text:
Eighth Crusade
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Eighth Crusade
Part of the Crusades
Death of Louis IX during the siege of Tunis
Date
1270
Location
Tunisia
Result
Muslim victory
Treaty of Tunis
Death of Louis IX
Opening of trade with Tunis
Territorial
changes
Status quo ante bellum
Belligerents
Kingdom of France
Kingdom of Sicily
Kingdom of Navarre Hafsid dynasty
Commanders and leaders
Louis IX #
Charles I of Sicily
Theobald II of Navarre Muhammad I al-Mustansir
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Book:The Crusades
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The Eighth Crusade was a crusade launched by Louis IX of France against the city of Tunis in 1270. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades of Frederick II are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth. The crusade is considered a failure after Louis died shortly after arriving on the shores of Tunisia, with his disease-ridden army dispersing back to Europe shortly afterwards.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Preparation
3 Campaign and siege
4 Literary response
5 Notes
6 References
Background[edit]
Despite the failure of the Seventh Crusade, which ended in the capture of King Louis by the Mamluks, the King did not lose interest in crusading. He continued to send financial aid and military support to the settlements in Outremer from 1254 to 1266.[2] While the "crusade" of the King's brother Charles of Anjou against the Hohenstaufen Kingdom of Sicily occupied Papal attention for some years,[3] the advance of Baibars in Syria during the early 1260s became increasingly alarming to Christendom. The War of Saint Sabas between Genoa and Venice had drawn in the Crusader States and depleted their resources and manpower. The exhausted settlements were systematically overrun by the methodical campaigns of Baibars.[4] By 1265, he had raided Galilee and destroyed the cathedral of Nazareth, captured Caesarea and Arsuf and temporarily took Haifa.[5] In late 1266, Louis informed Pope Clement IV that he intended to go on crusade again.[6]
Preparation[edit]
Louis formally took the cross on 24 March 1267 at an assembly of his nobles. A second ceremony took place on 5 June 1267 before a papal legate in Notre-Dame de Paris. Louis's son-in-law, King Theobald II of Navarre, who had also taken the cross, was also present.[7] The response was less enthusiastic than to his calling of the Seventh Crusade in 1248, although its unpopularity may have been exaggerated by his chronicler Jean de Joinville, who was personally opposed to the venture. The crusade was set to sail from Aigues-Mortes in early summer 1270 in Genoese and Marseillois shipping. An Aragonese contingent under James I of Aragon sailed from Barcelona in September 1269, but was caught in a storm and badly damaged; most of the survivors returned home, while one squadron under the King's natural sons Pedro Fernández and Fernán Sánchez reached Acre. Too weak to engage Baibars, they soon returned to Aragon as well.[8]
Louis' initial plan was to descend on the coast of Outremer by way of Cyprus. However, a new plan was developed in 1269, wherein the fleet would first descend on Tunis. This change has often been attributed to the King's brother Charles of Anjou, whose newly-conquered Kingdom of Sicily would benefit from a renewal of its traditional influence on Tunis. However, the details of Charles' preparations suggest that he was not initially aware of the change of plans, which originated at the French court. Louis may have thought that Tunis was an important base of supplies for Egypt; Geoffrey of Beaulieu stated that the King thought that the Khalif of Tunis, Muhammad I al-Mustansir, might be persuaded to convert to Christianity, if given military support.[9]
Pope Clement ceded a tenth of the church's income in Navarre to King Theobald for the financing the crusade. The prior of Roncesvalles and the dean of Tudela were to oversee the collection of the tenth. The preaching of the crusade in Navarre was primarily undertaken by the Franciscans and Dominicans of Pamplona.[7]
Campaign and siege[edit]
A large and well-organized fleet under Louis IX sailed from Aigues-Mortes about a month late, on 1 July 1270. The following day a second fleet under the King of Navarre sailed from Marseille. The two fleets joined up at Cagliari on the southern coast of Sardinia.[7] They landed on the Tunisian coast on 18 July. The crusaders built a fortified camp on the ruins of Carthage and awaited the arrival of the Sicilian contingent under Charles of Anjou. The North African summer bred pestilence, and an epidemic of dysentery swept through the crusading ranks. Louis' Damietta-born son John Tristan died of the disease on 3 August. Soon Louis, too, fell sick, and died, in penitence, on a bed of ashes on 25 August. His brother Charles arrived just after his death.[10]
Because of further diseases the siege of Tunis was abandoned on 30 October by an agreement with the sultan. In this agreement the Christians gained free trade with Tunis, and residence for monks and priests in the city was guaranteed. After hearing of the death of Louis and the evacuation of the crusaders from Tunis, Sultan Baibars of Egypt cancelled his plan to send Egyptian troops to fight Louis in Tunis.[11] The treaty was quite beneficial to Charles of Anjou, who received one-third of a war indemnity from the Tunisians, and was promised that Hohenstaufen refugees in the sultanate would be expelled.[12]
Prince Edward of England arrived with an English fleet the day before the crusaders left Tunis. The English returned to Sicily with the rest of the crusaders; the combined fleet was badly damaged in a storm off Trapani. At the end of April 1271, the English continued to Acre to carry on the Ninth Crusade.
Literary response[edit]
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Bertran d'Alamanon, a diplomat in the service of Charles of Anjou, and Ricaut Bono criticised the de Papal policy of pursuing wars in Italy with money that should have gone overseas.
The failure of the Eighth Crusade, like those of its predecessors, caused a response to be crafted in Occitan poetry by the troubadours. The death of Louis of France especially sparked their creative output, notable considering the hostility which the troubadours had previously shown towards the French monarchy during the Albigensian Crusade. Three planhs, songs of lament, were composed for the death of Louis IX.
Guilhem d'Autpol composed Fortz tristors es e salvaj'a retraire for Louis. Raimon Gaucelm de Bezers composed Qui vol aver complida amistansa to celebrate the preparations of the Crusade in 1268, but in 1270 he had to compose Ab grans trebalhs et ab grans marrimens in commemoration of the French king. Austorc de Segret composed No sai quim so, tan sui desconoissens, a more general Crusading song, that laments Louis but also that either God or Satan is misleading Christians. He also attacks Louis' brother Charles, whom he calls the caps e guitz (head and guide) of the infidels, because he convinced Louis to attack Tunis and not the Holy Land, and he immediately negotiated a peace with the Muslims after Louis' death.
After the Crusade, the aged troubadour Peire Cardenal wrote a song, Totz lo mons es vestitiz et abrazatz (more or less: the entire world is besieged and surrounded [by falsehood]), encouraging Louis' heir, Philip III, to go to the Holy Land to aid Edward Longshanks.
Satiric verses were composed in Tunis about Louis' new plan to invade Tunis: "O Louis, Tunis is the sister of Egypt! thus expect your ordeal! you will find your tomb here instead of the house of Ibn Lokman; and the eunuch Sobih will be here replaced by Munkir and Nakir.".[13]
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Crusades of St. Louis". Britannica. Retrieved 28 May 2015.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 207–208.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 209.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 239–240.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 240.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 241.
^ Jump up to: a b c Narbaitz 2007, pp. 256–57.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 209–210.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 210.
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 210–211.
Jump up ^ Al-Maqrizi, p. 69/vol.2
Jump up ^ Riley-Smith 2005, p. 211.
Jump up ^ Verses by a contemporary Tunesian named Ahmad Ismail Alzayat (Al-Maqrizi, p.462/vol.1) – House of Ibn Lokman was the house in Al-Mansurah where Louis was imprisoned in chains after he was captured in Fariskur during the 7th Crusade and where he was under the guard of a eunuch named Sobih. According to Muslim creed Munkir and Nakir are two angels who interrogate the dead.
References[edit]
Al-Maqrizi, Al Selouk Leme'refatt Dewall al-Melouk, Dar al-kotob, Cairo 1997. English translation by Bohn, Henry G., The Road to Knowledge of the Return of Kings, Chronicles of the Crusades, AMS Press, 1969.
Beebe, Bruce, "The English Baronage and the Crusade of 1270," in Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research, vol. xlviii (118), November 1975, pp. 127–148.
Narbaitz, Pierre (2007). Navarra o cuando los vascos tenían reyes. Tafalla: Editorial Txalaparta.
Paterson, Linda (2003). "Lyric allusions to the crusades and the Holy Land." Colston Symposium.
Richard, Jean. The Crusades, C.1071-c.1291, Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-521-62566-1
Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2005) [1987]. The Crusades: A History (2nd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-8264-7270-2.
Strayer, Joseph R. (1969). "The Crusades of Louis IX". In R. L. Wolff; H. W. Hazard. A History of the Crusades, Volume II: The Later Crusades (1189–1311). Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 486–518.
Throop, Palmer A., "Criticism of Papal Crusade Policy in Old French and Provençal." Speculum, Vol. 13, No. 4. (October, 1938), pp. 379–412.
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text:
Menstruation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about humans. For other mammals, see Menstruation (mammal).
Figure showing the progression of the menstrual cycle and the different hormones contributing to it.
Menstruation, also known as a period or monthly,[1] is the regular discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (known as menses) from the inner lining of the uterus through the vagina.[2] The first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche.[1] However, periods may occasionally start as young as eight years old and still be considered normal.[2] The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world.[3] The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 31 days in adults (an average of 28 days).[2][3] Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days.[2] Menstruation stops occurring after menopause, which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age.[4] Periods also stop during pregnancy and typically do not resume during the initial months of breastfeeding.[2]
Up to 80% of women report having some symptoms prior to menstruation.[5] Common signs and symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability, and mood changes.[6] These may interfere with normal life, therefore qualifying as premenstrual syndrome, in 20 to 30% of women.[5] In 3 to 8%, symptoms are severe.[5]
A lack of periods, known as amenorrhea, is when periods do not occur by age 15 or have not occurred in 90 days.[2] Other problems with the menstrual cycle include painful periods and abnormal bleeding such as bleeding between periods or heavy bleeding.[2] Menstruation in other animals occurs in primates, such as apes and monkeys, as well as bats and the elephant shrew.[7][8]
The menstrual cycle occurs due to the rise and fall of hormones.[2] This cycle results in the thickening of the lining of the uterus, and the growth of an egg, (which is required for pregnancy).[2] The egg is released from an ovary around day fourteen in the cycle; the thickened lining of the uterus provides nutrients to an embryo after implantation.[2] If pregnancy does not occur, the lining is released in what is known as menstruation.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Onset and frequency
2 Health effects
2.1 Cramps
2.2 Mood and behavior
2.3 Bleeding
2.4 Menstrual disorders
3 Ovulation suppression
3.1 Birth control
3.2 Breastfeeding
4 Menstrual management
4.1 Disposable products
4.2 Reusable products
4.3 Non-commercial items
5 Society and culture
5.1 Traditions and taboos
5.1.1 Islam
5.1.2 Judaism
5.1.3 Hinduism
5.1.4 Christianity
5.1.5 Secular culture
5.1.6 Other
5.2 Sexual activity
5.3 Education
5.4 Cost
6 Evolution
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Onset and frequency
Diagram illustrating how the uterus lining builds up and breaks down during the menstrual cycle.
The first menstrual period occurs after the onset of pubertal growth, and is called menarche. The average age of menarche is 12 to 15.[1][9] However, it may start as early as eight.[2] The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world, and earlier in the developed world.[3] The average age of menarche has changed little in the United States since the 1950s.[3]
Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle and its beginning is used as the marker between cycles. The first day of menstrual bleeding is the date used for the last menstrual period (LMP). The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women, and 21 to 31 days in adults (an average of 28 days).[2][3]
Perimenopause is when fertility in a female declines, and menstruation occurs less regularly in the years leading up to the final menstrual period, when a female stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. The medical definition of menopause is one year without a period and typically occurs between 45 and 55 in Western countries.[4][10]:p. 381
During pregnancy and for some time after childbirth, menstruation does not occur; this state is known as amenorrhoea. If menstruation has not resumed, fertility is low during lactation. The average length of postpartum amenorrhoea is longer when certain breastfeeding practices are followed; this may be done intentionally as birth control.
Health effects
Further information: Premenstrual syndrome
In most women, various physical changes are brought about by fluctuations in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle. This includes muscle contractions of the uterus (menstrual cramping) that can precede or accompany menstruation. Some may notice water retention, changes in sex drive, fatigue, breast tenderness, or nausea. Breast swelling and discomfort may be caused by water retention during menstruation.[11] Usually, such sensations are mild, and some females notice very few physical changes associated with menstruation. A healthy diet, reduced consumption of salt, caffeine and alcohol, and regular exercise may be effective for women in controlling some symptoms.[12] Severe symptoms that disrupt daily activities and functioning may be diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Symptoms before menstruation are known as premenstrual molimina.
Cramps
Further information: Dysmenorrhea
Many women experience painful cramps, also known as dysmenorrhea, during menstruation.[13] Pain results from ischemia and muscle contractions. Spiral arteries in the secretory endometrium constrict, resulting in ischemia to the secretory endometrium. This allows the uterine lining to slough off. The myometrium contracts spasmodically in order to push the menstrual fluid through the cervix and out of the vagina. The contractions are mediated by a release of prostaglandins.
Painful menstrual cramps that result from an excess of prostaglandin release are referred to as primary dysmenorrhea. Primary dysmenorrhea usually begins within a year or two of menarche, typically with the onset of ovulatory cycles.[14] Treatments that target the mechanism of pain include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and hormonal contraceptives. NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin production. With long-term treatment, hormonal birth control reduces the amount of uterine fluid/tissue expelled from the uterus. Thus resulting in shorter, less painful menstruation.[15] These drugs are typically more effective than treatments that do not target the source of the pain (e.g. acetaminophen).[16] Risk factors for primary dysmenorrhea include: early age at menarche, long or heavy menstrual periods, smoking, and a family history of dysmenorrhea.[14] Regular physical activity may limit the severity of uterine cramps.[14]
For many women, primary dysmenorrhea gradually subsides in late second generation. Pregnancy has also been demonstrated to lessen the severity of dysmenorrhea, when menstruation resumes. However, dysmenorrhea can continue until menopause. 5–15% of women with dysmenorrhea experience symptoms severe enough to interfere with daily activities.[14]
Secondary dysmenorrhea is the diagnosis given when menstruation pain is a secondary cause to another disorder. Conditions causing secondary dysmenorrhea include endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and uterine adenomyosis. Rarely, congenital malformations, intrauterine devices, certain cancers, and pelvic infections cause secondary dysmenorrhea.[14] Symptoms include pain spreading to hips, lower back and thighs, nausea, and frequent diarrhea or constipation.[17] If the pain occurs between menstrual periods, lasts longer than the first few days of the period, or is not adequately relieved by the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or hormonal contraceptives, women should be evaluated for secondary causes of dysmenorrhea.[10]:p. 379
When severe pelvic pain and bleeding suddenly occur or worsen during a cycle, the woman or girl should be evaluated for ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. This evaluation begins with a pregnancy test and should be done as soon as unusual pain begins, because ectopic pregnancies can be life‑threatening.[18]
In some cases, stronger physical and emotional or psychological sensations may interfere with normal activities, and include menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea), migraine headaches, and depression. Dysmenorrhea, or severe uterine pain, is particularly common for young females (one study found that 67.2% of girls aged 13–19 have it).[19]
The medications in the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) class are commonly used to relieve menstrual cramps. Some herbs are also claimed to help.[20]
Mood and behavior
Some women experience emotional disturbances starting one or two weeks before their period, and stopping soon after the period has started.[6] Symptoms may include mental tension, irritability, mood swings, and crying spells. Problems with concentration and memory may occur.[6] There may also be depression or anxiety.[6]
This is part of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and is estimated to occur in 20 to 30% of women. In 3 to 8% it is severe.[5]
More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Rarely, in individuals who are susceptible, menstruation may be a trigger for menstrual psychosis.
Extreme psychological stress can also result in periods stopping.[21]
Bleeding
The average volume of menstrual fluid during a monthly menstrual period is 35 milliliters (2.4 tablespoons of menstrual fluid) with 10–80 milliliters (1–6 tablespoons of menstrual fluid) considered typical. Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the flow, although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood. Menstrual fluid contains some blood, as well as cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue. Menstrual fluid is reddish-brown, a slightly darker color than venous blood.[10]:p. 381
About half of menstrual fluid is blood. This blood contains sodium, calcium, phosphate, iron, and chloride, the extent of which depends on the woman. As well as blood, the fluid consists of cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue. Vaginal fluids in menses mainly contribute water, common electrolytes, organ moieties, and at least 14 proteins, including glycoproteins.[22]
Many mature females notice blood clots during menstruation. These appear as clumps of blood that may look like tissue. If there are questions (for example, was there a miscarriage?), examination under a microscope can confirm if it was endometrial tissue or pregnancy tissue (products of conception) that was shed.[23] Sometimes menstrual clots or shed endometrial tissue is incorrectly thought to indicate an early-term miscarriage of an embryo. An enzyme called plasmin – contained in the endometrium – tends to inhibit the blood from clotting.
The amount of iron lost in menstrual fluid is relatively small for most women.[24] In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies. 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating.[25] Heavy menstrual bleeding, occurring monthly, can result in anemia.
Menstrual disorders
There is a wide spectrum of differences in how women experience menstruation. There are several ways that someone's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm, any of which should be discussed with a doctor to identify the underlying cause:
Symptom
See article
Infrequent periods Oligomenorrhea
Short or extremely light periods Hypomenorrhea
Too-frequent periods (defined as more frequently than every 21 days) Polymenorrhea
Extremely heavy or long periods (one guideline is soaking a sanitary napkin or tampon every hour or so, or menstruating for longer than 7 days) Hypermenorrhea
Extremely painful periods Dysmenorrhea
Breakthrough bleeding (also called spotting) between periods; normal in many females Metrorrhagia
Absent periods Amenorrhea
There is a movement among gynecologists to discard the terms noted above, which although they are widely used, do not have precise definitions. Many now argue to describe menstruation in simple terminology, including:
Cycle regularity (irregular, regular, or absent)
Frequency of menstruation (frequent, normal, or infrequent)
Duration of menstrual flow (prolonged, normal, or shortened)
Volume of menstrual flow (heavy, normal, or light)[26]
Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal women who do not ovulate normally (i.e. are anovulatory). All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention; they may indicate hormone imbalances, uterine fibroids, or other problems. As pregnant women may bleed, a pregnancy test forms part of the evaluation of abnormal bleeding.
Women who had undergone female genital mutilation (particularly type III- infibulation) a practice common in parts of Africa, may experience menstrual problems, such as slow and painful menstruation, that is caused by the near-complete sealing off of the vagina.[27]
Premature or delayed menarche should be investigated if menarche begins before 9 years, if menarche has not begun by age 15, if there is no breast development by age 13, or if there is no period by 3 years after the onset of breast development.[3]
Ovulation suppression
Birth control
Main article: Hormonal contraception
Half-used blister pack of a combined oral contraceptive. The white pills are placebos, mainly for the purpose of reminding the woman to continue taking the pills.
Since the late 1960s, many women have chosen to control the frequency of menstruation with hormonal birth control pills. They are most often combined hormone pills containing estrogen and are taken in 28-day cycles, 21 hormonal pills with either a 7-day break from pills, or 7 placebo pills during which the woman menstruates. Hormonal birth control acts by using low doses of hormones to prevent ovulation, and thus prevent pregnancy in sexually active women. But by using placebo pills for a 7-day span during the month, a regular bleeding period is still experienced.
Injections such as depo-provera became available in the 1960s. Progestogen implants such as Norplant in the 1980s and extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pills in the early 2000s.
Using synthetic hormones, it is possible for a woman to completely eliminate menstrual periods.[28] When using progestogen implants, menstruation may be reduced to 3 or 4 menstrual periods per year. By taking progestogen-only contraceptive pills (sometimes called the 'mini-pill') continuously without a 7-day span of using placebo pills, menstrual periods do not occur. Some women do this simply for convenience in the short-term,[29] while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible.
Some women use hormonal contraception in this way to eliminate their periods for months or years at a time, a practice called menstrual suppression. When the first birth control pill was being developed, the researchers were aware that they could use the contraceptive to space menstrual periods up to 90 days apart, but they settled on a 28-day cycle that would mimic a natural menstrual cycle and produce monthly periods. The intention behind this decision was the hope of the inventor, John Rock, to win approval for his invention from the Roman Catholic Church. That attempt failed, but the 28-day cycle remained the standard when the pill became available to the public.[30] There is debate among medical researchers about the potential long-term impacts of these practices upon female health. Some researchers point to the fact that historically, females have had far fewer menstrual periods throughout their lifetimes, a result of shorter life expectancies, as well as a greater length of time spent pregnant or breast-feeding, which reduced the number of periods experienced by females.[31] These researchers believe that the higher number of menstrual periods by females in modern societies may have a negative impact upon their health. On the other hand, some researchers believe there is a greater potential for negative impacts from exposing females perhaps unnecessarily to regular low doses of synthetic hormones over their reproductive years.[32]
Breastfeeding
Main article: Lactational amenorrhea method
Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, follicular development but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycles may resume.[33] Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently.[34] The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea.[35] On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum.[36]
Menstrual management
Main article: Feminine hygiene
Further information: Menstrual hygiene day
Menstruation is managed by menstruating women to avoid damage to clothing or to accord with norms of public life. Menstrual management practices range from medical suppression of menstruation, through wearing special garments or other items, washing or avoidance of washing, disposal and laundry of stained materials, to separation of menstruators to particular places or activities.
Menstrual products (also called "feminine hygiene" products) are made to absorb or catch menstrual blood. A number of different products are available - some are disposable, some are reusable. Where women can afford it, items used to absorb or catch menses are usually commercially manufactured products.
Disposable products
Disposable sanitary napkin
Tampon in plastic applicator
Sanitary napkins (also called sanitary towels or pads) – Rectangular pieces of material worn attached to the underwear to absorb menstrual flow, often with an adhesive backing to hold the pad in place. Disposable pads may contain wood pulp or gel products, usually with a plastic lining and bleached.
Tampons – Disposable cylinders of treated rayon/cotton blends or all-cotton fleece, usually bleached, that are inserted into the vagina to absorb menstrual flow.
Disposable menstrual cups made of soft plastic – A firm, flexible cup-shaped device worn inside the vagina to collect menstrual flow.
Reusable products
Menstrual cup
Cloth menstrual pad
Menstrual cups – A firm, flexible bell-shaped device worn inside the vagina to collect menstrual flow. Menstrual cups are usually made of silicone and can last 5 years or longer.
Reusable cloth pads – Pads that are made of cotton (often organic), terrycloth, or flannel, and may be handsewn (from material or reused old clothes and towels) or storebought.
Padded panties or period-proof underwear – Reusable cloth (usually cotton) underwear with extra absorbent layers sewn in to absorb flow. Some also use patented technology to be leak resistant, such as the brand THINX.
Sea sponges – Natural sponges, worn internally like a tampon to absorb menstrual flow.
Blanket, towel – (also known as a draw sheet) – large reusable piece of cloth, most often used at night, placed between legs to absorb menstrual flow.
Non-commercial items
In developing countries, many poor women cannot afford commercial feminine hygiene products. Instead, they use materials found in the environment or other improvised materials. Absorption materials that may be used by women who cannot afford anything else include: sand, ash, small hole in earth,[37] cloth, whole leaf, leaf fibre (such as water hyacinth, banana, papyrus, cotton fibre), paper (toilet paper, re-used newspaper, pulped and dried paper),[38] animal pelt e.g. goat skin,[37] double layer of underwear, skirt or sari.[39]
Society and culture
Amra Padatik India, celebration of Menstrual Hygiene Day in India
Traditions and taboos
Main article: Culture and menstruation
Further information: Menstrual taboo
Many religions have menstruation-related traditions.
Islam
Islam prohibits sexual contact with women during menstruation in the 2nd chapter of the Quran. Women are exempted from Salah (prayer). They are also prohibited from fasting and obligatory fasts of Ramadan are to be performed during other days. During menses pilgrimages are allowed; however, circumambulation of the Kaaba is prohibited and is to be performed during other times.
Judaism
The laws of Niddah in Judaism may ban certain actions during menstruation (such as sexual intercourse in some movements of Judaism) or rituals performed at the end of each menses (such as the mikvah). Some traditional societies sequester women in residences called "menstrual huts" that are reserved for that exclusive purpose.
Hinduism
In Hinduism, it is also frowned upon to go to a temple and do pooja (i.e., pray) or do pooja at religious events if one is menstruating. Metaformic Theory, as proposed by cultural theorist Judy Grahn and others, places menstruation as a central organizing idea in the creation of culture[40] and the formation of humans' earliest rituals.
Christianity
Although most Christian denominations do not follow any specific or prescribed rites for menstruation, Western civilization, which has been predominantly Christian, has a history of menstrual taboos, with menstruating women having been believed to be dangerous.[41]
Secular culture
Anthropologists, Lock and Nguyen (2010), have noted that the heavy medicalization of the reproductive life-stages of women in the West, mimic power structures that are deemed, in other cultural practices, to function as a form of "social control".[42] Medicalization of the stages of women's lives, such as birth and menstruation, has enlivened a feminist perspective that investigates the social implications of biomedicine’s practice. "[C]ultural analysis of reproduction…attempts to show how women…exhibit resistance and create dominant alternative meanings about the body and reproduction to those dominant among the medical profession."[42]
Other
In some parts of South Asia, women are isolated during menstruation. In 2005, in Nepal, the Supreme Court abolished the practice of chhaupadi, keeping women in cow-sheds during menstruation.[43]
Sexual activity
Sexual intercourse during menstruation does not cause damage in and of itself, but the woman's body is more vulnerable during this time. Vaginal pH is higher and thus less acidic than normal,[44] the cervix is lower in its position, the cervical opening is more dilated, and the uterine endometrial lining is absent, thus allowing organisms direct access to the bloodstream through the numerous blood vessels that nourish the uterus. All these conditions increase the chance of infection during menstruation.[45]
Education
Menstruation education is frequently taught in combination with sex education in the US, although one study suggests that girls would prefer their mothers to be the primary source of information about menstruation and puberty.[46] A Nigerian study showed the following breakdown in menstruation education: “parents of 56.1%, friends of 53.18%, books of 45.56%, teachers of 44.15%, internet of 45.19%, and health centers of 54.14%” held the most influence in terms of menstruation education.[47] Information about menstruation is often shared among friends and peers, which may promote a more positive outlook on puberty.[48]
The quality of menstrual education in a society determines the accuracy of people's understanding of the process.[49] This is in part due to the segregation of male and female peers during educational sessions. Failure to teach an accurate understanding of menstruation to students of all genders has social implications for gendered relationships and the objectification of women’s bodies. Discomfort arises when students do not have access to the same information, reinforcing the belief “that menstruation is gross and should be kept hidden”.[50] Girls are encouraged to conceal the fact that they may be menstruating in order to be considered desirable. Sexual harassment and teasing about menstruation cause girls anxiety as they must struggle to ensure that they give no sign of menstruation.[50]
Effective educational programs are essential to providing children and adolescents with clear and accurate information about menstruation. Several education and sexual health experts have studied the key features necessary for such programs. Some experts maintain that schools are an appropriate place for menstrual education to take place because they are an institution that young people attend consistently. Schools are intended to expand students’ knowledge and thus serve as an appropriate site for conveying menstrual education.[51]
Other experts argue that programs led by peers or third-party agencies are more effective than those taught in the school classroom. This may be due to the use of small group interactions, the ability of these programs to target specific populations, or the possibility that many teenagers choose to participate voluntarily in these programs, rather than being mandated to attend school programs.[52]
Cost
Further information: Tampon tax
The cost of commercial products for menstrual management is considered to be unacceptably high for many women. At least half a million women across the world do not have enough money to adequately afford these products. This can result in missing school or even dropping out.[53]
Known as "period poverty" this situation has resulted in efforts to eliminate taxes on these products. A study by the WHO and UNICEF showed that one out of five women in Scotland have been forced to improvise with items including toilet paper and old clothes due to the high cost of commercial products.
In July 2017, a pilot program began in Scotland to have free sanitary products available at schools and food banks for women who cannot afford them. Further to this half year pilot program, Scotland's opposition Labour Party intends to introduce a bill to make this permanent. Scotland is the first country to ban period poverty.[54]
In 2015 a petition was put forward in England seeking the elimination of the 5% "tampon tax". The government voted in favour but it has yet to be implemented due to Brexit complications. In England, one in ten women between 14 and 21 cannot afford menstrual management products.
In the United States, nine states have eliminated the tampon tax, and seven states have introduced legislation. In January 2018, California rejected a proposal to eliminate tampon tax.[55]
Evolution
All female placental mammals have a uterine lining that builds up when the animal is fertile, but it is dismantled when the animal is infertile. Most female mammals have an estrous cycle, yet only primates (including humans), several species of bats, and elephant shrews have a menstrual cycle.[56] (Killer whales, Orcinus orca, are one of the few species to experience menopause.) Some anthropologists have questioned the energy cost of rebuilding the endometrium every fertility cycle. However, anthropologist Beverly Strassmann has proposed that the energy savings of not having to continuously maintain the uterine lining more than offsets energy cost of having to rebuild the lining in the next fertility cycle, even in species such as humans where much of the lining is lost through bleeding (overt menstruation) rather than reabsorbed (covert menstruation).[57][58]
Many have questioned the evolution of overt menstruation in humans and related species, speculating on what advantage there could be to losing blood associated with dismantling the endometrium, rather than absorbing it, as most mammals do. Humans do, in fact, reabsorb about two-thirds of the endometrium each cycle. Strassmann asserts that overt menstruation occurs not because it is beneficial in itself. Rather, the fetal development of these species requires a more developed endometrium, one which is too thick to reabsorb completely. Strassman correlates species that have overt menstruation to those that have a large uterus relative to the adult female body size.[57]
Beginning in 1971, some research suggested that menstrual cycles of cohabiting human females became synchronized. A few anthropologists hypothesized that in hunter-gatherer societies, males would go on hunting journeys whilst the females of the tribe were menstruating, speculating that the females would not have been as receptive to sexual relations while menstruating.[59][60] However, there is currently significant dispute as to whether menstrual synchrony exists.[61]
See also
Menstrual cycle
Menstrual Hygiene Day
References
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Further reading
Howie, Gillian; Shail, Andrew (2005). Menstruation: A Cultural History. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-3935-7. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
Knight, Chris (1995). Blood Relations: Menstruation and the Origins of Culture. New Haven and London: Yale University. ISBN 0-300-04911-0. Retrieved 9 November 2013.
External links
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Menstruation
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Menstruation.
Museum of Menstruation
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Human physiology of sexual reproduction
Menstrual cycle
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Menstrual cycle
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