text:
Gastric acid
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Gastric acid, gastric juice or stomach acid, is a digestive fluid formed in the stomach and is composed of hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl). The acid plays a key role in digestion of proteins, by activating digestive enzymes, and making ingested proteins unravel so that digestive enzymes break down the long chains of amino acids. Gastric acid is produced by cells in the lining of the stomach, which are coupled in feedback systems to increase acid production when needed. Other cells in the stomach produce bicarbonate, a base, to buffer the fluid, ensuring that it does not become too acidic. These cells also produce mucus, which forms a viscous physical barrier to prevent gastric acid from damaging the stomach. The pancreas further produces large amounts of bicarbonate and secretes bicarbonate through the pancreatic duct to the duodenum to completely neutralize any gastric acid that passes further down into the digestive tract.
The main constituent of gastric acid is hydrochloric acid which is produced by parietal cells (also called oxyntic cells) in the gastric glands in the stomach. Its secretion is a complex and relatively energetically expensive process. Parietal cells contain an extensive secretory network (called canaliculi) from which the hydrochloric acid is secreted into the lumen of the stomach. The pH of gastric acid is 1.5 to 3.5[1] in the human stomach lumen, the acidity being maintained by the proton pump H+/K+ ATPase. The parietal cell releases bicarbonate into the bloodstream in the process, which causes a temporary rise of pH in the blood, known as an alkaline tide.
The highly acidic environment in the stomach lumen causes proteins from food to lose their characteristic folded structure (or denature). This exposes the protein's peptide bonds. The gastric chief cells of the stomach secrete enzymes for protein breakdown (inactive pepsinogen, and in infancy rennin). Hydrochloric acid activates pepsinogen into the enzyme pepsin, which then helps digestion by breaking the bonds linking amino acids, a process known as proteolysis. In addition, many microorganisms have their growth inhibited by such an acidic environment, which is helpful to prevent infection.
Contents
[hide]
1 Secretion
2 Regulation of secretion
3 Neutralization
4 Role in disease
5 Pharmacology
6 History
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Secretion[edit]
A typical adult human stomach will secrete about 1.5 liters of gastric acid daily.[2] Gastric acid secretion happens in several steps. Chloride and hydrogen ions are secreted separately from the cytoplasm of parietal cells and mixed in the canaliculi. Gastric acid is then secreted into the lumen of the gastric gland and gradually reaches the main stomach lumen.[2] The exact manner in which the secreted acid reaches the stomach lumen is controversial, as acid must first cross the relatively pH neutral gastric mucus layer.
Chloride and sodium ions are secreted actively from the cytoplasm of the parietal cell into the lumen of the canaliculus. This creates a negative potential of -40 mV to -70 mV across the parietal cell membrane that causes potassium ions and a small number of sodium ions to diffuse from the cytoplasm into the parietal cell canaliculi.
The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to form carbonic acid. This acid immediately dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions. The hydrogen ions leave the cell through H+/K+ ATPase antiporter pumps.
At the same time, sodium ions are actively reabsorbed. This means that the majority of secreted K+ and Na+ ions return to the cytoplasm. In the canaliculus, secreted hydrogen and chloride ions mix and are secreted into the lumen of the oxyntic gland.
The highest concentration that gastric acid reaches in the stomach is 160 mM in the canaliculi. This is about 3 million times that of arterial blood, but almost exactly isotonic with other bodily fluids. The lowest pH of the secreted acid is 0.8,[3] but the acid is diluted in the stomach lumen to a pH between 1 and 3.
There is a small continuous basal secretion of gastric acid between meals of usually less than 10 mEq/hour.[4]
There are three phases in the secretion of gastric acid which increase the secretion rate in order to digest a meal:[2]
The cephalic phase: Thirty percent of the total gastric acid secretions to be produced is stimulated by anticipation of eating and the smell or taste of food. This signalling occurs from higher centres in the brain through the vagus nerve (Cranial Nerve X). It activates parietal cells to release acid and ECL cells to release histamine. The vagus nerve (CN X) also releases gastrin releasing peptide onto G cells. Finally, it also inhibits somatostatin release from D cells.[5]
The gastric phase: About sixty percent of the total acid for a meal is secreted in this phase. Acid secretion is stimulated by distension of the stomach and by amino acids present in the food.
The intestinal phase: The remaining 10% of acid is secreted when chyme enters the small intestine, and is stimulated by small intestine distension and by amino acids. The duodenal cells release entero-oxyntin which acts on parietal cells without affecting gastrin.[5]
Regulation of secretion[edit]
Diagram depicting the major determinants of gastric acid secretion, with inclusion of drug targets for peptic ulcer disease (PUD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
Gastric acid production is regulated by both the autonomic nervous system and several hormones. The parasympathetic nervous system, via the vagus nerve, and the hormone gastrin stimulate the parietal cell to produce gastric acid, both directly acting on parietal cells and indirectly, through the stimulation of the secretion of the hormone histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells (ECL). Vasoactive intestinal peptide, cholecystokinin, and secretin all inhibit production.
The production of gastric acid in the stomach is tightly regulated by positive regulators and negative feedback mechanisms. Four types of cells are involved in this process: parietal cells, G cells, D cells and enterochromaffine-like cells. Besides this, the endings of the vagus nerve (CN X) and the intramural nervous plexus in the digestive tract influence the secretion significantly.
Nerve endings in the stomach secrete two stimulatory neurotransmitters: acetylcholine and gastrin-releasing peptide. Their action is both direct on parietal cells and mediated through the secretion of gastrin from G cells and histamine from enterochromaffine-like cells. Gastrin acts on parietal cells directly and indirectly too, by stimulating the release of histamine.
The release of histamine is the most important positive regulation mechanism of the secretion of gastric acid in the stomach. Its release is stimulated by gastrin and acetylcholine and inhibited by somatostatin.
Neutralization[edit]
In the duodenum, gastric acid is neutralized by sodium bicarbonate. This also blocks gastric enzymes that have their optima in the acid range of pH. The secretion of sodium bicarbonate from the pancreas is stimulated by secretin. This polypeptide hormone gets activated and secreted from so-called S cells in the mucosa of the duodenum and jejunum when the pH in the duodenum falls below 4.5 to 5.0. The neutralization is described by the equation:
HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3
The carbonic acid rapidly equilibrates with carbon dioxide and water through catalysis by carbonic anhydrase enzymes bound to the gut epithelial lining,[6] leading to a net release of carbon dioxide gas within the lumen associated with neutralisation. In the absorptive upper intestine, such as the duodenum, both the dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid will tend to equilibrate with the blood, leading to most of the gas produced on neutralisation being exhaled through the lungs.
Role in disease[edit]
In hypochlorhydria and achlorhydria, there is low or no gastric acid in the stomach, potentially leading to problems as the disinfectant properties of the gastric lumen are decreased. In such conditions, there is greater risk of infections of the digestive tract (such as infection with Vibrio or Helicobacter bacteria).
In Zollinger–Ellison syndrome and hypercalcemia, there are increased gastrin levels, leading to excess gastric acid production, which can cause gastric ulcers.
In diseases featuring excess vomiting, patients develop hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis (decreased blood acidity by H+ and chlorine depletion).
Pharmacology[edit]
The proton pump enzyme is the target of proton pump inhibitors, used to increase gastric pH (and hence decrease stomach acidity) in diseases that feature excess acid. H2 antagonists indirectly decrease gastric acid production. Antacids neutralize existing acid.
History[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
The role of gastric acid in digestion was established in the 1820s and 1830s by William Beaumont on Alexis St. Martin, who, as a result of an accident, had a fistula (hole) in his stomach, which allowed Beaumont to observe the process of digestion and to extract gastric acid, verifying that acid played a crucial role in digestion.[7]
See also[edit]
Stomach
Digestion
Gastroesophageal reflux disease
Discovery and development of proton pump inhibitors
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Marieb EN, Hoehn K (2010). Human anatomy & physiology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-9591-1.
^ Jump up to: a b c Dworken, Harvey J (2016). Human digestive system: gastric secretion. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.
Jump up ^ Guyton, Arthur C.; John E. Hall (2006). Textbook of Medical Physiology (11 ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders. p. 797. ISBN 0-7216-0240-1.
Jump up ^ Page 192 in: Elizabeth D Agabegi; Agabegi, Steven S. (2008). Step-Up to Medicine (Step-Up Series). Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-7817-7153-6.
^ Jump up to: a b Lecture, "Function of the Stomach and Small Intestine" Deakin University School of Medicine. October 15, 2012
Jump up ^ Lönnerholm, G.; Knutson, L.; Wistrand, P. J.; Flemström, G. (1989). "Carbonic anhydrase in the normal rat stomach and duodenum and after treatment with omeprazole and ranitidine". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 136 (2): 253–262. doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.1989.tb08659.x. PMID 2506730.
Jump up ^ Harré, R. (1981). Great Scientific Experiments. Phaidon (Oxford). pp. 39–47. ISBN 0-7148-2096-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gastric acid.
The Parietal Cell: Mechanism of Acid Secretion; Colorado State University
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Mosaic (web browser)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the browser produced by NCSA. For the browser that was later renamed, see Netscape Navigator.
NCSA Mosaic
NCSA Mosaic 3.0 for Microsoft Windows
Developer(s)
NCSA
Initial release
0.5 / January 23, 1993; 25 years ago (1993-01-23)[1]
Last release
3.0 / January 7, 1997; 21 years ago (1997-01-07)
Development status
Historical
Written in
C[2]
Platform
AmigaOS
Classic Mac OS
Unix
OpenVMS
Microsoft Windows
Available in
English
Type
Web browser
License
Proprietary
Website
www.ncsa.illinois.edu/enabling/mosaic
NCSA Mosaic, or simply Mosaic, is the web browser that popularized the World Wide Web and the Internet. It was also a client for earlier internet protocols such as File Transfer Protocol, Network News Transfer Protocol, and Gopher. The browser was named for its support of multiple internet protocols.[3] Its intuitive interface, reliability, Microsoft Windows port and simple installation all contributed to its popularity within the web, as well as on Microsoft operating systems.[4] Mosaic was also the first browser to display images inline with text instead of displaying images in a separate window.[5] While often described as the first graphical web browser, Mosaic was preceded by WorldWideWeb, the lesser-known Erwise[6] and ViolaWWW.
Mosaic was developed at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA)[5] at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign beginning in late 1992. NCSA released the browser in 1993,[7] and officially discontinued development and support on January 7, 1997.[8] However, it can still be downloaded from NCSA.[9]
Netscape Navigator was later developed by Netscape (originally known as Mosaic Communications Corporation), which employed many of the original Mosaic authors; however, it intentionally shared no code with Mosaic. Netscape Navigator's code descendant is Mozilla Firefox.[10] Starting in 1995 Mosaic lost market share to Netscape Navigator, and by 1997 only had a tiny fraction of users left, by which time the project was discontinued. Microsoft licensed Mosaic to create Internet Explorer in 1995.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Licensing
3 Immediate effect
4 Importance of Mosaic
5 End of Mosaic
6 Features
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Background[edit]
Mosaic 1.0 running under System 7.1, displaying the Mosaic Communications Corporation (later Netscape) website.
After trying ViolaWWW, David Thompson demonstrated it to the NCSA software design group; Marc Andreessen.[11] Andreessen and Eric Bina originally designed and programmed NCSA Mosaic for Unix's X Window System called xmosaic.[5][7][11][12] Then, in December 1991, the Gore Bill created and introduced by then Senator and future Vice President Al Gore was passed, which provided the funding for the Mosaic project. Development began in December 1992. Marc Andreessen announced the project on Jan 23, 1993.[13] The first alpha release (numbered 0.1a) was published in June 1993, and the first beta release (numbered 0.6b) followed quickly thereafter in September 1993. Version 1.0 for Microsoft Windows was released on November 11, 1993.[14][15] NCSA Mosaic for Unix (X-Windows) version 2.0 was released on November 10, 1993.[16] A port of Mosaic to the Commodore Amiga was available by October 1993. Ports to Microsoft Windows and Macintosh had already been released in September.[11] From 1994 to 1997, the National Science Foundation supported the further development of Mosaic.[17]
Marc Andreessen, the leader of the team that developed Mosaic, left NCSA and, with James H. Clark, one of the founders of Silicon Graphics, Inc. (SGI), and four other former students and staff of the University of Illinois, started Mosaic Communications Corporation. Mosaic Communications eventually became Netscape Communications Corporation, producing Netscape Navigator.
1994 saw the first commercial product to incorporate Mosaic: SCO Global Access, a modified version of its Open Desktop version of Unix that served as an Internet gateway.[18]
Spyglass, Inc. licensed the technology and trademarks from NCSA for producing their own web browser but never used any of the NCSA Mosaic source code.[19] Microsoft licensed Spyglass Mosaic in 1995 for US$2 million, modified it, and renamed it Internet Explorer.[20] After a later auditing dispute, Microsoft paid Spyglass $8 million.[20][21] The 1995 user guide The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML, specifically states, in a section called Coming Attractions, that Internet Explorer "will be based on the Mosaic program".[22]:331 Versions of Internet Explorer before version 7 stated "Based on NCSA Mosaic" in the About box. Internet Explorer 7 was audited by Microsoft[citation needed] to ensure that it contained no Mosaic code, and thus no longer credits Spyglass or Mosaic.
Licensing[edit]
The licensing terms for NCSA Mosaic were generous for a proprietary software program. In general, non-commercial use was free of charge for all versions (with certain limitations). Additionally, the X Window System/Unix version publicly provided source code (source code for the other versions was available after agreements were signed). Despite persistent rumors to the contrary, however, Mosaic was never released as open source software during its brief reign as a major browser; there were always constraints on permissible uses without payment.
As of 1993[update], license holders included these:[23]
Amdahl Corporation
Fujitsu Limited (Product: Infomosaic, a Japanese version of Mosaic. Price: Yen5,000 (approx US$50)
Infoseek Corporation (Product: No commercial Mosaic. May use Mosaic as part of a commercial database effort)
Quadralay Corporation (Consumer version of Mosaic. Also using Mosaic in its online help and information product, GWHIS. Price: US$249)
Quarterdeck Office Systems Inc.
The Santa Cruz Operation Inc. (Product: Incorporating Mosaic into "SCO Global Access," a communications package for Unix machines that works with SCO's Open Server. Runs a graphical e-mail service and accesses newsgroups.)
SPRY Inc. (Products: A communication suite: Air Mail, Air News, Air Mosaic, etc. Also producing Internet In a Box with O'Reilly & Associates. Price: US$149–$399 for Air Series.)
Spyglass, Inc. (Product: Relicensing to other vendors. Signed deal with Digital Equipment Corp., which would ship Mosaic with all its machines.)
Immediate effect[edit]
Other browsers existed during this period, notably Erwise, ViolaWWW, MidasWWW and tkWWW. These browsers, however, did not have the same effect as Mosaic on public use of the Internet.[24]
In the October 1994 issue of Wired Magazine, Gary Wolfe notes in the article titled "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun: Don't look now, but Prodigy, AOL, and CompuServe are all suddenly obsolete - and Mosaic is well on its way to becoming the world's standard interface":
When it comes to smashing a paradigm, pleasure is not the most important thing. It is the only thing. If this sounds wrong, consider Mosaic. Mosaic is the celebrated graphical "browser" that allows users to travel through the world of electronic information using a point-and-click interface. Mosaic's charming appearance encourages users to load their own documents onto the Net, including color photos, sound bites, video clips, and hypertext "links" to other documents. By following the links - click, and the linked document appears - you can travel through the online world along paths of whim and intuition. Mosaic is not the most direct way to find online information. Nor is it the most powerful. It is merely the most pleasurable way, and in the 18 months since it was released, Mosaic has incited a rush of excitement and commercial energy unprecedented in the history of the Net.[23]
Importance of Mosaic[edit]
Mosaic was the web browser that led to the Internet boom of the 1990s. Robert Reid underscores this importance stating, "while still an undergraduate, Marc wrote the Mosaic software ... that made the web popularly relevant and touched off the revolution".[25]:xlii Reid notes that Andreessen's team hoped:
... to rectify many of the shortcomings of the very primitive prototypes then floating around the Internet. Most significantly, their work transformed the appeal of the Web from niche uses in the technical area to mass-market appeal. In particular, these University of Illinois students made two key changes to the Web browser, which hyper-boosted its appeal: they added graphics to what was otherwise boring text-based software, and, most importantly, they ported the software from so-called Unix computers that are popular only in technical and academic circles, to the [Microsoft] Windows operating system, which is used on more than 80 percent of the computers in the world, especially personal and commercial computers.[25]:xxv
Mosaic is not the first web browser for Microsoft Windows; this is Thomas R. Bruce's little-known Cello. The Unix version of Mosaic was already famous before the Microsoft Windows and Mac versions were released. Other than displaying images embedded in the text rather than in a separate window, Mosaic's original feature set is not greater than of the browsers on which it was modeled, such as ViolaWWW.[5] But Mosaic was the first browser written and supported by a team of full-time programmers, was reliable and easy enough for novices to install, and the inline graphics reportedly proved immensely appealing. Mosaic is said to have made the Web accessible to the ordinary person for the first time and already had 53% market share in 1995.[26]
Reid also refers to Matthew K. Gray's website, Internet Statistics: Growth and Usage of the Web and the Internet, which indicates a dramatic leap in web use around the time of Mosaic's introduction.[25]:xxv
In addition, David Hudson concurs with Reid, noting that:
Marc Andreessen's realization of Mosaic, based on the work of Berners-Lee and the hypertext theorists before him, is generally recognized as the beginning of the web as it is now known. Mosaic, the first web browser to win over the Net masses, was released in 1993 and made freely accessible to the public. The adjective phenomenal, so often overused in this industry, is genuinely applicable to the... 'explosion' in the growth of the web after Mosaic appeared on the scene. Starting with next to nothing, the rates of the web growth (quoted in the press) hovering around tens of thousands of percent over ridiculously short periods of time were no real surprise.[27]:42
Ultimately, web browsers such as Mosaic became the killer applications of the 1990s. Web browsers were the first to bring a graphical interface to search tools the Internet's burgeoning wealth of distributed information services. A mid-1994 guide lists Mosaic alongside the traditional, text-oriented information search tools of the time, Archie and Veronica, Gopher, and WAIS[28] but Mosaic quickly subsumed and displaced them all. Joseph Hardin, the director of the NCSA group within which Mosaic was developed, said downloads were up to 50,000 a month in mid-1994.[29]
In November 1992, there were twenty-six websites in the world[30] and each one attracted attention. In its release year of 1993, Mosaic had a What's New page, and about one new link was being added per day. This was a time when access to the Internet was expanding rapidly outside its previous domain of academia and large industrial research institutions. Yet it was the availability of Mosaic and Mosaic-derived graphical browsers themselves that drove the explosive growth of the Web to over 10,000 sites by Aug 1995 and millions by 1998.[31] Metcalfe expressed the pivotal role of Mosaic this way:
In the Web's first generation, Tim Berners-Lee launched the Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and HTML standards with prototype Unix-based servers and browsers. A few people noticed that the Web might be better than Gopher.
In the second generation, Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina developed NCSA Mosaic at the University of Illinois. Several million then suddenly noticed that the Web might be better than sex.
In the third generation, Andreessen and Bina left NCSA to found Netscape...
—  —Bob Metcalfe[32][33]
End of Mosaic[edit]
Mosaic's popularity as a separate browser began to lessen upon the release of Andreessen's Netscape Navigator in 1994. This was noted at the time in The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML: "Netscape Communications has designed an all-new WWW browser Netscape, that has significant enhancements over the original Mosaic program."[22]:332
By 1998 its user base had almost completely evaporated, being replaced by other web browsers. After NCSA stopped work on Mosaic, development of the NCSA Mosaic for the X Window System source code was continued by several independent groups. These independent development efforts include mMosaic (multicast Mosaic)[34] which ceased development in early 2004, and Mosaic-CK and VMS Mosaic.
VMS Mosaic, a version specifically targeting OpenVMS operating system, was one of the longest-lived efforts to maintain Mosaic. Using the VMS support already built-in in original version (Bjorn S. Nilsson ported Mosaic 1.2 to VMS in the summer of 1993),[35] developers incorporated a substantial part of the HTML engine from mMosaic, another defunct flavor of the browser.[36] the last (4.2) release[update], VMS Mosaic supported HTML 4.0, OpenSSL, cookies, and various image formats including GIF, JPEG, PNG, BMP, TGA, TIFF and JPEG 2000 image formats.[37] The browser works on VAX, Alpha, and Itanium platforms.[38]
Another long-lived version of Mosaic – Mosaic-CK, developed by Cameron Kaiser – saw its last release (version 2.7ck9) on July 11, 2010; a maintenance release with minor compatibility fixes (version 2.7ck10) was released on 9 January 2015, followed by another one (2.7ck11) in October 2015.[39] The stated goal of the project is "Lynx with graphics" and runs on Mac OS X, Power MachTen, Linux and other compatible Unix-like OSs.[39]
Features[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2010)
Mosaic is based on the libwww library[40][41][42] and thus supported a wide variety of Internet protocols included in the library: Archie, FTP, gopher, HTTP, NNTP, telnet, WAIS.[7]
See also[edit]
Comparison of web browsers
History of the World Wide Web
List of web browsers
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Stewart, William. "Mosaic -- The First Global Web Browser". Retrieved 22 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "xmosaic 1.2 source code". NCSA. 1994-06-29. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
Jump up ^ Douglas Crockford (Sep 10, 2011). Crockford on JavaScript - Volume 1: The Early Years. YouTube. Event occurs at 1:35:50.
Jump up ^ Andreessen, Marc. "Mosaic -- The First Global Web Browser". Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Berners-Lee, Tim. "What were the first WWW browsers?". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
Jump up ^ Holwerda, Thom (3 Mar 2009). "The World's First Graphical Browser: Erwise". OSNews. Retrieved 2009-06-02.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vetter, Ronald J. (October 1994). "Mosaic and the World-Wide Web" (PDF). North Dakota State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2014. Retrieved 20 November 2010.
Jump up ^ "Exhibits - Internet History - 1990's". Computer History Museum. 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
Jump up ^ "Mosaic FTP". NCSA. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Clark, Jim (1999). Netscape Time. St. Martin's Press.
^ Jump up to: a b c Berners-Lee, Tim. "A Brief History of the Web". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 16 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Andreessen, Marc; Bina, Eric (1994). "NCSA Mosaic: A Global Hypermedia System". Internet Research. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. 4 (1): 7–17. doi:10.1108/10662249410798803. ISSN 1066-2243.
Jump up ^ "NCSA X Mosaic 0.5 released". Retrieved 2013-07-06.
Jump up ^ "The History of NCSA Mosaic". NCSA.
Jump up ^ "About NCSA Mosaic". NCSA. Archived from the original on September 27, 2013.
Jump up ^ "NCSA Mosaic for X 2.0 available". Retrieved 2013-07-06.
Jump up ^ https://nsf.gov/discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100274&org=NSF
Jump up ^ Mace, Scott (7 March 1994). "SCO brings Internet access to PCs". InfoWorld. p. 47.
Jump up ^ Sink, Eric (2003-05-15). "Memoirs From the Browser Wars". Eric Sink's Weblog. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b Thurrott, Paul (22 January 1997). "Microsoft and Spyglass kiss and make up". Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Elstrom, Peter (22 January 1997). "MICROSOFT'S $8 MILLION GOODBYE TO SPYGLASS". Bloomberg Businessweek. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Graham, Ian S. (1995). The HTML Sourcebook: The Complete Guide to HTML (First ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-11849-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Wolfe, Gary (October 1994). "The (Second Phase of the) Revolution Has Begun". Wired Magazine. 2: 10. Retrieved January 7, 2015.
Jump up ^ "A Little History of the World Wide Web From 1960s to 1995". CERN. 2001-05-05. Retrieved 2006-12-16.
^ Jump up to: a b c Reid, Robert H. (1997). Architects of the Web: 1000 Days That Built the Future of Business. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-17187-5.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, Andy; Jones, Steve (6 December 2000). "Which Way Now? Analysing and Easing Inadequacies in WWW Navigation". CiteSeerX 10.1.1.25.8504  .
Jump up ^ Hudson, David (1997). Rewired: A Brief and Opinionated Net History. Indianapolis: Macmillan Technical Publishing. ISBN 1-57870-003-5.
Jump up ^ Lucey, Sean (9 May 1994). "Internet tools help navigate the busy virtual highway". MacWeek: 51.
Jump up ^ Levitt, Jason (9 May 1994). "A Matter of Attribution: Can't Forget to Give Credit for Mosaic Where Credit is Due". Open Systems Today: 71.
Jump up ^ http://info.cern.ch/. Retrieved 2014-06-16. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Web Server Survey | Netcraft. News.netcraft.com. Retrieved on 2014-06-16.
Jump up ^ "InfoWorld". 17 (34). August 21, 1995.
Jump up ^ Roads and Crossroads of Internet History Chapter 4: Birth of the Web
Jump up ^ dauphin, Gilles (1996). "W3C mMosaic". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
Jump up ^ Nilsson, Bjorn (1993). "README.VMS". National Center for Supercomputing Applications. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
Jump up ^ NCSA and VMS Mosaic Version Information
Jump up ^ "OpenVMS.org - OpenVMS Community Portal (VMS Mosaic V4.2)". OpenVMS.org. 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
Jump up ^ "Mosaic 4.0 freeware_readme.txt". Hewlett-Packard Development Company, L.P. 2006. Retrieved 2007-11-02.
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Mosaic-CK homepage".
Jump up ^ Kahan, José (7 June 2002). "Change History of libwww". World Wide Web Consortium. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
Jump up ^ Petrie, Charles; Cailliau, Robert (November 1997). "Interview Robert Cailliau on the WWW Proposal: "How It Really Happened."". Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
Jump up ^ Kahan, José (5 August 1999). "Why Libwww?". Retrieved 15 June 2010.
Further reading[edit]
Tikka, Juha-Pekka (March 3, 2009). "The Greatest Internet Pioneers You Never Heard Of: The Story of Erwise and Four Finns Who Showed the Way to the Web Browser". Xconomy.
External links[edit]
Welcome to Mosaic Communications Corporation!
NCSA Mosaic 1.0 home page at Déjà Vu (dejavu.org)
Beyond the Web: Excavating the Real World Via Mosaic - early application of Mosaic
NCSA Mosaic for modern Linux systems at GitHub
NCSA Mosaic Archive
In The Beginning... - A history of the development effort for the Microsoft Windows version.
Mosaic archive on evolt.org
Mosaic for OpenVMS systems
VMS Mosaic home page at the Wayback Machine (archived November 17, 2013)
Mosaic-CK home page
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Sacroiliac joint
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Sacroiliac joint
Sacroiliac joint of the male pelvis, posterior view
Human female pelvis, anterior view, with sacroiliac joint within red ellipse.
Details
Identifiers
Latin
articulatio sacroiliaca
TA
A03.6.03.001
FMA
21440
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The sacroiliac joint or SI joint (SIJ) is the joint between the sacrum and the ilium bones of the pelvis, which are connected by strong ligaments. In humans, the sacrum supports the spine and is supported in turn by an ilium on each side. The joint is a strong, weight transferral synovial plane joint with irregular elevations and depressions that produce interlocking of the two bones.[1] The human body has two sacroiliac joints, one on the left and one on the right, that often match each other but are highly variable from person to person.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Ligaments
2 Function
3 Clinical significance
3.1 Inflammation and dysfunction
3.2 Signs and symptoms
3.3 Pregnancy
4 Additional images
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Structure[edit]
Articulations of pelvis. Anterior view.
Articulations of pelvis. Posterior view.
Sacroiliac joints are paired C-shaped or L-shaped joints capable of a small amount of movement[2] (2–18 degrees, which is debatable at this time) that are formed between the auricular surfaces of the sacrum and the ilium bones. The joints are covered by two different kinds of cartilage; the sacral surface has hyaline cartilage and the iliac surface has fibrocartilage.[2] The SIJ's stability is maintained mainly through a combination of only some bony structure and very strong intrinsic and extrinsic ligaments.[3]
As we age the characteristics of the sacroiliac joint change.[4] The joint's surfaces are flat or planar in early life but as we start walking, the sacroiliac joint surfaces develop distinct angular orientations and lose their planar or flat topography.[2] They also develop an elevated ridge along the iliac surface and a depression along the sacral surface.[5] The ridge and corresponding depression, along with the very strong ligaments, increase the sacroiliac joints' stability and makes dislocations very rare. The fossae lumbales laterales ("dimples of Venus") correspond to the superficial topography of the sacroiliac joints.
Ligaments[edit]
The ligaments of the sacroiliac joint include the following:[2]
Anterior sacroiliac ligament
Interosseous sacroiliac ligament
Posterior sacroiliac ligament
Sacrotuberous ligament
Sacrospinous ligament
The anterior ligament is not much of a ligament at all and in most cases is just a slight thickening of the anterior joint capsule. The anterior ligament is thin and not as well defined as the posterior sacroiliac ligaments.
The posterior sacroiliac (SI) ligaments can be further divided into short (intrinsic) and long (extrinsic).[6] The dorsal interosseous ligaments are very strong ligaments. They are often stronger than bone, such that the pelvis may actually fracture before the ligament tears. The dorsal sacroiliac ligaments include both long and short ligaments. The long dorsal sacroiliac joint ligaments run in an oblique vertical direction while the short (interosseous) runs perpendicular from just behind the articular surfaces of the sacrum to the ilium and functions to keep the sacroiliac joint from distracting or opening. The sacrotuberous and sacrospinous ligaments (also known as the extrinsic sacroiliac joint ligaments) limit the amount the sacrum flexes.
The ligaments of the sacroiliac joint loosen during pregnancy due to the hormone relaxin; this loosening, along with that of the related symphysis pubis, permits the pelvic joints to widen during the birthing process. The long SI ligaments may be palpated in thin persons for pain and compared from one side of the body to the other; however, the reliability and the validity of comparing ligaments for pain have currently not been shown. The interosseous ligaments are very short and run perpendicular from the iliac surface to the sacrum, they keep the auricular surfaces from abducting or opening/distracting.[citation needed]
Function[edit]
Like most lower extremity joints, one of the SI joints' functions is shock absorption (depending on the amount of available motion at the sacroiliac joint) for the spine, along with the job of torque conversion allowing the transverse rotations that take place in the lower extremity to be transmitted up the spine. The SI joint, like all lower extremity joints, provides a "self-locking" mechanism (where the joint occupies or attains its most congruent position, also called the close pack position) that helps with stability during the push-off phase of walking.[7] The joint locks (or rather becomes close packed) on one side as weight is transferred from one leg to the other, and through the pelvis the body weight is transmitted from the sacrum to the hip bone.
The motions of the sacroiliac joint
Anterior innominate tilt of both hip bones on the sacrum (where the left and right move as a unit)
Posterior innominate tilt of both hip bones on the sacrum (where the left and right move together as a unit)
Anterior innominate tilt of one innominate bone while the opposite innominate bone tilts posteriorly on the sacrum (antagonistic innominate tilt) which occurs during gait
Sacral flexion (or nutation) Motions of the sacrum occur simultaneous with motion of the ilium so you must be careful in the description of these as isolated motions.
Sacral extension (or counter-nutation).
The sacroiliac joints like all spinal joints (except the atlanto-axial) are bicondylar joints, meaning that movement of one side corresponds to a correlative movement of the other side.
Clinical significance[edit]
Inflammation and dysfunction[edit]
Main articles: Sacroiliitis and Sacroiliac joint dysfunction
Sacroiliitis refers to inflammation of one or both sacroiliac joints, and is one cause of unilateral low back pain. With sacroiliitis, the individual may experience pain in the low back, buttock or thigh, depending on the amount of inflammation. Common problems of the sacroiliac joint are often called sacroiliac joint dysfunction (also termed SI joint dysfunction; SIJD). Sacroiliac joint dysfunction generally refers to pain in the sacroiliac joint region that is caused by abnormal motion in the sacroiliac joint, either too much motion or too little motion. It typically results in inflammation of the SI joint, or sacroiliitis.
Signs and symptoms[edit]
The following are signs and symptoms that may be associated with an SI joint (SIJ) problem:
Mechanical SIJ dysfunction usually causes a dull unilateral low back pain.[8]
The pain is often a mild to moderate ache around the dimple or posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS) region.[9]
The pain may become worse and sharp while doing activities such as standing up from a seated position or lifting the knee towards the chest during stair climbing.
Pain is typically on one side or the other (unilateral PSIS pain), but the pain can occasionally be bilateral.
When the pain of SIJ dysfunction is severe (which is infrequent), there can be referred pain into the hip, groin, and occasionally down the leg, but rarely does the pain radiate below the knee.
Pain can be referred from the SIJ down into the buttock or back of the thigh, and rarely to the foot.
Low back pain and stiffness, often unilateral, that often increases with prolonged sitting or prolonged walking.
Pain may occur during sexual intercourse; however, this is not specific to just sacroiliac joint problems.
Sacroiliac joint dysfunction is tested using provocative and nonprovocative maneuvers. Nonprovocative sacroiliac joint examination maneuvers would include Gillet Test, prone knee flexion test, supine long sitting test, standing flexion test, and seated flexion test. There is a lack of evidence that these sacroiliac joint mobility maneuvers detect motion abnormalities.[10][11]
Given the inherent technical limitations of the visible and palpable signs from these sacroiliac joint mobility maneuvers another broad category of clinical signs have been described called provocative maneuvers. These maneuvers are designed to reproduce or increase pain originating from within the sacroiliac joint. When the provocative maneuvers reproduce pain along the typical area raises suspicion for sacroiliac joint dysfunction. However no single test is very reliable in the diagnosis of sacroiliac joint dysfunction. Weakness, numbness, or the loss of a related reflex may indicate nervous system damage.
The current gold standard for diagnosis of sacroiliac joint dysfunction emanating within the joint is sacroiliac joint injection confirmed under fluoroscopy or CT-guidance using a local anesthetic solution. The diagnosis is confirmed when the patient reports a significant change in relief from pain and the diagnostic injection is performed on 2 separate visits. Published studies have used at least a 75 percent change in relief of pain before a response is considered positive and the sacroiliac joint deemed the source of pain.[12][13][14]
Pregnancy[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The hormonal changes of menstruation, pregnancy, and lactation can affect the integrity of the ligament support around the SIJ, which is why women often find the days leading up to their period are when the pain is at its worst. During pregnancy, female hormones are released that allow the connective tissues in the body to relax. The relaxation is necessary so that during delivery, the female pelvis can stretch enough to allow birth. This stretching results in changes to the SIJs, making them overly mobile. Over a period of years, these changes can eventually lead to wear-and-tear arthritis. As would be expected, the more pregnancies a woman has, the higher her chances of SI joint problems. During the pregnancy, micro tears and small gas pockets can appear within the joint. [This paragraph needs citations]
Muscle imbalance, trauma (e.g., falling on the buttock) and hormonal changes can all lead to SIJ dysfunction. Sacroiliac joint pain may be felt anteriorly, however, care must be taken to differentiate this from hip joint pain.
Women are considered more likely to suffer from sacroiliac pain than men, mostly because of structural and hormonal differences between the sexes, but so far no credible evidence exists that confirms this notion. Female anatomy often allows one fewer sacral segment to lock with the pelvis, and this may increase instability.
Additional images[edit]
Sacroiliac joint. Deep dissection. Serial cross section.
See also[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology.
Dimples of Venus
Sacroiliac joint dysfunction
Surgery for the dysfunctional sacroiliac joint
Piriformis syndrome
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Solonen, K. A. (1957). "The sacroiliac joint in the light of anatomical, roentgenological and clinical studies". Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavica Supplementum. 27: 1–127. PMID 13478452.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Vleeming, A.; Schuenke, M. D.; Masi, A. T.; Carreiro, J. E.; Danneels, L.; Willard, F. H. (2012). "The sacroiliac joint: An overview of its anatomy, function and potential clinical implications". Journal of Anatomy. 221 (6): 537–67. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2012.01564.x. PMC 3512279  . PMID 22994881.
Jump up ^ Schunke, Gustave Bernard (1938). "The anatomy and development of the sacro-iliac joint in man". The Anatomical Record. 72 (3): 313–31. doi:10.1002/ar.1090720306.
Jump up ^ Walker, Joan M. (1986). "Age-Related Differences in the Human Sacroiliac Joint: A Histological Study; Implications for Therapy". Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. 7 (6): 325–34. doi:10.2519/jospt.1986.7.6.325. PMID 18802258.
Jump up ^ Alderink, Gordon J. (1991). "The Sacroiliac Joint: Review of Anatomy, Mechanics, and Function". Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy. 13 (2): 71–84. doi:10.2519/jospt.1991.13.2.71. PMID 18796854.
Jump up ^ Weisl, H. (1954). "The Ligaments of the Sacro-Iliac Joint Examined with Particular Reference to Their Function". Cells Tissues Organs. 20 (3): 201–13. doi:10.1159/000140900. PMID 13137770.
Jump up ^ Dontigny, R. L. (1985). "Function and pathomechanics of the sacroiliac joint. A review". Physical therapy. 65 (1): 35–44. PMID 3155567.
Jump up ^ Cibulka MT; Delitto A & Erhard RE (1992). "Pain patterns in patients with and without sacroiliac joint dysfunction". In Vleeming A; Mooney V; Snijders CJ & Dorman T. First Interdisciplinary World Conference on Low Back Pain and its Relation to the Sacroiliac Joint. pp. 363–70. OCLC 28057865.
Jump up ^ Fortin, J. D.; Falco, F. J. (1997). "The Fortin finger test: An indicator of sacroiliac pain". American journal of orthopedics. 26 (7): 477–80. PMID 9247654.
Jump up ^ Sturesson, B; Selvik, G; Udén, A (1989). "Movements of the sacroiliac joints. A roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis". Spine. 14 (2): 162–5. doi:10.1097/00007632-198902000-00004. PMID 2922636.
Jump up ^ Sturesson, B; Uden, A; Vleeming, A (2000). "A radiostereometric analysis of movements of the sacroiliac joints during the standing hip flexion test". Spine. 25 (3): 364–8. doi:10.1097/00007632-200002010-00018. PMID 10703111.
Jump up ^ Schwarzer, A. C.; Aprill, C. N.; Bogduk, N (1995). "The sacroiliac joint in chronic low back pain". Spine. 20 (1): 31–7. doi:10.1097/00007632-199501000-00007. PMID 7709277.
Jump up ^ Maigne, J. Y.; Boulahdour, H.; Chatellier, G. (1998). "Value of quantitative radionuclide bone scanning in the diagnosis of sacroiliac joint syndrome in 32 patients with low back pain". European Spine Journal. 7 (4): 328–31. doi:10.1007/s005860050083. PMC 3611275  . PMID 9765042.
Jump up ^ Maigne, J. Y.; Aivaliklis, A; Pfefer, F (1996). "Results of sacroiliac joint double block and value of sacroiliac pain provocation tests in 54 patients with low back pain". Spine. 21 (16): 1889–92. doi:10.1097/00007632-199608150-00012. PMID 8875721.
External links[edit]
Huijbregts, Peter (2004). "Dysfunkcja stawu krzyżowo-biodrowego–diagnoza oparta na dowodach naukowych" [Sacroiliac joint dysfunction: evidence-based diagnosis]. Rehabilitacja Medyczna (in Polish). 8 (1): 14–37. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
Anatomy image: apmalefrontal4-18 at the College of Medicine at SUNY Upstate Medical University
[hide]
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x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value:
uls-settings-trigger
Language settings
0
button
true

value: مفصل عجزي حرقفي – Arabic

value: مفصل خاجی‌تهیگاهی – Persian

value: מפרק העצה והכסל – Hebrew

value: Крестцово-подвздошный сустав – Russian

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Sacroiliac_joint rootpage-Sacroiliac_joint skin-vector action-view