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Azeotrope
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Not to be confused with Allotrope.
Vapor-liquid equilibrium of 2-propanol/water showing azeotropic behavior
An azeotrope (UK /əˈziːəˌtrəʊp/, US /əˈziəˌtroʊp/)[1] or a constant boiling point mixture is a mixture of two or more liquids whose proportions cannot be altered or changed by simple distillation.[2] This happens because when an azeotrope is boiled, the vapour has the same proportions of constituents as the unboiled mixture.
Because their composition is unchanged by distillation, azeotropes are also called (especially in older texts) constant boiling-point mixtures. The word azeotrope is derived from the Greek words ζέειν (boil) and τρόπος (turning) combined with the prefix α- (no) to give the overall meaning, "no change on boiling". The term "azeotrope" was coined in 1911 by English chemist John Wade (1864–1912)[3] and Richard William Merriman.[4]
Many azeotropic mixtures of pairs of compounds are known,[5] and many azeotropes of three or more compounds are also known.[6] In such a case it is not possible to separate the components by fractional distillation. There are two types of azeotropes: minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling azeotrope. A solution that shows greater positive deviation from Raoult's law forms a minimum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. For example, an ethanol-water mixture (obtained by fermentation of sugars) on fractional distillation yields a solution containing approximately 95% by volume of ethanol. Once this composition has been achieved, the liquid and vapour have the same composition, and no further separation occurs. A solution that shows large negative deviation from Raoult's law forms a maximum boiling azeotrope at a specific composition. Nitric acid and water is an example of this class of azeotrope. This azeotrope has an approximate composition of 68% nitric acid and 32% water by mass, with a boiling point of 393.5 K (120.4 °C).
Contents
[hide]
1 Types
1.1 Positive and negative azeotropes
1.2 Homogeneous and heterogeneous azeotropes
1.3 Number of constituents
1.4 Zeotropy
2 Distillation of mixtures
3 Phase diagrams
3.1 Condition of existence
3.2 Minimum-boiling or Positive azeotrope
3.3 Maximum-boiling or Negative azeotrope
3.4 Traces
4 Heteroazeotropes
5 Deviation from Raoult's law
5.1 Temperature-pressure dependence
6 Separation of constituents
6.1 Pressure swing distillation
6.2 Azeotropic distillation
6.3 Chemical action separation
6.4 Distillation using a dissolved salt
6.5 Extractive distillation
6.6 Pervaporation and other membrane methods
7 Zeotropic mixtures
8 Mechanism
9 Complex systems
10 Examples
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Types[edit]
Positive and negative azeotropes[edit]
Positive azeotrope – mixture of chloroform and methanol
Negative azeotrope – mixture of formic acid and water
Each azeotrope has a characteristic boiling point. The boiling point of an azeotrope is either less than the boiling point temperatures of any of its constituents (a positive azeotrope), or greater than the boiling point of any of its constituents (a negative azeotrope).
A well-known example of a positive azeotrope is 95.63% ethanol and 4.37% water (by mass).[7] Ethanol boils at 78.4 °C, water boils at 100 °C, but the azeotrope boils at 78.2 °C, which is lower than either of its constituents.[8] Indeed, 78.2 °C is the minimum temperature at which any ethanol/water solution can boil at atmospheric pressure. In general, a positive azeotrope boils at a lower temperature than any other ratio of its constituents. Positive azeotropes are also called minimum boiling mixtures or pressure maximum azeotropes.
An example of a negative azeotrope is hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 20.2% and 79.8% water (by mass). Hydrogen chloride boils at −84 °C and water at 100 °C, but the azeotrope boils at 110 °C, which is higher than either of its constituents. The maximum temperature at which any hydrochloric acid solution can boil is 110 °C. In general, a negative azeotrope boils at a higher temperature than any other ratio of its constituents. Negative azeotropes are also called maximum boiling mixtures or pressure minimum azeotropes.
Homogeneous and heterogeneous azeotropes[edit]
If the constituents of a mixture are not completely miscible, an azeotrope can be found inside the miscibility gap. This type of azeotrope is called heterogeneous azeotrope. If the azeotropic composition is outside the miscibility gap or the constituents of the mixture are completely miscible, the type of azeotrope is called a homogeneous azeotrope. A heteroazeotropic distillation (see heteroazeotrope) will have two liquid phases.
Number of constituents[edit]
Azeotropes consisting of two constituents, such as the two examples above, are called binary azeotropes. Those consisting of three constituents are called ternary azeotropes. Azeotropes of more than three constituents are also known.
Zeotropy[edit]
Combinations of solvents that do not form an azeotrope when mixed in any proportion are said to be zeotropic.
Distillation of mixtures[edit]
If two solvents can form a positive azeotrope, then distillation of any mixture of those constituents will result in the distillate being closer in composition to the azeotrope than the starting mixture. For example, if a 50/50 mixture of ethanol and water is distilled once, the distillate will be 80% ethanol and 20% water, which is closer to the azeotropic mixture than the original. Distilling the 80/20% mixture produces a distillate that is 87% ethanol and 13% water. Further repeated distillations will produce mixtures that are progressively closer to the azeotropic ratio of 95.5/4.5%. No numbers of distillations will ever result in a distillate that exceeds the azeotropic ratio. Likewise, when distilling a mixture of ethanol and water that is richer in ethanol than the azeotrope, the distillate (contrary to intuition) will be poorer in ethanol than the original but slightly richer than the azeotrope.[9] This means the solution left behind will be richer in ethanol.[10]
If two solvents can form a negative azeotrope, then distillation of any mixture of those constituents will result in the residue being closer in composition to the azeotrope than the original mixture. For example, if a hydrochloric acid solution contains less than 20.2% hydrogen chloride, boiling the mixture will leave behind a solution that is richer in hydrogen chloride than the original. If the solution initially contains more than 20.2% hydrogen chloride, then boiling will leave behind a solution that is poorer in hydrogen chloride than the original. Boiling of any hydrochloric acid solution long enough will cause the solution left behind to approach the azeotropic ratio.[11]
Phase diagrams[edit]
The boiling and recondensation of a mixture of two solvents are changes of state. As such, they are best illustrated with a phase diagram. If pressure is held constant, the two parameters that can vary are the temperature and the composition. An azeotrope is not the same as an emulsion.
Condition of existence[edit]
The condition of existence follows from the equality of pressures in vapour-liquid equilibrium using Raoult and Dalton laws for real mixtures and imposing the equality of compositions in liquid and vapour phases.
The condition relates activity coefficients in liquid phase to total pressure and the vapour pressures of pure components.
Minimum-boiling or Positive azeotrope[edit]
Phase diagram of a positive azeotrope. Vertical axis is temperature, horizontal axis is composition.
The diagram on the right shows a positive azeotrope of hypothetical constituents, X and Y. The bottom trace illustrates the boiling temperature of various compositions. Below the bottom trace, only the liquid phase is in equilibrium. The top trace illustrates the vapor composition above the liquid at a given temperature. Above the top trace, only the vapor is in equilibrium. Between the two traces, liquid and vapor phases exist simultaneously in equilibrium: for example, heating a 25% X : 75% Y mixture to temperature AB would generate vapor of composition B over liquid of composition A. The azeotrope is the point on the diagram where the two curves touch. The horizontal and vertical steps show the path of repeated distillations. Point A is the boiling point of a nonazeotropic mixture. The vapor that separates at that temperature has composition B. The shape of the curves requires that the vapor at B be richer in constituent X than the liquid at point A.[2] The vapor is physically separated from the VLE (vapor-liquid equilibrium) system and is cooled to point C, where it condenses. The resulting liquid (point C) is now richer in X than it was at point A. If the collected liquid is boiled again, it progresses to point D, and so on. The stepwise progression shows how repeated distillation can never produce a distillate that is richer in constituent X than the azeotrope. Note that starting to the right of the azeotrope point results in the same stepwise process closing in on the azeotrope point from the other direction.
Maximum-boiling or Negative azeotrope[edit]
Phase diagram of a negative azeotrope. Vertical axis is temperature, horizontal axis is composition.
The diagram on the right shows a negative azeotrope of ideal constituents, X and Y. Again the bottom trace illustrates the boiling temperature at various compositions, and again, below the bottom trace the mixture must be entirely liquid phase. The top trace again illustrates the condensation temperature of various compositions, and again, above the top trace the mixture must be entirely vapor phase. The point, A, shown here is a boiling point with a composition chosen very near to the azeotrope. The vapor is collected at the same temperature at point B. That vapor is cooled, condensed, and collected at point C. Because this example is a negative azeotrope rather than a positive one, the distillate is farther from the azeotrope than the original liquid mixture at point A was. So the distillate is poorer in constituent X and richer in constituent Y than the original mixture. Because this process has removed a greater fraction of Y from the liquid than it had originally, the residue must be poorer in Y and richer in X after distillation than before.
If the point, A had been chosen to the right of the azeotrope rather than to the left, the distillate at point C would be farther to the right than A, which is to say that the distillate would be richer in X and poorer in Y than the original mixture. So in this case too, the distillate moves away from the azeotrope and the residue moves toward it. This is characteristic of negative azeotropes. No amount of distillation, however, can make either the distillate or the residue arrive on the opposite side of the azeotrope from the original mixture. This is characteristic of all azeotropes.
Traces[edit]
The traces in the phase diagrams separate whenever the composition of the vapor differs from the composition of the liquid at the same temperature. Suppose the total composition were 50/50%. You could make this composition using 50% of 50/50% vapor and 50% of 50/50% liquid, but you could also make it from 83.33% of 45/55% vapor and 16.67% of 75%/25% liquid, as well as from many other combinations. The separation of the two traces represents the range of combinations of liquid and vapor that can make each total composition.
Alternatively, one can view the lower trace as the boundary for the region of the diagram in which liquids are in equilibrium, and the upper trace as the boundary of the region in which the vapor is in equilibrium. These two boundaries need not coincide. Indeed, the region between them is a no-man's-land: attempts to bring the system to the midpoint of line-segment AB will result in a mixture of liquid A and vapor B, but nothing at the midpoint.
Heteroazeotropes[edit]
Phase diagram of a heteroazeotrope. Vertical axis is temperature, horizontal axis is composition. The dotted vertical line indicates the composition of the combined layers of the distillate whenever both layers are present in the original mixture.
Main article: Heteroazeotrope
In each of the examples discussed so far the constituents have been miscible in all proportions with each other. For example, any amount of ethanol can be mixed with any amount of water to form a homogeneous solution. There are pairs of solvents for which this is not the case. For example, if equal volumes of chloroform (water solubility 0.8 g/100 ml at 20 °C) and water are shaken together and then left to stand, the liquid will separate into two layers. Analysis of the layers shows that the top layer is mostly water with a small amount of chloroform dissolved in it, and the bottom layer is mostly chloroform with a small amount of water dissolved in it. If the two layers are heated together, the system of layers will boil at 53.3 °C, which is lower than either the boiling point of chloroform (61.2 °C) or the boiling point of water (100 °C). The vapor will consist of 97.0% chloroform and 3.0% water regardless of how much of each liquid layer is present (provided both layers are indeed present). If the vapor is re-condensed, the layers will reform in the condensate, and will do so in a fixed ratio, which in this case is 4.4% of the volume in the top layer and 95.6% in the bottom layer.[12] Such a system of solvents is known as a heteroazeotrope. The diagram illustrates how the various phases of a heteroazeotrope are related.[2][5]
Heteroazeotropes are always minimum boiling mixtures.
Deviation from Raoult's law[edit]
Raoult's law predicts the vapor pressures of ideal mixtures as a function of composition ratio. In general only mixtures of chemically similar solvents, such as n-hexane with n-heptane, form nearly ideal mixtures that come close to obeying Raoult's law. Solvent combinations that can form azeotropes are always nonideal, and as such they deviate from Raoult's law.
Total vapor pressure of mixtures as a function of composition at a chosen constant temperature
The diagram on the right illustrates total vapor pressure of three hypothetical mixtures of constituents, X, and Y. The temperature throughout the plot is assumed to be constant.
The center trace is a straight line, which is what Raoult's law predicts for an ideal mixture. The top trace illustrates a nonideal mixture that has a positive deviation from Raoult's law, where the total combined vapor pressure of constituents, X and Y, is greater than what is predicted by Raoult's law. The top trace deviates sufficiently that there is a point on the curve where its tangent is horizontal. Whenever a mixture has a positive deviation and has a point at which the tangent is horizontal, the composition at that point is a positive azeotrope.[13] At that point the total vapor pressure is at a maximum. Likewise the bottom trace illustrates a nonideal mixture that has a negative deviation from Raoult's law, and at the composition where tangent to the trace is horizontal there is a negative azeotrope. This is also the point where total vapor pressure is minimum.[13]
Temperature-pressure dependence[edit]
For both the top and bottom traces, the temperature point of the azeotrope is the constant temperature chosen for the graph. If the ambient pressure is controlled to be equal to the total vapor pressure at the azeotropic mixture, then the mixture will boil at this fixed temperature.
Vapor pressure of both pure liquids as well as mixtures is a sensitive function of temperature. As a rule, vapor pressure of a liquid increases nearly exponentially as a function of temperature. If the graph were replotted for a different fixed temperature, then the total vapor pressure at the azeotropic composition will certainly change, but it is also possible that the composition at which the azeotrope occurs will change. This implies that the composition of an azeotrope is affected by the pressure chosen at which to boil the mixture. Ordinarily distillation is done at atmospheric pressure, but with proper equipment it is possible to carry out distillation at a wide variety of pressures, both above and below atmospheric pressure.
Separation of constituents[edit]
Distillation is one of the primary tools that chemists and chemical engineers use to separate mixtures into their constituents. Because distillation cannot separate the constituents of an azeotrope, the separation of azeotropic mixtures (also called azeotrope breaking) is a topic of considerable interest.[5] Indeed, this difficulty led some early investigators to believe that azeotropes were actually compounds of their constituents.[2] But there are two reasons for believing that this is not the case. One is that the molar ratio of the constituents of an azeotrope is not generally the ratio of small integers. For example, the azeotrope formed by water and acetonitrile contains 2.253 moles ( or 9/4 with a relative error of just 2% ) of acetonitrile for each mole of water.[14] A more compelling reason for believing that azeotropes are not compounds is, as discussed in the last section, that the composition of an azeotrope can be affected by pressure. Contrast that with a true compound, carbon dioxide for example, which is two moles of oxygen for each mole of carbon no matter what pressure the gas is observed at. That azeotropic composition can be affected by pressure suggests a means by which such a mixture can be separated.
Pressure swing distillation[edit]
Azeotrope composition shift due to pressure swing.
A hypothetical azeotrope of constituents X and Y is shown in the adjacent diagram. Two at an arbitrarily chosen low pressure and another at an arbitrarily chosen, but higher, pressure. The composition of the azeotrope is substantially different between the high- and low-pressure plots – higher in X for the high-pressure system. The goal is to separate X in as high a concentration as possible starting from point A. At the low pressure, it is possible by progressive distillation to reach a distillate at the point, B, which is on the same side of the azeotrope as A. Note that successive distillation steps near the azeotropic composition exhibit very little difference in boiling temperature. If this distillate is now exposed to the high pressure, it boils at point C. From C, by progressive distillation it is possible to reach a distillate at the point D, which is on the same side of the high-pressure azeotrope as C. If that distillate is then exposed again to the low pressure, it boils at point E, which is on the opposite side of the low-pressure azeotrope to A. So, by means of the pressure swing, it is possible to cross over the low-pressure azeotrope.
When the solution is boiled at point E, the distillate is poorer in X than the residue at point E. This means that the residue is richer in X than the distillate at point E. Indeed, progressive distillation can produce a residue as rich in X as is required.
In summary:
1. Low-pressure rectification (A to B)
2. High-pressure rectification (C to D)
3. Low-pressure stripping (E to target purity)
Rectification: the distillate, or "tops", is retained and exhibits an increasingly lower boiling point.
Stripping: the residue, or "bottoms", is retained and exhibits an increasingly higher boiling point.
Note that both azeotropes above are of the positive, or minimum boiling type; care must be taken to ensure that the correct component of the separation step is retained, i.e. the binary phase-envelope diagram (boiling-point curve) must be correctly read.
A mixture of 5% water with 95% tetrahydrofuran is an example of an azeotrope that can be economically separated using a pressure swing – a swing in this case between 1 atm and 8 atm. By contrast the composition of the water to ethanol azeotrope discussed earlier is not affected enough by pressure to be easily separated using pressure swings[5] and instead, an entrainer may be added that either modifies the azeotropic composition and exhibits immiscibility with one of the components, or extractive distillation may be used.[15]
Azeotropic distillation[edit]
Main article: Azeotropic distillation
Other methods of separation involve introducing an additional agent, called an entrainer, that will affect the volatility of one of the azeotrope constituents more than another. When an entrainer is added to a binary azeotrope to form a ternary azeotrope, and the resulting mixture distilled, the method is called azeotropic distillation. The best known example is adding benzene or cyclohexane to the water/ethanol azeotrope. With cyclohexane as the entrainer, the ternary azeotrope is 7% water, 17% ethanol, and 76% cyclohexane, and boils at 62.1 °C.[16] Just enough cyclohexane is added to the water/ethanol azeotrope to engage all of the water into the ternary azeotrope. When the mixture is then boiled, the azeotrope vaporizes leaving a residue composed almost entirely of the excess ethanol.[5]
Chemical action separation[edit]
Another type of entrainer is one that has a strong chemical affinity for one of the constituents. Using again the example of the water/ethanol azeotrope, the liquid can be shaken with calcium oxide, which reacts strongly with water to form the nonvolatile compound, calcium hydroxide. Nearly all of the calcium hydroxide can be separated by filtration and the filtrate redistilled to obtain 100% pure ethanol.
A more extreme example is the azeotrope of 1.2% water with 98.8% diethyl ether. Ether holds the last bit of water so tenaciously that only a very powerful desiccant such as sodium metal added to the liquid phase can result in completely dry ether.[17]
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used as a desiccant for drying a wide variety of solvents since it is inexpensive and does not react with most nonaqueous solvents. Chloroform is an example of a solvent that can be effectively dried using calcium chloride.[17]
Distillation using a dissolved salt[edit]
Main article: Salt-effect distillation
When a salt is dissolved in a solvent, it always has the effect of raising the boiling point of that solvent – that is it decreases the volatility of the solvent. When the salt is readily soluble in one constituent of a mixture but not in another, the volatility of the constituent in which it is soluble is decreased and the other constituent is unaffected. In this way, for example, it is possible to break the water/ethanol azeotrope by dissolving potassium acetate in it and distilling the result.[5]
Extractive distillation[edit]
Extractive distillation is similar to azeotropic distillation, except in this case the entrainer is less volatile than any of the azeotrope's constituents. For example, the azeotrope of 20% acetone with 80% chloroform can be broken by adding water and distilling the result. The water forms a separate layer in which the acetone preferentially dissolves. The result is that the distillate is richer in chloroform than the original azeotrope.[5]
Pervaporation and other membrane methods[edit]
The pervaporation method uses a membrane that is more permeable to the one constituent than to another to separate the constituents of an azeotrope as it passes from liquid to vapor phase. The membrane is rigged to lie between the liquid and vapor phases. Another membrane method is vapor permeation, where the constituents pass through the membrane entirely in the vapor phase. In all membrane methods, the membrane separates the fluid passing through it into a permeate (that which passes through) and a retentate (that which is left behind). When the membrane is chosen so that is it more permeable to one constituent than another, then the permeate will be richer in that first constituent than the retentate.[5]
Zeotropic mixtures[edit]
Sometimes azeotropes are useful in separating zeotropic mixtures. An example is acetic acid and water, which do not form an azeotrope. Despite this it is very difficult to separate pure acetic acid (boiling point: 118.1 °C) from a solution of acetic acid and water by distillation alone. As progressive distillations produce solutions with less and less water, each further distillation becomes less effective at removing the remaining water. Distilling the solution to dry acetic acid is therefore economically impractical. But ethyl acetate forms an azeotrope with water that boils at 70.4 °C. By adding ethyl acetate as an entrainer, it is possible to distill away the azeotrope and leave nearly pure acetic acid as the residue.[5]
Mechanism[edit]
Azeotropes can form only when a mixture deviates from Raoult's law. Raoult's law applies when the molecules of the constituents stick to each other to the same degree as they do to themselves. For example, if the constituents are X and Y, then X sticks to Y with roughly equal energy as X does with X and Y does with Y. A positive deviation from Raoult's law results when the constituents have a disaffinity for each other – that is X sticks to X and Y to Y better than X sticks to Y. Because this results in the mixture having less total sticking together of the molecules than the pure constituents, they more readily escape from the stuck-together phase, which is to say the liquid phase, and into the vapor phase. When X sticks to Y more aggressively than X does to X and Y does to Y, the result is a negative deviation from Raoult's law. In this case because there is more sticking together of the molecules in the mixture than in the pure constituents, they are more reluctant to escape the stuck-together liquid phase.[2]
When the deviation is great enough to cause a maximum or minimum in the vapor pressure versus composition function, it is a mathematical consequence that at that point, the vapor will have the same composition as the liquid, and so an azeotrope is the result.
Complex systems[edit]
Saddle azeotropic system Methanol/Acetone/Chloroform calculated with mod. UNIFAC
The rules for positive and negative azeotropes apply to all the examples discussed so far. But there are some examples that don't fit into the categories of positive or negative azeotropes. The best known of these is the ternary azeotrope formed by 30% acetone, 47% chloroform, and 23% methanol, which boils at 57.5 °C. Each pair of these constituents forms a binary azeotrope, but chloroform/methanol and acetone/methanol both form positive azeotropes while chloroform/acetone forms a negative azeotrope. The resulting ternary azeotrope is neither positive nor negative. Its boiling point falls between the boiling points of acetone and chloroform, so it is neither a maximum nor a minimum boiling point. This type of system is called a saddle azeotrope.[5] Only systems of three or more constituents can form saddle azeotropes.
A rare type of complex binary azeotrope is one where the boiling point and condensation point curves touch at two points in the phase diagram. Such a system is called a double azeotrope, and will have two azeotropic compositions and boiling points. An example is water and N-methylethylenediamine.[18]
Examples[edit]
Double azeotrope of benzene and hexafluorobenzene. Proportions are by weight.
nitric acid (68%) / water, boils at 120.2 °C at 1 atm (negative azeotrope)
perchloric acid (71.6%) / water, boils at 203 °C (negative azeotrope)
hydrofluoric acid (35.6%) / water, boils at 111.35 °C (negative azeotrope)
ethanol (96%) / water, boils at 78.1 °C
sulfuric acid (98.3%) / water, boils at 338 °C
acetone / methanol / chloroform form an intermediate boiling (saddle) azeotrope
diethyl ether (33%) / halothane (66%) a mixture once commonly used in anaesthesia.
benzene / hexafluorobenzene forms a double binary azeotrope.
See also[edit]
Azeotropic distillation
Azeotrope (data)
Eutectic
Batch distillation
Heteroazeotrope
Ebulliometer
Bancroft point
Zeotrope
References[edit]
Jump up ^ https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/azeotrope
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Moore, Walter J. Physical Chemistry, 3rd e Prentice-Hall 1962, pp. 140–142
Jump up ^ For a biography of John Wade, see: F. Gowland Hopkins (1913) "Obituary Notices: John Wade," Journal of the Chemical Society Transactions, 103 : 767-774.
Jump up ^ John Wade and Richard William Merriman (1911) "Influence of water on the boiling point of ethyl alcohol at pressures above and below the atmospheric pressure," Journal of the Chemical Society, Transactions, 99 : 997-1011. From page 1004: " … it is proposed, in order to avoid the cumbrous periphrase "mixtures having a minimum (or maximum) boiling point," to designate them as azeotropic mixtures (α, privative; ζέω, to boil)."
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Hilmen, Eva-Katrine (November 2000). "Separation of Azeotropic Mixtures: Tools for Analysis and Studies on Batch Distillation Operation" (PDF). Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Dept. of Chemical Engineering. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Department of Chemical Engineering University of Alicante. "Numerical Determination of Distillation Boundaries for Multicomponent Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Azeotropic Systems" (PDF).
Jump up ^ National Institute of Standards and Technology. "Standard Reference Material 1828: Ethanol-Water Solutions" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2011.
Jump up ^ Rousseau, Ronald W.; James R. Fair (1987). Handbook of separation process technology. Wiley-IEEE. pp. 261–262. ISBN 0-471-89558-X.
Jump up ^ Morrison, Robert Thornton; Boyd, Robert Neilson, Organic Chemistry, 2nd ed., Allyn and Bacon, 1972, p. 508
Jump up ^ http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/phaseeqia/nonideal.html
Jump up ^ Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed., monograph 4667
Jump up ^ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th ed., p. 2156.
^ Jump up to: a b Jim Clark. "Nonideal Mixtures of Liquids". Chemguide.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-05.
Jump up ^ Ponton, Jack (September 2001). "Azeotrope Databank". The Edinburgh Collection of Open Software for Simulation and Education, Edinburgh University. Archived from the original (Queriable database) on 24 April 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2007.
Jump up ^ Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook – 7th Ed. 1997
Jump up ^ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 44th ed., p. 2181
^ Jump up to: a b Cohen, Julius B. Practical Organic Chemistry MacMillan 1930
Jump up ^ Olson, John D. "Thermodynamics of Hydrogen Bonding Mixtures 4." (PDF). Retrieved 27 January 2008.
External links[edit]
"What is an Azeotrope?". B/R Corporation. Archived from the original on 24 April 2007. Retrieved 24 March 2007.
Ponton, Jack (September 2001). "Azeotrope Databank". The Edinburgh Collection of Open Software for Simulation and Education, Edinburgh University. Archived from the original (Queriable database) on 24 April 2007. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
Dr G. A. Busato; Professor G. Bashein (2004). "The halothane/ether azeotrope – A reconsideration" (PDF). Update in Anaesthesia. 18. Retrieved 26 September 2014.
Azeotrope defined with a limerick.
"Publications about the separation of the azeotropes". BUTE Department of Process Engineering, Hungary. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
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Disruptive selection
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These charts depict the different types of genetic selection. On each graph, the x-axis variable is the type of phenotypic trait and the y-axis variable is the amount of organisms. Group A is the original population and Group B is the population after selection. Graph 1 shows directional selection, in which a single extreme phenotype is favored. Graph 2 depicts stabilizing selection, where the intermediate phenotype is favored over the extreme traits. Graph 3 shows disruptive selection, in which the extreme phenotypes are favored over the intermediate.
A chart showing three types of selection
Disruptive selection, also called diversifying selection, describes changes in population genetics in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values. In this case, the variance of the trait increases and the population is divided into two distinct groups. In this more individuals acquire peripheral character value at both ends of the distribution curve.[1][2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Example
3 Sympatric speciation
4 Other outcomes
5 Significance
6 See also
7 References
Overview[edit]
Natural selection is known to be one of the most important biological processes behind evolution. There are many variations of traits, and some cause greater or lesser reproductive success of the individual. Selection's effect is to promote certain alleles, traits, and individuals that have a higher chance to survive and reproduce in their specific environment. Since the environment has a carrying capacity, nature acts on this mode of selection on individuals to let only the most fit offspring survive and reproduce to their full potential. The more advantageous the trait is the more common it will become in the population. Disruptive selection is a specific type of natural selection that actively selects against the intermediate in a population, favoring both extremes of the spectrum.
Disruptive selection is inferred to oftentimes lead to sympatric speciation through a phyletic gradualism mode of evolution. Disruptive selection can be caused or influenced by multiple factors and also have multiple outcomes, in addition to speciation. Individuals within the same environment can develop a preference for extremes of a trait, against the intermediate. Selection can act on having divergent body morphologies in accessing food, such as beak and dental structure. It is seen that often this is more prevalent in environments where there is not a wide clinal range of resources, causing heterozygote disadvantage or selection against the average.
Niche partitioning allows for selection of differential patterns of resource usage, which can drive speciation. To the contrast, niche conservation pulls individuals toward ancestral ecological traits in an evolutionary tug-of-war. Also, nature tends to have a 'jump on the band wagon' perspective when something beneficial is found. This can lead to the opposite occurring with disruptive selection eventually selecting against the average; when everyone starts taking advantage of that resource it will become depleted and the extremes will be favored. Furthermore, gradualism is a more realistic view when looking at speciation as compared to punctuated equilibrium.
Disruptive selection can initially rapidly intensify divergence; this is because it is only manipulating alleles that already exist. Often it is not creating new ones by mutation which takes a long time. Usually complete reproductive isolation does not occur until many generations, but behavioral or morphological differences separate the species from reproducing generally. Furthermore, generally hybrids have reduced fitness which promotes reproductive isolation.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]
Example[edit]
Suppose there is a population of rabbits. The color of the rabbits is governed by two incompletely dominant traits: black fur, represented by "B", and white fur, represented by "b". A rabbit in this population with a genotype of "BB" would have a phenotype of black fur, a genotype of "Bb" would have grey fur (a display of both black and white), and a genotype of "bb" would have white fur.
If this population of rabbits occurred in an environment that had areas of black rocks as well as areas of white rocks, the rabbits with black fur would be able to hide from predators amongst the black rocks, and the rabbits with white fur likewise amongst the white rocks. The rabbits with grey fur, however, would stand out in all areas of the habitat, and would thereby suffer greater predation.
As a consequence of this type of selective pressure, our hypothetical rabbit population would be disruptively selected for extreme values of the fur color trait: white or black, but not grey. This is an example of underdominance (heterozygote disadvantage) leading to disruptive selection.
Sympatric speciation[edit]
It is believed that disruptive selection is one of the main forces that drive sympatric speciation in natural populations.[12] The pathways which lead from disruptive selection to sympatric speciation are not often prone to deviation; it is a domino effect which depends on the consistency of each factor. These pathways consist of disruptive selection being based on intraspecific competition, which often leads to reproductive isolation, and finally sympatric speciation. It is important to keep in mind that disruptive selection does not always have to be based on intraspecific competition, so in some cases that step of the pathway can be eliminated. What can happen instead is that disruptive selection supports polymorphisms, which can lead to reproductive isolation, and lastly speciation.[13][14][15][16][12][17][18][19]
When disruptive selection is based on intraspecific competition, it in turn promotes ecological niche diversification and polymorphisms. If two morphs, or forms, of a phenotype occupy different niches, it would promote less competition for resource use. Disruptive selection is seen in high density populations rather than in low density populations because intraspecific competition is more common when accompanied by a higher density population. This is due to the fact that higher density populations often have more competition for resources which drives polymorphisms or changes in niches in order to create less competition. If one morph has no need for resources used by the other morph, then it is likely that neither would feel the need to compete or interact, therefore supporting these two morphs to continue occurring in the population.[20][21][22][23][24][25] This theory does not necessarily have a lot of supporting evidence in natural populations, but it has been seen many times in experimental situations using existing populations. These experiments further support that, under the right situations (as described above), this theory could prove to be true in nature.[16][19]
When intraspecific competition is not at work disruptive selection can still lead to sympatric speciation and it does this through maintaining polymorphisms. Once the polymorphisms are maintained in the population, if assortative mating is taking place, then this is one way that disruptive selection can lead to the direction of sympatric speciation.[14][16][17] If different morphs have different mating preferences then assortative mating can occur, especially if the polymorphic trait is a "magic trait" or a trait that is under ecological selection and in turn has a side effect on reproductive behavior. In a situation where the polymorphic trait is not a "magic trait" then there has to be some kind of fitness penalty for those individuals who do not mate assortatively and a mechanism that causes assortative mating has to evolve in the population. For example, if a species of butterflies develops two kinds of wing patterns, crucial to mimicry purposes in their preferred habitat, then mating between two butterflies of different wing patterns leads to an unfavorable heterozygote. Therefore, butterflies will tend to mate with others of the same wing pattern promoting increased fitness, eventually eliminating the heterozygote altogether. This unfavorable heterozygote generates pressure for a mechanism that cause assortative mating which will then lead to reproductive isolation due to the production of post-mating barriers.[26][27][28] It is actually fairly common to see sympatric speciation when disruptive selection is supporting two morphs, specifically when the phenotypic trait affects fitness rather than mate choice.[29]
In both situations, one where intraspecific competition is at work and the other where it is not, if all these factors are in place, they will lead to reproductive isolation, which can lead to sympatric speciation.[18][25][30]
Other outcomes[edit]
polymorphism[13][31]
sexual dimorphism[31][32]
phenotypic plasticity[31][33]
Significance[edit]
Disruptive selection is of particular significance in the history of evolutionary study, as it is involved in one of evolution's "cardinal cases", namely the finch populations observed by Darwin in the Galápagos He observed that the species of finches were similar enough to ostensibly have been descended from a single species. However, they exhibited disruptive variation in beak size. This variation appeared to be adaptively related to the seed size available on the respective islands (big beaks for big seeds, small beaks for small seeds). Medium beaks had difficulty retrieving small seeds and were also not tough enough for the bigger seeds, and were hence maladaptive.
While it is true that disruptive selection can lead to speciation, this is not as quick or straightforward of a process as other types of speciation or evolutionary change. This introduces the topic of gradualism, which is a slow but continuous accumulation of changes over long periods of time.[34] This is largely because the results of disruptive selection are less stable than the results of directional selection (directional selection favors individuals at only one end of the spectrum).
For example, let us take the mathematically straightforward yet biologically improbable case of the rabbits: Suppose directional selection were taking place. The field only has dark rocks in it, so the darker the rabbit, the more effectively it can hide from predators. Eventually there will be a lot of black rabbits in the population (hence lots of "B" alleles) and a lesser amount of grey rabbits (who contribute 50% chromosomes with "B" allele and 50% chromosomes with "b" allele to the population). There will be few white rabbits (not very many contributors of chromosomes with "b" allele to the population). This could eventually lead to a situation in which chromosomes with "b" allele die out, making black the only possible color for all subsequent rabbits. The reason for this is that there is nothing "boosting" the level of "b" chromosomes in the population. They can only go down, and eventually die out.
Consider now the case of disruptive selection. The result is equal numbers of black and white rabbits, and hence equal numbers of chromosomes with "B" or "b" allele, still floating around in that population. Every time a white rabbit mates with a black one, only gray rabbits results. So, in order for the results to "click", there needs to be a force causing white rabbits to choose other white rabbits, and black rabbits to choose other black ones. In the case of the finches, this "force" was geographic/niche isolation.
See also[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Disruptive selection.
Character displacement
Balancing selection
Directional selection
Negative selection (natural selection)
Stabilizing selection
Sympatric speciation
Fluctuating selection
Selection
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Sinervo, Barry. 1997. Disruptive Selection [1] in Adaptation and Selection. 13 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Lemmon, Alan R. 2000. EvoTutor. Natural Selection: Modes of Selection [2]. 13 April 2010.
Jump up ^ Abrams, P.A., Leimar, O., Rueffler, C., Van Dooren, J.M. 2006. Disruptive selection and then what? Trends in Ecology & Evolution Vol. 21 Issue 5:238-245.
Jump up ^ Boam, T.B.; Thoday, J.M. (1959). "Effects of disruptive selection: Polymorphism and divergence without isolation". Heredity. 13: 205–218. doi:10.1038/hdy.1959.23.
Jump up ^ Bolnick, D.I. (2004). "Can Intraspecific competition drive disruptive Selection? An experimental test in natural population of sticklebacks". Evolution. 58 (3): 608–618. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2004.tb01683.x.
Jump up ^ Cook, L.M.; Grant, B.S.; Mallet, J.; Saccheri, I.J. (2012). "Selective bird predation on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus". Biology Letters. 8: 609–612. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.1136. PMC 3391436  . PMID 22319093.
Jump up ^ DeLeon, L.F.; Harrel, A.; Hendry, A.P.; Huber, S.K.; Podos, J. (2009). "Disruptive Selection in a Bimodal Population of Darwin's Finches". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 276 (1657): 753–759. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1321.
Jump up ^ Kingsolver, J.G.; Pfenning, David W. (2007). "Patterns and Power of Phenotypic Selection in Nature". BioScience. 57 (7): 561–572. doi:10.1641/b570706.
Jump up ^ Rice, W.R.; Salt, G.W. (1988). "Speciation Via Disruptive Selection on Habitat Preference: Experimental Evidence". The American Naturalist. 131 (6): 911–917. doi:10.1086/284831.
Jump up ^ Seehausen, M. E.; Van Alphen, J.J.M. (1999). "Can sympatric speciation by disruptive sexual selection explain rapid evolution of cichlid diversity in Lake Victoria?". Ecology Letters. 2 (4): 262–271. doi:10.1046/j.1461-0248.1999.00082.x.
Jump up ^ Smith, T.B. (1993). "Disruptive selection and the genetic basis of bill size polymorphism in the African finch Pyrenestes". Letters to Nature. 363: 618–620. doi:10.1038/363618a0.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, J.M. (1966). "Sympatric speciation". The American Naturalist. 100 (916): 637–950. doi:10.1086/282457. JSTOR 2459301.
^ Jump up to: a b Mather, K. (March 1955). "Polymorphism as an outcome of disruptive selection". Evolution. 9 (1): 51–61. doi:10.2307/2405357. JSTOR 2405357.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, J.M. (July 1962). "Disruptive selection, polymorphism and sympatric speciation". Nature. 195: 60–62. doi:10.1038/195060a0.
Jump up ^ Thoday, J.M.; Gibson, J.B. (1970). "The probability of isolation by disruptive selection". The American Naturalist. 104 (937): 219–230. doi:10.1086/282656. JSTOR 2459154.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kondrashov, A.S.; Mina, M.V. (March 1986). "Sympatric speciation: when is it possible?". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 27 (3): 201–223. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1986.tb01734.x.
^ Jump up to: a b Sharloo, W (1969). "Stable and disruptive selection on a mutant character in drosophila III polymorphism caused by a developmental switch mechanism". Genetics. 65: 693–705.
^ Jump up to: a b Bolnick, D.I.; Fitzpatrick, B.M. (2007). "Sympatric speciation: models and empirical evidence". Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 38: 459–487. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.38.091206.095804.
^ Jump up to: a b Svanback, R.; Bolnick, D.I. (2007). "Intraspecific competition drives increased resource use diversity within a natural population". Proc. R. Soc. B. 274: 839–844. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.0198.
Jump up ^ Merrill, R.M.; et al. (1968). "Disruptive ecological selection on a mating cue". Proceedings of the Royal Society. 10: 1–8.
Jump up ^ Bolnick, D.I. (2007). "Can intraspecific competition drive disruptive selection? An experimental test in natural populations of stickleback". Evolution. 58: 608–618. doi:10.1554/03-326.
Jump up ^ Martin, R.A.; Pfennig, D.W. (2009). "Disruptive selection in natural populations: the roles of ecological specialization and resource competition". The American Naturalist. 174: 268–281. doi:10.1086/600090. PMID 19527118.
Jump up ^ Alvarez, E.R. (2006). "Sympatric speciation as a byproduct of ecological adaptation in the Galician Littorina saxatilis hybrid zone". Journal of Molluscan Studies. 73: 1–10. doi:10.1093/mollus/eyl023.
Jump up ^ Martin, A. R.; Pfenning, D.W. (2012). "Widespread disruptive selection in the wild is associated with intense resource competition". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 12: 1–13. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-12-136.
^ Jump up to: a b Rice, W.R. (1984). "Disruptive selection on habitat preference and evolution of reproductive isolation: a simulation study". Evolution. 38: 1251–1260. doi:10.2307/2408632.
Jump up ^ Naisbit, R.E.; et al. (2001). "Disruptive sexual selection against hybrids contributes to speciation between Heliconius cyndo and Heliconius melpomene". The Royal Society. 268: 1849–1854. doi:10.1098/rspb.2001.1753.
Jump up ^ Dieckmann, U.; Doebeli, M. (1999). "On the origin of species by sympatric speciation". Letters to Nature. 400: 353–357.
Jump up ^ Jiggins, C.D.; et al. (2001). "Reproductive isolation caused by colour pattern mimicry". Letters to Nature. 411: 302–305.
Jump up ^ Kondrashov, A.S.; Kondrashov, F.A. (1999). "Interactions among quantitative traits in the course of sympatric speciation". Nature. 400: 351–354. doi:10.1038/22514. PMID 10432111.
Jump up ^ Via, S (1999). "Reproductive Isolation between sympatric races of Pea Aphids I. gene flow restriction and habitat choice". Evolution. 53: 1446–1457. doi:10.2307/2640891.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rueffler, C.; et al. (2006). "Disruptive selection and then what?". Trends in Ecological Evolution. 21: 238–245. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2006.03.003.
Jump up ^ Lande, R (1980). "Sexual Dimorphism, sexual selection, and adaptation in polygenic characters". Evolution. 34: 292–305. doi:10.2307/2407393.
Jump up ^ Nussey, D.H.; et al. (2005). "Selection on heritable phenotypic plasticity in a wild bird population". Science. 310: 304–306. doi:10.1126/science.1117004. PMID 16224020.
Jump up ^ McComas, W.F.; Alters, B.J. (September 1994). "Modeling modes of evolution: comparing phyletic gradualism & punctuated equilibrium". The American Biology Teacher. 56 (6): 354–360. doi:10.2307/4449851. JSTOR 4449851.
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Topics in molecular evolution
Natural selection
Balancing selection
Directional selection
Disruptive selection
Negative selection
Stabilizing selection
Selective sweep
Models
Models of DNA evolution
Models of nucleotide substitution
Allele frequency
Ka/Ks ratio
Tajima's D
Fay and Wu's H
Molecular processes
Gene conversion
Gene duplication
Silent mutation
Synonymous substitution
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