago (1974-05-24))
Founder
Amancio Ortega
Headquarters
Arteixo, Galicia
Number of locations
2266 stores [1]
Area served
Worldwide
Products
Clothing
Revenue
US$15.9 billion (2016)[2]
Parent
Inditex
Website
zara.com
Zara (Spanish: [ˈθaɾa]) is a Galician fast fashion[3] (clothing and accessories) retailer based in Arteixo, Galicia. The company was founded in 1975 by Amancio Ortega and Rosalía Mera. It is the main brand of the Inditex group,[4] the world's largest apparel retailer. The fashion group also owns brands such as Massimo Dutti, Pull&Bear, Bershka, Stradivarius, Oysho, Zara Home, and Uterqüe. Zara as of 2017 manages up to 20 clothing collections a year.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Early history
1.2 Expansion
2 Products
3 Manufacturing and distribution
3.1 Non-toxic clothing
4 Controversy
5 Stores
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
Early history[edit]
Amancio Ortega opened the first Zara store in 1975 in downtown A Coruña, Galicia, Spain. Ortega initially named the store Zorba after the classic film Zorba the Greek, but after learning there was a bar with the same name two blocks away, they rearranged the letters molded for the sign to 'Zara.' It is believed the extra 'a' came from an additional set of letters that had been made for the company.[6][7] The first store featured low-priced lookalike products of popular, higher-end clothing fashions. Ortega opened additional stores throughout Spain. During the 1980s, Ortega changed the design, manufacturing, and distribution process to reduce lead times and react to new trends in a quicker way, which he called "instant fashions". The improvements included the use of information technologies and using groups of designers instead of individuals.
Zara's previous logo
Expansion[edit]
In 1988, the company started its international expansion through Porto, Portugal.[8] In 1989, it entered the United States, and then France in 1990.[9] During the 1990s, Zara expanded to Mexico (1992),[10] Greece, Belgium and Sweden (1993). In the early 2000s, Zara opened its first stores in Japan and Singapore (2002), Russia and Malaysia (2003),[11][12][13] China,[14] Morocco,[15] Estonia,[16] Hungary[17] and Romania (2004),[18] the Philippines,[12] Costa Rica[19] and Indonesia (2005),[20] South Korea (2008),[21] India (2010),[22] and South Africa and Australia (2011).[23][24]
On September 2010, Zara launched its online boutique. The website began in Spain, the UK, Portugal, Italy, Germany and France.[25] In November that same year, Zara Online extended the service to five more countries: Austria, Ireland, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.[26] Online stores began operating in the United States in 2011,[27] Russia and Canada in 2013,[28][29][30] and Mexico,[31] Romania,[32] and South Korea in 2014.[33][34] .India In 4 october 2017. Zara introduced the use of RFID technology in its stores in 2014. The RFID chips are located in the security tags which are removed from clothing when it is purchased and can be reused. The chip allows the company to quickly take inventory by detecting radio signals from the RFID tags. When an item is sold, the stockroom is immediately notified so that the item can be replaced. An item that is not on the shelf can easily be found with the RFID tag.[35]
In 2015, Zara was ranked 30 on Interbrand's list of best global brands.[36]
Products[edit]
Zara stores have men's and women's clothing, as well as children's clothing (Zara Kids). Zara's products are supplied based on consumer trends. Its highly responsive supply chain ships new products to stores twice a week. After products are designed, they take ten to fifteen days to reach the stores.[37] All of the clothing is processed through the distribution center in Spain. New items are inspected, sorted, tagged, and loaded into trucks. In most cases, the clothing is delivered within 48 hours. Zara produces over 450 million items per year.[38]
Manufacturing and distribution[edit]
Zara Almere - Heren
The men's department of a typical Zara store. Almere, Netherlands
Zara clothing made in Portugal
Zara store in New York City.
Zara store in Brisbane
Zara store in Palma de Mallorca (Spain).
Zara store in Brussels (Belgium).
Reportedly, Zara needs just one week to develop a new product and get it to stores, compared to the six-month industry average, and launches around 12,000 new designs each year.[39] Zara has a policy of zero advertising;[6] the company preferred to invest a percentage of revenues in opening new stores instead.[40]
Zara set up its own factory in La Coruña (a city known for its textile industry) in 1980, and upgraded to reverse milk-run-type production and distribution facilities in 1990. This approach, designed by Toyota Motor Corp., was called the just-in-time (JIT) system. It enabled the company to establish a business model that allows self-containment throughout the stages of materials, manufacture, product completion and distribution to stores worldwide within just a few days.[41]
Most of the products Zara sells are manufactured in proximity countries like Spain, Portugal, Turkey and Morocco.[6][42] While some competitors outsource all production to Asia, Zara manufactures its most fashionable items—half of all its merchandise—at a dozen company-owned factories in Spain and Portugal and Turkey, particularly in Galicia and northern Portugal and Turkey. Clothes with a longer shelf life, such as basic T-shirts, are outsourced to low-cost suppliers, mainly in Asia.[43]
The company can design a new product and have finished goods in its stores in four to five weeks; it can modify existing items in as little as two weeks. Shortening the product life cycle means greater success in meeting consumer preferences.[44] If a design does not sell well within a week, it is withdrawn from shops, further orders are canceled and a new design is pursued. Zara monitors customers' fashion changes.[45] Zara has a range of basic designs that are carried over from year to year, but some fashion forward designs can stay on the shelves less than four weeks, which encourages Zara fans to make repeat visits. An average high-street store in Spain expects customers to visit three times a year. That goes up to 17 times for Zara.[46]
Non-toxic clothing[edit]
In 2011, Greenpeace started a dialog with Zara to ban harmful toxins from the clothing production.[47] Greenpeace published its "Toxic threads: the big fashion stitch-up" report in November 2012 as part of its Detox Campaign identifying companies that use harmful toxins in their manufacturing processes.[48] Nine days after the report was published, Zara committed to eradicating all releases of hazardous chemicals throughout its entire supply chain and products by 2020.[49] Zara became the biggest retailer in the world to raise awareness for the Detox Campaign,[50] and switched to a fully toxic-free production.[47]
Controversy[edit]
In 2007, Zara withdrew a handbag from their shelves after a customer noticed a swastika on the bag's design. The bag came from an external supplier and Zara said the symbol was not visible when the handbag was chosen. Zara spokesman Susan Suett said that if they had noticed the handbag featured the symbol, they would not have sourced it. Once informed of the swastika symbol, they immediately withdrew the item from their shelves.[51]
In 2009, there was an email rumor claiming that Zara "has been openly anti-Semitic for a long time" and contained a picture of the handbag that featured a swastika symbol in 2007. The Anti-Defamation League addressed the email and said Zara is not anti-semitic and the incident involving the bag was remedied by removing the bag from their shelves. The handbag was produced by an India-based supplier and the swastika is a religious symbol for Hindus and Buddhists that represents the sun, strength, and good luck.[52]
In August 2011, a Brazilian television show accused the company of using suppliers who were running sweatshops for their outsourced production. The Regional Superintendency of Labour and Employment of São Paulo, Brazil, closed a factory that produced Zara's clothing for its poor labour conditions.[53] Zara’s representatives said that the accusations of slave labour made against the retailer represent a breach of the code of conduct for workshops of Inditex. The company also states that all factories responsible for unauthorized outsourcing have been asked to regularize immediately the situation of the workers involved.[54]
In August 2014, Zara received criticism for selling a toddler T-shirt for closely resembling uniforms worn by Jewish concentration camp inmates. The T-shirt was striped and featured a yellow star similar to the Star of David. Zara said that the design of the shirt was inspired by "the sheriff's stars from the classic western films." After being on sale for a few short hours, Zara immediately removed the shirt and apologized.[55] Zara received heavy criticism for selling the T-shirt in Israel because Israel does not have sheriffs. Additionally, the word "Sheriff" is outlined in transparent letters on the bright yellow star.[55] The Anti-Defamation League responded to the shirt saying it was offensive but welcomed Zara's recognition of the potential imagery and removing the shirt from sale.[56]
In July 2016, complaints were made against Zara that they had been stealing designs from multiple independent designers for their products. One of the designers, Tuesday Bassen, who previously worked with brands like Urban Outfitters and Nike, got in touch with Zara, and received a response from Zara that claimed that Bassen's designs were not distinctive enough, and that they received only a handful of complaints given the large volume of traffic they receive on their site. When the news was eventually picked up by media outlets, and Inditex, Zara's owning company, was asked to comment on the issue, Inditex replied that the items in question have been suspended from sale, and that they are in contact with Bassen's lawyer to clarify and address the issue.[57][58]
In November 2017, customers shopping at Zara stores in Istanbul, Turkey found handwritten notes purportedly from Turkish workers in the pockets of in-store garments asking shoppers to pressure Zara into paying them the wages they claim they are owed.[59]
Stores[edit]
There are over 2,100 Zara stores located across 88 countries.[60][61] Zara usually selects the best located and most expensive real estate locations in the world to open its flagship stores. Zara‘s flagship stores:
Fifth Avenue, New York
Oxford Street, London
Calle Serrano, Madrid
Via del Corso, Rome
Champs-Élysées, Paris
Oscar Freire Street, Sao Paulo
Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Milan
Nevsky Prospect, Saint Petersburg
Shibuya and Ginza, Tokyo
Myeongdong in Seoul
Flora Fountain in Mumbai
The number of Zara stores in each country, as of 31 November 2017:[62][63]
Africa
South Africa: 9
Egypt: 5
Morocco: 4
Tunisia: 3
Algeria: 1
Americas
United States: 85
Mexico: 84
Brazil: 56
Canada: 32
Colombia: 14
Argentina: 10
Chile: 9
Venezuela: 8
Peru: 4
Puerto Rico: 4
Dominican Republic: 3
Guatemala: 3
Panama: 3
Costa Rica: 2
Ecuador: 2
El Salvador: 2
Honduras: 2
Uruguay: 2
Aruba: 1
Nicaragua: 1
Paraguay: 1
Asia
China: 200
Japan: 99
South Korea: 43
Saudi Arabia: 39
Israel: 24
India: 20
Indonesia: 17
Hong Kong: 14
Thailand: 11
United Arab Emirates: 11
Malaysia: 10
Singapore: 9
Taiwan: 9
Philippines: 8
Lebanon: 7
Kazakhstan: 5
Kuwait: 5
Qatar: 5
Jordan: 3
Bahrain: 2
Macau: 2
Oman: 1
Vietnam: 1
Europe
Spain: 430
France: 128
Italy: 104
Russia: 100
Portugal: 87
Germany: 77
United Kingdom: 64
Poland: 47
Greece: 46
Turkey: 41
Belgium: 31
Netherlands: 28
Romania: 24
Switzerland: 20
Austria: 14
Sweden: 12
Croatia: 10
Ireland: 9
Ukraine: 9
Hungary: 8
Bulgaria: 6
Cyprus: 6
Czech Republic: 6
Finland: 5
Lithuania: 5
Norway: 5
Serbia: 5
Slovenia: 5
Denmark: 4
Latvia: 4
Estonia: 3
Azerbaijan: 3
Bosnia and Herzegovina: 3
Georgia: 3
Luxembourg: 3
Slovakia: 3
Armenia: 2
Albania: 1
Andorra: 1
Belarus: 1
Iceland: 1
Macedonia: 1
Malta: 1
Monaco: 1
Montenegro: 1
Oceania
Australia: 19
New Zealand: 1
See also[edit]
Spain portal
Companies portal
Fashion portal
Bonds (clothing)
Gap Inc.
H&M
List of companies of Spain
European Retail Round Table
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Zara". inditex.com.
Jump up ^ https://www.forbes.com/companies/zara/
Jump up ^ http://www.businessinsider.de/fast-fashion-is-getting-faster-2017-5?r=US&IR=T
Jump up ^ "Global stretch". The Economist. 10 March 2011. Retrieved 5 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Looking good can be extremely bad for the planet". The Economist. Retrieved 2017-04-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hansen, Suzy (9 November 2012). "How Zara Grew Into the World's Largest Fashion Retailer". The New York Times. p. 2.
Jump up ^ How Zara became the world's biggest fashion retailer. Graham Ruddick. 20 October 2014. Telegraph. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ Spanish domination – Zara brand profile
Jump up ^ "Why high street giant Zara always gets it right". Irish Independent. 29 October 2015.
Jump up ^ "Fashion invasion". The Economist. 8 December 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Kreknina, Aleksandra (25 October 2012). "Zara plans to open over 50 shops in Russia every year". Russia Beyond The Headlines. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b John Dawson; Roy Larke; Masao Mukoyama (21 August 2006). Strategic Issues in International Retailing. Routledge. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
Jump up ^ Robert D. Hisrich; Claudine Kearney (25 June 2013). Managing Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Sage Publications.
Jump up ^ "Zara takes a cautious step into China". Just-Style. 6 September 2004. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Robb Young (5 November 2013). "In North Africa, a Story of Morocco and the Rest". Business of Fashion. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara opens in the Baltic republics by opening a store in Estonia". El Pais. 17 August 2004. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Milestones in Hungary's fashion life". Property Magazine. 11 October 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara launches online shop in Romania". Romania Insider. 1 April 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara Opens in Costa Rica". Inside Costa Rica. 16 May 2005. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Mitra Adiperkasa offers everything, from Zara to Starbucks". The Jakarta Post. 24 April 2005. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Spains Zara Opens First Store in Korea". The Korea Times. 29 April 2008. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Fashion chain Zara opens its first Indian store". BBC. 31 May 2010. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Emma Jordan (19 January 2011). "Zara to Open in South Africa". iFashion. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Global phenomenon Zara finally opens in Sydney". Vogue. 19 April 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara launches online boutique". fashionunited.com. 6 September 2010. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
Jump up ^ "Zara.com launches in 5 more countries". Retrieved 30 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Inditex post record profits". Retrieved 30 May 2015.
Jump up ^ "Zara's Secret To Success: The New Science Of Retailing". Forbes. 14 October 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Mary Kim (12 February 2013). "Zara To Launch Canadian Online Story". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Michelle Reddick (5 March 2013). "Zara launches online shopping in Canada". Toronto Life. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Katie Evans (10 September 2014). "Zara sells online in Mexico". Internet Retailer. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara launches online store in Romania". Ecommerce News. 28 March 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara launches online in South Korea". Inside Retail. 7 October 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Inditex: Zara to launch online platforms in South Korea and Mexico". Evigo. 12 December 2013. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Bjork, Christopher (16 September 2014). "Zara Builds Its Business Around RFID". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Zara". Interbrand. Retrieved 9 June 2016.
Jump up ^ The Future of Fashion Retailing: The Zara Approach 25 October 2012. Greg Petro. Forbes. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ Zara's Fast-Fashion Edge. Susan Berfield and Manuel Baigorri. 14 November 2013. Bloomberg. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ Burgen, Stephen. "Fashion chain Zara helps Inditex lift first quarter profits by 30%``". The Guardian. The Guardian. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Zara's Big Idea: What the World's Top Fashion Retailer Tells Us About Innovation. Derek Thompson. 13 November 2012. The Atlantic. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ Kojima, Kensuke (2011). Uniqlo Syndrome. Japan: Tenkai. ASIN B004PYDPOK. ISBN 4-492-76191-8.
Jump up ^ The 5 ingredients of Zara's success. Bibby Sowray. 11 December 2015. Telegraph. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ Fashion Conquistador Businessweek
Jump up ^ [1] Executive Masters in International Logistics at Georgia Tech
Jump up ^ Friedman, Thomas (2006). The World is Flat. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-374-29279-9.
Jump up ^ Roux, Caroline (28 October 2002). "The reign of Spain". The Guardian. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "People! Zara commits to go toxic-free". Greenpeace.org. 29 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Toxic threads: the big fashion stitch-up" (PDF). Greenpeace.org. 20 November 2012. pp. 15, 24.
Jump up ^ Alice Newbold (1 December 2012). "Zara Just Caved To Greenpeace And Agreed To Stop Using Toxic Chemicals". Business Insider. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Greenpeace voert actie bij Zara tegen giftige kleding". De Morgen (in Dutch). 24 November 2012.
Jump up ^ "Zara withdraws swastika handbags". BBC.co.uk. British Broadcasting Corporation. 19 September 2007. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ "Spanish Fashion Store Zara Not 'Anti-Semetic'". ADL.org. Anti-Defamation League. 30 September 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Guerra, Carolina (17 August 2011). "Marca Zara está envolvida em denúncia de trabalho escravo". VEJA (in Portuguese). Retrieved 22 June 2014.
Jump up ^ Antunes, Anderson (17 August 2011). "Zara Accused Of Alleged 'Slave Labor' In Brazil". Forbes.
^ Jump up to: a b Kaufman, Alexander (27 August 2014). "Zara Apologizes for Pajamas That Look Just Like A Concentration Camp Uniform". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ Grinberg, Emanuella (28 August 2014). "Retailer pulls shirts reminiscent of Holocaust". CNN.com. Cable News Network. Retrieved 25 April 2015.
Jump up ^ http://jezebel.com/zara-copies-indie-artists-work-then-says-shes-not-famo-1783970547
Jump up ^ Addady, Michal (20 July 2016). "12 Artists Are Accusing Zara of Stealing Their Designs". Fortune. Retrieved 4 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Young, Sarah (November 5, 2017). "Unpaid laborers are 'slipping pleas for help into Zara clothes". The Independent. Retrieved November 5, 2017.
Jump up ^ How Zara became the world's biggest fashion retailer. 20 October 2014. Graham Ruddick. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ Zara new season styles: what to buy at the Spanish giant right now. Linda Sharkey. 29 May 2015. Independent. accessed 5 April 2016
Jump up ^ "Presencia internacional". inditex.com. 30 April 2015. Retrieved 9 September 2015.
Jump up ^ "Localizador de tiendas" (in Spanish). Zara.com. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
External links[edit]
Official website
Media related to Zara (clothing) at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zara_(retailer)&oldid=819154896"
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Council of Jerusalem
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This article is about the first century Council of early Christianity. For other uses, see Jerusalem Council.
Council of Jerusalem
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Controversy of circumcision and the validity of the Law of Moses.
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James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15:19–29, c. 78 AD: "we should write to them [Gentiles] to abstain only from things polluted by idols and from fornication and from whatever has been strangled and from blood..." (NRSV)
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The Council of Jerusalem or Apostolic Council was held in Jerusalem around AD 50. It is unique among the ancient pre-ecumenical councils in that it is considered by Catholics and Orthodox to be a prototype and forerunner of the later ecumenical councils and a key part of Christian ethics. The council decided that Gentile converts to Christianity were not obligated to keep most of the Law of Moses, including the rules concerning circumcision of males. The Council did, however, retain the prohibitions on eating blood, meat containing blood, and meat of animals not properly slain, and on fornication and idolatry, sometimes referred to as the Apostolic Decree or Jerusalem Quadrilateral.
Accounts of the council are found in Acts of the Apostles chapter 15 (in two different forms, the Alexandrian and Western versions) and also possibly in Paul's letter to the Galatians chapter 2.[1] Some scholars dispute that Galatians 2 is about the Council of Jerusalem (notably because Galatians 2 describes a private meeting) while other scholars dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical background
2 Issues and outcome
3 Historicity
4 Interpreting the Council's decision
4.1 Modern interpretation
4.1.1 Circumcision
5 See also
6 Footnotes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links
Historical background[edit]
See also: Biblical law in Christianity § History and background, and Circumcision controversy in early Christianity § Jewish background
The Council of Jerusalem is generally dated to 48 AD, roughly 15 to 25 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, between 26 and 36 AD. Acts 15 and Galatians 2 both suggest that the meeting was called to debate whether or not male Gentiles who were converting to become followers of Jesus were required to become circumcised; circumcision was considered repulsive during the period of Hellenization of the Eastern Mediterranean.[2]
At the time, most followers of Jesus (which historians refer to as Jewish Christians) were Jewish by birth and even converts would have considered the early Christians as a part of Judaism. According to Alister McGrath, the Jewish Christians affirmed every aspect of the then contemporary Second Temple Judaism with the addition of the belief that Jesus was the Messiah.[3] Unless males were circumcised, they could not be God's People. The meeting was called to decide whether circumcision for gentile converts was requisite for community membership since certain individuals were teaching that "[u]nless you are circumcised according to the custom of Moses, you cannot be saved".[4]
Circumcision as a mandate was associated with Abraham (see also Abrahamic covenant), but it is cited as "the custom of Moses" because Moses is considered the traditional giver of the Law as a whole. The circumcision mandate was made more official and binding in the Mosaic Law Covenant. In John 7:22 the words of Jesus are reported to be that Moses gave the people circumcision.
Issues and outcome[edit]
The purpose of the meeting, according to Acts, was to resolve a disagreement in Antioch, which had wider implications than just circumcision, since circumcision is the "everlasting" sign of the Abrahamic Covenant (Genesis 17:9–14). Some of the Pharisees who had become believers insisted that it was "needful to circumcise them, and to command [them] to keep the law of Moses" (KJV).[5]
The primary issue which was addressed related to the requirement of circumcision, as the author of Acts relates, but other important matters arose as well, as the Apostolic Decree indicates. The dispute was between those, such as the followers of the "Pillars of the Church", led by James, who believed, following his interpretation of the Great Commission, that the church must observe the Torah, i.e. the rules of traditional Judaism,[1] and Paul the Apostle, who believed there was no such necessity. (See also Supersessionism, New Covenant, Antinomianism, Hellenistic Judaism, Paul the Apostle and Judaism.)
At the Council, following advice offered by Simon Peter (Acts 15:7–11 and Acts 15:14), Barnabas and Paul gave an account of their ministry among the gentiles (Acts 15:12), and the apostle James quoted from the words of the prophet Amos (Acts 15:16–17, quoting Amos 9:11–12). James added his own words[6] to the quotation: "Known to God from eternity are all His works"[7] and then submitted a proposal, which was accepted by the Church and became known as the Apostolic Decree:
It is my judgment, therefore, that we should not make it difficult for the Gentiles who are turning to God. Instead we should write to them, telling them to abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood.[2] For the law of Moses has been preached in every city from the earliest times and is read in the synagogues on every Sabbath. (Acts 15:19–21)
Acts 15:23–29 sets out the content of the letter written in accordance with James' proposal.
The Western version of Acts (see Acts of the Apostles: Manuscripts) adds the negative form of the Golden Rule ("and whatever things ye would not have done to yourselves, do not do to another").[3]
This determined questions wider than that of circumcision, particularly dietary questions, but also fornication and idolatry and blood, and also the application of Biblical law to non-Jews. It was stated by the Apostles and Elders in the Council: "the Holy Spirit and we ourselves have favored adding no further burden to you, except these necessary things, to abstain from things sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and from fornication. If you carefully keep yourselves from these things, you will prosper." (Acts 15:27–28) And this Apostolic Decree was considered binding on all the other local Christian congregations in other regions.[8] See also Biblical law directed at non-Jews, Seven Laws of Noah, Biblical law in Christianity, and the Ten Commandments in Christianity.
The writer of Acts gives an account of a restatement by James and the elders in Jerusalem of the contents of the letter on the occasion of Paul's final Jerusalem visit, immediately prior to Paul's arrest at the temple, recounting: "When we had come to Jerusalem, the brothers received us gladly. On the following day Paul went in with us to James, and all the elders were present." (Acts 21:17–18, ESV) The elders then proceed to notify Paul of what seems to have been a common concern among Jewish believers, that he was teaching Diaspora Jewish converts to Christianity "to forsake Moses, telling them not to circumcise their children or walk according to our customs." They remind the assembly that, "as for the Gentiles who have believed, we have sent a letter with our judgment that they should abstain from what has been sacrificed to idols, and from blood, and from what has been strangled, and from sexual immorality". In the view of some scholars, the reminder of James and the elders here is an expression of concern that Paul was not fully teaching the decision of the Jerusalem Council's letter to Gentiles,[9] particularly in regard to non-strangled kosher meat,[10] which contrasts with Paul's advice to Gentiles in Corinth,[11] to "eat whatever is sold in the meat markets" (1 Corinthians 10:25).[12]
Historicity[edit]
See also: Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles
The description of the Apostolic Council in Acts 15, generally considered the same event described in Galatians 2,[13] is considered by some scholars to be contradictory to the Galatians account.[14] The historicity of Luke's account has been challenged,[15][16][17] and was rejected completely by some scholars in the mid to late 20th century.[18] However, more recent scholarship inclines towards treating the Jerusalem Council and its rulings as a historical event,[19] though this is sometimes expressed with caution.[20] Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament includes a summary of current research on the topic as of about 1994:
In conclusion, therefore, it appears that the least unsatisfactory solution of the complicated textual and exegetical problems of the Apostolic Decree is to regard the fourfold decree[21] as original (foods offered to idols, strangled meat, eating blood, and unchastity—whether ritual or moral), and to explain the two forms of the threefold decree[21] in some such way as those suggested above.[22] An extensive literature exists on the text and exegesis of the Apostolic Decree. ... According to Jacques Dupont, "Present day scholarship is practically unanimous in considering the 'Eastern' text of the decree as the only authentic text (in four items) and in interpreting its prescriptions in a sense not ethical but ritual" [Les problèmes du Livre des Actes d'après les travaux récents (Louvain, 1950), p.70].[23]
Interpreting the Council's decision[edit]
See also: Paul the Apostle and Judaism and Early Christianity
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James's Apostolic Decree was that most Mosaic law,[24] including the requirement for circumcision of males, was not obligatory for Gentile converts, possibly in order to make it easier for them to join the movement.[4] However, the Council did retain the prohibitions against Gentile converts eating meat containing blood, or meat of animals not properly slain. It also retained the prohibitions against "fornication" and "idol worship". See also Old Testament Law directed at non-Jews. In effect, the Jerusalem Church created a flexible approach which some accuse of being a double-standard: one for Jewish Christians and one for Gentile converts (for the parallel in Judaism, see Convert to Judaism and Noahides). The Decree may be a major act of differentiation of the Church from its Jewish roots,[25] depending on when Jewish Noahide law was developed.[26] Around the same time period, the authorities of Rabbinic Judaism made their circumcision requirement even stricter.[27][full citation needed] The decision created a category of persons who were members of the Christian community (which still considered itself to be part of the Jewish community) who, in certain situations, would be unacceptable to the wider Jewish community, because they were uncircumcised, besides other objections relating to the 613 mitzvot. On the other hand, some in the early Church did not take long to decide that the Torah requirements were not necessary for Jewish converts either (see the Epistle to the Hebrews, and Justin Martyr's Dialog with Trypho[28] and Marcionism; Paul also repeatedly states that Jews and Gentiles are one in Christ, which may be interpreted as saying that they are not distinguished in any way, including their relationship to the Mosaic Law, but this is just one interpretation and the issues of Paul the Apostle and Judaism and interpretation of Pauline passages supporting antinomianism and Pauline passages opposing antinomianism are still widely disputed. See also Criticism of Dual-Covenant theology).
Determining what followed depends on how reliable one believes the various texts to be. Some scholars have taken a very skeptical view of the probity of Acts.[5] Moreover, Paul seems to have refused "to be tied down to particular patterns of behavior and practice".[6] For example, see 1 Corinthians 9:20–23. He does not engage in a dispute with those Corinthians who apparently feel quite free to eat anything offered to idols, never appealing or even mentioning the Jerusalem council. He rather attempts to persuade them by appealing to the care they should have for other believers who might not feel so free.
From its position of dominance, due in part to its leadership by James, the Jerusalem Church suffered first persecution and eventual decline, but never total elimination (see for example Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem and Jerusalem in Christianity and Pentarchy). The question of the relationship with Jews and Jewish Christians continued for some time, indeed it is still debated today.
Modern interpretation[edit]
Jewish Encyclopedia: New Testament — Spirit of Jewish Proselytism in Christianity states:
For great as was the success of Barnabas and Paul in the heathen world, the authorities in Jerusalem insisted upon circumcision as the condition of admission of members into the church, until, on the initiative of Peter, and of James, the head of the Jerusalem church, it was agreed that acceptance of the Noachian Laws—namely, regarding avoidance of idolatry, fornication, and the eating of flesh cut from a living animal—should be demanded of the heathen desirous of entering the Church.
Jewish Encyclopedia: Gentiles: Gentiles May Not Be Taught the Torah states:
R. Emden, in a remarkable apology for Christianity contained in his appendix to "Seder 'Olam" (pp. 32b-34b, Hamburg, 1752), gives it as his opinion that the original intention of Jesus, and especially of Paul, was to convert only the Gentiles to the seven moral laws of Noah and to let the Jews follow the Mosaic law—which explains the apparent contradictions in the New Testament regarding the laws of Moses and the Sabbath.
The Catholic Encyclopedia article on Judaizers states:
Paul, on the other hand, not only did not object to the observance of the Mosaic Law, as long as it did not interfere with the liberty of the Gentiles, but he conformed to its prescriptions when occasion required (1Corinthians 9:20). Thus he shortly after circumcised Timothy (Acts 16:1–3), and he was in the very act of observing the Mosaic ritual when he was arrested at Jerusalem (Acts 21:26 sqq.)
Joseph Fitzmyer[29] disputes the claim that the Apostolic Decree is based on Noahide Law (Gen 9) and instead proposes Lev 17–18 as the basis, see also Leviticus 18. He also argues that the decision was meant as a practical compromise to help Jewish and Gentile Christians to get along, not a theological statement intended to bind Christians for all time.
According to the 19th-century Roman Catholic Bishop Karl Josef von Hefele, the Apostolic Decree of the Jerusalem Council "has been obsolete for centuries in the West", though it is still recognized and observed by the Greek Orthodox Church.[30] Acts 28 Hyperdispensationalists, such as the 20th century Anglican E. W. Bullinger, would be another example of a group that believes the decree (and everything before Acts 28) no longer applies.
Circumcision[edit]
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Most Christians consider circumcision to be only an optional ritual[citation needed], but Orthodox Judaism considers it one of the mandatory 613 mitzvot, following Genesis 17:10–27, and the signature-law (or eternal sign) by which men signed the covenant with God, in blood, and thereby became a People of God, subject to God's protection and curse. This, according to the Torah, was the way that Abraham signed the covenant with God and thereby started Judaism, see also Abrahamic religions#Circumcision. In the 1st century AD, modern anesthesia and antibiotics did not exist and the death-rates were high from even minor medical operations[citation needed]. Demanding a Gentile adult male be circumcised in order to become a follower of Jesus, may not only have been terrifying, but it may have been life-threatening.[original research?] This is the reason why this Council was called by Jesus' apostle James[citation needed], who, according to Paul's account in Galatians 2:10 concluded that Paul would not have to demand his men to become circumcised, and according to Luke's account in Acts 15:13–21, James not only permitted uncircumcised men to remain in the group, but he said in closing the Council (Acts 15:19) "We should not trouble the Gentiles who are turning to God."
As for Orthodox Judaism today, the rabbis do not believe that Gentiles need to be circumcised, unless they wish to convert to Judaism, which is discouraged. Instead, Gentiles need only follow the Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the "World to Come".
See also[edit]
Christianity portal
Ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical)
Antinomianism
Biblical law in Christianity
Binding and loosing
Brotherly love (philosophy)
Christian Torah-submission
Circumcision controversy in early Christianity
Circumcision in the Bible#In rabbinic literature
Circumcision in the Bible
Jewish Christians
Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification
Judaizers
Legalism (theology)
New Perspective on Paul
Pauline Christianity
Restorationism (Christian primitivism)
Christian ethics
Footnotes[edit]
^ Galatians 2:12
^ Robert Eisenman in James the Brother of Jesus identifies Paul with Ananias the Jewish merchant (as described by Josephus: Jewish Antiquities 20.2.3–4), who proselytized Gentiles teaching them that faith in God is superior to circumcision.
^ There are two major versions of Acts: Alexandrian and Western; with preference generally given to the Alexandrian, see Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament which has for the Western 15:2, "for Paul spoke maintaining firmly that they should stay as they were when converted; but those who had come from Jerusalem ordered them, Paul and Barnabas and certain others, to go up to Jerusalem to the apostles and elders that they might be judged before them about this question."
^ According to Bruce Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament: "the Apostolic Decree [15.29, 15.20, 21.25] ... contain many problems concerning text and exegesis"; "it is possible ... (fornication means) marriage within the prohibited Levitical Degrees (Leviticus 18:6–18), which the rabbis described as "forbidden for porneia", or mixed marriages with pagans (Numbers 25:1; also compare 2Corinthians 6.14), or participation in pagan worship which had long been described by Old Testament prophets as spiritual adultery and which, in fact, offered opportunity in many temples for religious prostitution"; "An extensive literature exists on the text and exegesis"; NRSV has things polluted by idols, fornication, whatever has been strangled, blood; NIV has food polluted by idols, sexual immorality, meat of strangled animals, blood; Young's has pollutions of the idols, whoredom, strangled thing, blood; Gaus' Unvarnished New Testament has pollution of idolatrous sacrifices, unchastity, meat of strangled animals, blood; NAB has pollution from idols, unlawful marriage, meat of strangled animals, blood. Karl Josef von Hefele's commentary on canon II of Gangra notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. Balsamon also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third Apostolic Canon, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by St. Augustine in his work Contra Faustum, where he states that the Apostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed Ecumenical Synods, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."
^ Hillel the Elder when asked by a Gentile to teach the whole Torah while standing on one foot cited the negative form of the Golden Rule, also cited in Tobit 4:15. Jesus in Matthew 7:12, part of the Sermon on the Mount, cited the positive form as summary of the "Law and Prophets."
^ Whether or not Galatians 2:1–10 is a record of the Council of Jerusalem or a different event is not agreed. Paul writes of laying his gospel before the others "privately," not as in a Council. It has been argued that Galatians was written as Paul was on his way to the Council (see Paul the Apostle). Raymond E. Brown in Introduction to the New Testament argues that they are the same event but each from a different viewpoint with its own bias.
^ Acts 16 says Paul personally circumcised Timothy, even though his father was Greek, because his mother was a Jewish believer, i.e. a Jewish Christian.
^ Some took "freedom in Christ" to mean lawlessness, for example, Acts 21:21.
^ Possibly a reference to the Ebionites
^ Acts 15:19
^ Hans Conzelmann
^ Christopher Rowland, Christian Origins (SPCK 1985) p. 234
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Whether or not Galatians 2:1–10 is a record of the Council of Jerusalem or a different event is not agreed. Paul writes of laying his gospel before the others "privately", not in a Council. It has been argued that Galatians was written as Paul was on his way to the Council (see Paul the Apostle). Raymond E. Brown in his Introduction to the New Testament argues that they (Acts 15 and Galatians 2) are the same event but each from a different viewpoint with its own bias.
Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision: In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature: "Contact with Grecian life, especially at the games of the arena [which involved nudity], made this distinction obnoxious to the Hellenists, or antinationalists; and the consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by epispasm ("making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18; Tosef., Shab. xv. 9; Yeb. 72a, b; Yer. Peah i. 16b; Yeb. viii. 9a). All the more did the law-observing Jews defy the edict of Antiochus Epiphanes prohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons." Hodges, Frederick, M. (2001). "The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme" (PDF). The Bulletin of the History of Medicine. 75 (Fall 2001): 375–405. doi:10.1353/bhm.2001.0119. PMID 11568485. Retrieved 2007-07-24.
Jump up ^ McGrath, Alister E., Christianity: An Introduction. Blackwell Publishing (2006). ISBN 1-4051-0899-1. Page 174: "In effect, they [Jewish Christians] seemed to regard Christianity as an affirmation of every aspect of contemporary Judaism, with the addition of one extra belief — that Jesus was the Messiah."
Jump up ^ Acts 15:1–2
Jump up ^ Acts 15:5
Jump up ^ Gill, J., Gill's Exposition of the Whole Bible http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/15.htm accessed 13 September 2015
Jump up ^ Acts 15:18
Jump up ^ Apostolic Presbyterianism – by William Cunningham and Reg Barrow
Jump up ^ Robert McQueen Grant Augustus to Constantine: the rise and triumph of Christianity in the Roman World Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2004, p.iv "According to Acts 21:25, the elders at Jerusalem were still concerned with observance of them when Paul last "
Jump up ^ Paul Barnett Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament p. 292 "He chided Paul later for his failure to require the Gentiles to observe the decree (Acts 21:25). Paul delivered the letter from the Jerusalem meeting expressing James's decree, but only to churches in Syria, Cilicia and Galatia ... Paul did not impose the food requirements for the kosher-killed meat and against the idol-sacrificed meat upon the Corinthians"
Jump up ^ 1 Corinthians: a new translation Volume 32 Anchor Bible William Fridell Orr, James Arthur Walther – 1976 "Paul's openness regarding dietary restrictions raises again the question of the connection with the decrees of the council at Jerusalem (Acts 15:29; Introduction, pp. 63–65). There is no hint here of an apostolic decree involving food."
Jump up ^ Gordon D. Fee The First Epistle to the Corinthians 1987 p480 "Paul's "rule" for everyday life in Corinth is a simple one: "Eat anything sold in the meat market""
Jump up ^ "In spite of the presence of discrepancies between these two accounts, most scholars agree that they do in fact refer to the same event.", Paget, "Jewish Christianity", in Horbury, et al., "The Cambridge History of Judaism: The Early Roman Period", volume 3, p. 744 (2008). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "Paul's account of the Jerusalem Council in Galatians 2 and the account of it recorded in Acts have been considered by some scholars as being in open contradiction.", Paget, "Jewish Christianity", in Horbury, et al., "The Cambridge History of Judaism: The Early Roman Period", volume 3, p. 744 (2008). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "There is a very strong case against the historicity of Luke's account of the Apostolic Council", Esler, "Community and Gospel in Luke-Acts: The Social and Political Motivations of Lucan Theology", p. 97 (1989). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "The historicity of Luke's account in Acts 15 has been questioned on a number of grounds.", Paget, "Jewish Christianity", in Horbury, et al., "The Cambridge History of Judaism: The Early Roman Period", volume 3, p. 744 (2008). Cambridge University Press.
Jump up ^ "However, numerous scholars have challenged the historicity of the Jerusalem Council as related by Acts, Paul's presence there in the manner that Luke describes, the issue of idol-food being thrust on Paul's Gentile mission, and the historical reliability of Acts in general.", Fotopolous, "Food Offered to Idols in Roman Corinth: a socio-rhetorical reconsideration", pp. 181–182 (2003). Mohr Siebeck.
Jump up ^ "Sahlin rejects the historicity of Acts completely (Der Messias und das Gottesvolk [1945]). Haenchen's view is that the Apostolic Council "is an imaginary construction answering to no historical reality" (The Acts of the Apostles [Engtr 1971], p. 463). Dibelius' view (Studies in the Acts of the Apostles [Engtr 1956], pp. 93–101) is that Luke's treatment is literary-theological and can make no claim to historical worth.", Mounce, "Apostolic Council", in Bromiley (ed.) "The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia", volume 1, p. 200 (rev. ed. 2001). Wm. B. Eerdmans.
Jump up ^ "There is an increasing trend among scholars toward considering the Jerusalem Council as historical event. An overwhelming majority identifies the reference to the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15 with Paul's account in Gal. 2.1–10, and this accord is not just limited to the historicity of the gathering alone but extends also to the authenticity of the arguments deriving from the Jerusalem church itself.", Philip, "The Origins of Pauline Pneumatology: the Eschatological Bestowal of the Spirit", Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2, Reihe, p. 205 (2005). Mohr Siebeck.
Jump up ^ "The present writer accepts its basic historicity, i.e. that there was an event at Jerusalem concerning the matter of the entry of the Gentiles into the Christian community, but would be circumspect about going much further than that. For a robust defence of its historicity, see Bauckham, "James", and the relevant literature cited there.", Paget, "Jewish Christianity", in Horbury, et al., "The Cambridge History of Judaism: The Early Roman Period", volume 3, p. 744 (2008). Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to: a b For a clarification of "fourfold decree" vs "threefold decree", see International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: A-D, 1995, by Geoffrey W. Bromiley ("Apostolic Council"), page 202.
Jump up ^ Bruce M. Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, 2nd edn, (NY: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1994), 382.
Jump up ^ Metzger, Textual Commentary, 383n9.
Jump up ^ Jewish law or Halakha was formalized later, see Jewish Encyclopedia: Jesus of Nazareth: Attitude Toward the Law: "Jesus, however, does not appear to have taken into account the fact that the Halakah was at this period just becoming crystallized, and that much variation existed as to its definite form; the disputes of the Bet Hillel and Bet Shammai were occurring about the time of his maturity."
Jump up ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition."
Jump up ^ An early form of Noahide Law may appear in the Book of Jubilees which is generally dated to the 2nd century BC: Jubilees Archived February 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. 7:20–28: "And in the twenty-eighth jubilee [1324–1372 A.M.] Noah began to enjoin upon his sons' sons the ordinances and commandments, and all the judgments that he knew, and he exhorted his sons to observe righteousness, and to cover the shame of their flesh, and to bless their Creator, and honour father and mother, and love their neighbour, and guard their souls from fornication and uncleanness and all iniquity. For owing to these three things came the flood upon the earth ... For whoso sheddeth man's blood, and whoso eateth the blood of any flesh, shall all be destroyed from the earth." The earliest clear reference is found in Tosefta Avodah Zarah 8.4, dated circa 300.
Jump up ^ "peri'ah", (Shab. xxx. 6)
Jump up ^ Justin Martyr, Dialog With Trypho, http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_I/JUSTIN_MARTYR/Dialogue_with_Trypho
Jump up ^ The Acts of the Apostles (The Anchor Yale Bible Commentaries), Yale University Press (December 2, 1998), ISBN 0-300-13982-9, chapter V
Jump up ^ Karl Josef von Hefele's commentary on canon II of Gangra notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show. Balsamon also, the well-known commentator on the canons of the Middle Ages, in his commentary on the sixty-third Apostolic Canon, expressly blames the Latins because they had ceased to observe this command. What the Latin Church, however, thought on this subject about the year 400, is shown by St. Augustine in his work Contra Faustum, where he states that the Apostles had given this command in order to unite the heathens and Jews in the one ark of Noah; but that then, when the barrier between Jewish and heathen converts had fallen, this command concerning things strangled and blood had lost its meaning, and was only observed by few. But still, as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third (731) forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days. No one will pretend that the disciplinary enactments of any council, even though it be one of the undisputed Ecumenical Synods, can be of greater and more unchanging force than the decree of that first council, held by the Holy Apostles at Jerusalem, and the fact that its decree has been obsolete for centuries in the West is proof that even Ecumenical canons may be of only temporary utility and may be repealed by disuse, like other laws."
Further reading[edit]
Badenas, Robert. Christ the End of the Law, Romans 10.4 in Pauline Perspective, 1985 ISBN 0-905774-93-0
Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
Bruce, Frederick Fyvie. Peter, Stephen, James and John: Studies in Early Non-Pauline Christianity
Bruce, Frederick Fyvie. Men and movements in the primitive church: Studies in early non-Pauline Christianity
Clark, A.C. The Acts of the Apostles
Dunn, James D.G. "The Incident at Antioch (Galatians 2:11–18)," JSNT 18, 1983, pg 95–122
Dunn, James D.G. Jesus, Paul and the Law, ISBN 0-664-25095-5
Dunn, James D.G. The Theology of Paul's Letter to the Galatians 1993 ISBN 0-521-35953-8
Dunn, James D.G. The Theology of Paul the Apostle Eerdmans 1997 ISBN 0-8028-3844-8
Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew 2003
Eisenman, Robert, 1997. James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls. ISBN 0-670-86932-5 A cultural historian's dissenting view based on contemporary texts.
Elsner, Jas. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph: Oxford History of Early Non-Pauline Christianity 1998 ISBN 0-19-284201-3
Gaus, Andy. The Unvarnished New Testament 1991 ISBN 0-933999-99-2
Kim, Seyoon Paul and the New Perspective: Second Thoughts on the Origin of Paul's Gospel 2001 ISBN 0-8028-4974-1
Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0-06-015582-5.
MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
Metzger, Bruce M. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament 1975 ISBN 3-438-06010-8
Mount, Christopher N. Pauline Christianity: Luke-Acts and the Legacy of Paul 2001
Ropes, J.H., The Text of Acts, Vol. III; The Beginnings of Christianity: Part I: The Acts of the Apostles, London: MacMillan & Co., Ltd., 1926
Sanders, E.P. Paul and Palestinian Judaism: A Comparison of Patterns of Religion 1977 ISBN 0-8006-1899-8
Sanders, E.P. Paul the Law and the Jewish People 1983
Sanders, E.P. Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press, 1987, ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
Simon, Marcel. The Apostolic Decree and its Setting in the Ancient Church. Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, LII (1969–70), pp. 437–460
Telfer, W. The Didache and the Apostolic Synod of Antioch The Journal of Theological Studies, 1939, pp. 133–146, 258–271
Westerholm, Stephen. Perspectives Old and New on Paul: The "Lutheran" Paul and His Critics 2003 ISBN 0-8028-4809-5
Wright, N.T. What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? 1997 ISBN 0-8028-4445-6
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Book of Acts, Chapter 15
NA26 Greek Acts 15
Catholic Encyclopedia: Judaizers
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Apostolic Constitutions
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Jewish Antiquities 20
New Perspective on Paul
Early Christian Writings
Jewish Encyclopedia: Hillel v. Shammai
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Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge: Apostolic Council at Jerusalem
All you want to know about councils and early Christians
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