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Queen of Hearts (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)
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Queen of Hearts
Alice character
John Tenniel's illustration of the King and Queen of Hearts at the trial of the Knave of Hearts.
First appearance
Alice's Adventures in Wonderland
Last appearance
Disney's Alice Through the Looking Glass (2016)
Created by
Lewis Carroll
Portrayed by
Barbara Hershey (Once Upon a Time)
Miranda Richardson
Kathy Bates (Alice)
Voiced by
Verna Felton (1951)
Tress MacNeille (1998-2010)
April Winchell (2011-present)
Information
Nickname(s)
Red Queen (sometimes mistakenly)
Species
playing card
Gender
Female
Occupation
Queen
Spouse(s)
The King of Hearts
King of Hearts (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)
Children
Ten Hearts
Nationality
Wonderland
The Queen of Hearts is a fictional character from the book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by the writer Lewis Carroll, in which she appears as the primary antagonist. She is a foul-tempered monarch whom Carroll himself describes as "a blind fury", and who is quick to give death sentences at the slightest offense. One of her most famous lines she states often is "Off with their heads!"
The Queen is referred to as a card from a pack of playing cards by Alice, yet somehow she is able to talk and is the ruler of the lands in the story, alongside her tiny husband, the King of Hearts. She is often confused with the Red Queen from the sequel, Through the Looking-Glass, although the two are very different.
Contents
[hide]
1 Overview
2 Origins
3 Illustrations
4 Confusion with the Red Queen
5 Adaptions
5.1 Disney
5.2 Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010)
5.3 American McGee's Alice
5.4 The Looking-Glass Wars
5.5 Alice in the Country of Hearts
5.6 SyFy TV miniseries
5.7 Once Upon a Time
5.8 Other versions and adaptations
6 References
7 Citations
Overview[edit]
Alice observes three playing cards painting white roses red. They drop to the ground face down at the approach of the Queen of Hearts, whom Alice has never met. When the Queen arrives and asks Alice who is lying on the ground (since the backs of all playing cards look alike), Alice tells her that she does not know. The Queen then becomes frustrated and commands that her head be severed. She is deterred by her comparatively moderate husband by being reminded that Alice is only a child.
Generally, however, as we are told by Carroll:
The Queen had only one way of settling all difficulties, great or small. 'Off with his head!' she said, without even looking round.
One of the Queen's hobbies – besides ordering executions – is croquet; however, it is Wonderland croquet, where the balls are live hedgehogs and the mallets are flamingoes. This is presumably with the aim that the birds' blunt beaks should strike, but, as Alice observes, it is complicated by the fact that they keep looking back up at the players- as well as the hedgehogs' tendency to scuttle away without waiting to be hit. The Queen's soldiers act as the arches (or hoops) on the croquet grounds, but have to leave off being arches every time the Queen has an executioner drag away the victim, so that, by the end of the game in the story, the only players that remain are the Queen herself, the King, and Alice.
Despite the frequency of death sentences, it would appear few people are actually beheaded, the King of Hearts, quietly pardons many of his subjects when the Queen is not looking (although this did not seem to be the case with The Duchess), and her soldiers humor her but do not carry out her orders. The Gryphon tells Alice, "It's all her fancy: she never executes nobody, you know." Nevertheless, all creatures in Wonderland fear the Queen. In the final chapters, the Queen sentences Alice again (for defending the Knave of Hearts), and she offers a bizarre approach towards justice: sentence before verdict.
Modern portrayals in popular culture usually let her play the role of a villain because of the menace the character exemplifies, but in the book she does not fill that purpose. She is just one of the many obstacles that Alice has to encounter on the journey, but unlike other obstacles, she makes a higher potential threat.
Origins[edit]
The Queen is believed by some[who?] to be a caricature of Queen Victoria, with elements of reality that Dodgson felt correctly would make her at once instantly recognizable to parents reading the story to children, and also fantastical enough to make her unrecognizable to children. The reference is explicit in Jonathan Miller's 1966 television version where she and the King of Hearts are portrayed without any attempt at fantasy, or disguise as to their true natures or personality.
The Queen may also be a reference to Queen Margaret of the House of Lancaster. During the War of the Roses, a red rose was the symbol of the House Lancaster. Their rivals, the House of York, had a white rose for their symbol. The gardeners' painting the white roses red may be a reference to these two houses.
Illustrations[edit]
Image of Elizabeth de Mowbray, Duchess of Norfolk that inspired the original illustrations of the Queen of Hearts.
After unsuccessfully attempting to illustrate Alice's Adventures in Wonderland himself, Lewis Carroll was persuaded to engage a professional artist to provide the illustrations. He turned to cartoonist John Tenniel, who was known for his regular contributions to the satirical magazine Punch (published 1841–1992, 1996–2002).
Tenniel's inspiration for the Queen of Hearts was an image of Elizabeth de Mowbray, Duchess of Norfolk in one of the medieval stained glass windows at Holy Trinity Church, Long Melford, Suffolk.[1]
The illustrations for the Alice books were engraved onto blocks of wood, to be printed in the wood engraving process. The original wood blocks are now in the collection of the Bodleian Library in Oxford, England. They are not usually on public display, but were exhibited in 2003.
Confusion with the Red Queen[edit]
She is commonly mistaken for the Red Queen in the story's sequel, Through the Looking-Glass, but in reality shares none of her characteristics other than being a queen. Indeed, Carroll, in his lifetime, made the distinction of the two Queens by saying:
“
I pictured to myself the Queen of Hearts as a sort of embodiment of ungovernable passion – a blind and aimless Fury.
The Red Queen I pictured as a Fury, but of another type; her passion must be cold and calm – she must be formal and strict, yet not unkindly; pedantic to the 10th degree, the concentrated essence of all governesses![2]
”
— Lewis Carroll, in "Alice on the Stage"
The 1951 animated film Alice in Wonderland perpetuates the long-standing confusion between the Red Queen and the Queen of Hearts. In the film, the Queen of Hearts delivers several of the Red Queen's statements, the most notable being based on her "all the ways about here belong to me". Both characters say this to suggest importance and possible arrogance, but in the Red Queen's case it has a double meaning since her status as a Chess-queen means that she can move in any direction she desires.
In the American McGee's Alice adaptation of the books, the characters are also conflated, leading to further popular misconception.
Adaptions[edit]
Disney[edit]
Disney's adaptation of the Queen of Hearts.
In the Disney animated feature Alice in Wonderland, the Queen of Hearts is the main antagonist who appears, as Alice puts it in a moment of temper, as "a fat, pompous, bad tempered old tyrant". The character was voiced by Verna Felton. She is portrayed as a haughty sadist, who enjoys decapitating anyone who merely annoys her. Her presence is all the more striking because of how tiny her husband the King is (he barely comes up to her knee). Similar to the book, Alice meets three cards painting the roses red, since they planted white roses by mistake. When the Queen arrives, she orders those three cards beheaded, then turns her attention to Alice. Refusing to answer her questions with presumption that only she can ask them, she quickly ropes her into a game of croquet. The game ends with the Queen tripping herself over, due to the Cheshire Cat's mischievous antics. The Queen angrily blames Alice for it, but before she can give the order, the King suggests holding a trial for Alice. The Queen, grudgingly, but reasonably, agrees. The Queen calls the March Hare, the Dormouse, and the Mad Hatter to witness, who hold an unbirthday party for her and cheer her up considerably. During the party, the Cheshire Cat reappears and upsets the Dormouse. The frightened Dormouse runs all over, and in an attempt to crush the mouse, the King of Hearts accidentally hits the Queen on the head with the gavel, which is hastily passed into the March Hare's hands, then the Hatter's, and finally Alice's. The Queen, of course, blames Alice for it, and is going to have her beheaded. But Alice eats mushrooms she had procured earlier, which make her grow bigger. Although Rule No. 42 says that anyone more than a mile high must leave the court immediately, Alice feels free to call the queen a "fat, pompous, bad tempered old tyrant". Unfortunately, she subsequently shrinks down to her normal size, but flees and is able to escape.
Of interest is the fact that Disney's Queen of Hearts seems to be an amalgamation of the Queen from the book, the Duchess, and the Red Queen of Through The Looking-Glass. When pleased, she can be quite pleasant, but is still bossy and often impatient, and can almost at once change to enraged.
As she is considered to be one of the members of the Disney Villains group of characters, the Queen of Hearts exacted her revenge upon Alice in the game Disney's Villains' Revenge where she stole the ending page of the story and changed the ending, so Alice lost her head. Jiminy Cricket, the player, and Alice's headless body retrieve the head and escape the labyrinth of the Queen. They meet one last time in the final battle and she surrenders. The Queen of Hearts is the final boss on the Japanese version of Mickey Mousecapade, a 1987 video game where Alice is her hostage. She is also a greetable character at the Walt Disney World Resort. In Mickey's House of Villains, the Queen of Hearts appears as one of the villain guests of the House of Mouse, voiced by Tress MacNeille. She also appeared in Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse.
The Queen appears in the Square-Enix/Disney video game Kingdom Hearts, in her homeworld. As in the film, she holds Alice on trial, only this time for attempting to steal her heart. The main heroes in the game, Sora, Donald and Goofy, intervene, telling the Queen that Alice is innocent. The Queen challenges them to provide proof of their theory, and with help from the Cheshire Cat, the three are able to do so. The Queen, however, enraged at being proven wrong, orders them executed and Alice imprisoned in a cage on the roof. The three are able to fight off the Queen's guards and destroy the cage controls, but Alice is kidnapped, before they can save her. The Queen orders a search for Alice, and temporarily pardons Sora, Donald and Goofy, requesting that they look for Alice as well. She returns in Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, only this time as a figment of Sora's memories. Again, she holds Alice on trial, this time for attempting to steal her memories. In both games, Sora, Donald and Goofy prove Alice's innocence by defeating the Trickmaster Heartless, the real culprit. The Queen congratulates Sora for solving the mystery, and once again demonstrates her bi-polar personality by pardoning Alice. She is absent in Kingdom Hearts II, but appears in Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days along with her homeworld. A digital version of her later appears in Kingdom Hearts coded.
Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010)[edit]
Main article: Red Queen (Through the Looking-Glass) § Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland (2010)
American McGee's Alice[edit]
In the video game American McGee's Alice, the Queen of Hearts is the final boss and the reason for Wonderland's decay. When Alice fights her, she discovers that the Queen is her dark side – an embodiment of her insanity; the Queen must be destroyed for Alice to become sane once more. The Queen's appearance is different in American McGee's Alice from how she is in the book: she appears first as a faceless entity having tentacles for arms, legs, and hair. It is later revealed that this is a mere puppet and that the true Queen of Hearts is a horrible monster in the image of a real anatomical heart. She is called both the Queen of Hearts and the Red Queen interchangeably throughout the game. No mention is made of the Red Queen from "Through the Looking Glass." However, the White Queen is seen for only a moment, as her head is chopped off by the enemy in The Pale Realm. It's implied that after Alice was placed in the asylum the Red Queen and the Queen of Hearts fused together which explains why the Queen of Hearts is able to control the red piece and the cards at the same time.
In the sequel, Alice: Madness Returns, the Queen of Hearts is sought by Alice for assistance in stopping an Infernal Train from tearing apart Wonderland and driving her back into insanity. The Queen claims, when found in the ruins of the Red Kingdom, that Alice is being manipulated by someone other than herself, that this person is trying to erase her memories, particularly about the fire in her childhood, which are tearing her sanity apart. It later turns out that this person is none other than her psychiatrist Dr. Angus Bumby, who has been revealed to having raped Alice's older sister Lizzy and burned down the house with Lizzy and Alice's parents to cover up the crime, and that he is attempting to erase Alice's memories and subject her to prostitution after it. In this sequel, the Red Queen has changed considerably, taking the appearance of a younger Alice, only in a royal dress befitting the Queen of Hearts, with large fleshy claws rather than hands, and her lower body composed of fleshy tentacles that spread throughout the entire castle, which is actually the Queen's body itself. Some argue she is actually based not on Alice herself, but her sister, as she also referred to her as "Lizzy" in a following dialogue, and considering she felt guilty of the death of her family, its possible her subconscious projected her dead sister in the queen she herself killed in the previous game.
The Looking-Glass Wars[edit]
In The Looking Glass Wars by Frank Beddor, the ruling dynasty of the Wonderland is the Heart family. The title of Queen of Hearts is a hereditary title for the Queen of Wonderland. The Queen of Hearts from Alice in Wonderland is reimagined as Queen Redd, the enemy and aunt of the heroine, Alyss. She kills Alyss's parents and usurps the throne of Wonderland.
It should be noted that the true Queen of Hearts in this story is Genevieve Heart, Alyss's mother as an apparent re-imagining of the White Queen. Alyss is, therefore, the Princess of Hearts.
Alice in the Country of Hearts[edit]
In the manga Alice in the Country of Hearts, the Queen of Hearts is known as Vivaldi. She isn't as much a main character, though, and she has very few parts in the current books. Vivaldi rules Heart Castle and is feuding with the other territories over Wonderland. She is beautiful with black hair, unlike other adaptations. She speaks in the majestic plural, I.E, "We are happy you are here to see us." As discovered through Heart no Kuni no Alice the game by Quinrose (the predecessor to the manga) Blood Dupree (The Hatter) is Vivaldi's little brother though it is alluded to be a romantic interest for Vivaldi until Alice discovers the secret.
SyFy TV miniseries[edit]
In the two-part series Alice, hosted by the SyFy Channel, the Queen of Hearts is portrayed by Kathy Bates as a refined but ruthless drug lord. The miniseries is set one hundred and fifty years after the original Alice's first visit to Wonderland (the heroine is an unrelated character) and the Queen is (as usual) the primary villain of the series. As is customary, the Queen is depicted as narcissistic, declaring herself as "the most powerful woman in the history of literature" and obese. Her calm, cold demeanour suggests that she too is a mixture of the Queen of Hearts and the Red Queen. Her name is given as "Mary Elizabeth Heart", and it is suggested that the Hearts are the "Red" royal family who seized control of Wonderland from the "White" royal family.
Once Upon a Time[edit]
The Queen of Hearts appears in the Once Upon a Time episode "Hat Trick", played by Jennifer Koenig. In the show's second season, it is revealed that the Queen of Hearts is in fact Cora (Barbara Hershey), the mother of the Wicked Witch of the West and the Evil Queen. In her earlier life, Cora (portrayed by Rose McGowan) was also the miller's daughter (the heroine of the Rumpelstiltskin story). She appears in every season throughout the show most often portrayed by Barbara Hershey but at younger age portrayed by Rose McGowan. She was the main antagonist of Season 2.
In the show's spin-off, Once Upon a Time in Wonderland, a flashback reveals that Cora (as the Queen of Hearts) was the Red Queen's tutor in magic; Cora apparently ruled part of Wonderland and was a political rival of the Red King.
Other versions and adaptations[edit]
In various film and television versions of the novel,[3] The Queen has been played by May Robson, Ronald Lang, Zsa Zsa Gabor, Eve Arden, Jayne Meadows, and, In the 1999 Alice in Wonderland television movie, Miranda Richardson, whose portrayal is strongly reminiscent of her role as the spoiled Queenie in Blackadder.
In the 1991 Disney channel series Adventures in Wonderland, the Queen was played by Armelia McQueen. She appears as a short-tempered and childish but basically benevolent ruler. She was alternately called "The Queen of Hearts" and "The Red Queen" during the course of the series.
In Sandra the Fairytale Detective, her name is Theressa.
Pandora Hearts has Miranda Barma who would later become the chain Demios the Executor also nicknamed Queen of Hearts and they have a similar obsession of cutting heads.
The Queen is one of the characters adopted by Gwen Stefani in her Wonderland-themed music video What You Waiting For?. She wears a red gown and a crown reminiscent of the Imperial State Crown from the British Crown Jewels. The Queen wanders through a garden populated with flamingos and pushes Alice (also Stefani) into a pool of her own tears.
The Queen of Hearts features in Unsuk Chin's 2007 opera Alice in Wonderland; the role was created for Dame Gwyneth Jones.
The Queen is a major character in Christopher Wheeldon's 2011 full-length ballet Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, created for The Royal Ballet. The role was created for principal dancer Zenaida Yanowsky[4] and includes a hilarious spoof of the Rose Adagio from The Sleeping Beauty.
The Queen appeared briefly during the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony in London in a segment dedicated to the villains of British children's literature.
In Marissa Meyer's 2016 novel Heartless, the backstory of the Queen of Hearts is told, in which she is a young girl who aspires to be a baker, but is instead taken off course by the anticipated proposal of the King of Hearts.[5]
The Queen of Hearts appears in the twelfth episode ("And the Broken Staff") of The Librarians. She is brought to life by the wizard Prospero as a distraction for the Librarians, but is subsequently tricked into attacking her own reflection, turning her into a pack of cards (mirroring the ending of the original story).
One Piece has Charlotte Linlin, also known as "Big Mom", whose appearance and character is mostly based on the Queen of Hearts.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jenkins, p.759
Jump up ^ Gardner, Martin; Lewis Carroll (1998). The Annotated Alice. Random House. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-517-18920-7.
Jump up ^ "Queen of Hearts (Character)". IMDb. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Royal Opera House (2013-04-04), Becoming the Queen of Hearts - The Royal Ballet's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, retrieved 2017-08-17
Jump up ^ "Heartless". Goodreads. Retrieved 2017-08-17.
Citations[edit]
Jenkins, Simon (1999). England's Thousand Best Churches. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-103930-5.
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Spacewar!
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Spacewar!
Spacewar! on a PDP-1
Developer(s)
Steve Russell
Publisher(s)
Steve Russell
Platform(s)
PDP-1
Release
NA: 1962
Genre(s)
Space combat
Mode(s)
Multiplayer
Spacewar! is a space combat video game developed in 1962 by Steve Russell, in collaboration with Martin Graetz and Wayne Wiitanen, and programmed by Russell with assistance from others including Bob Saunders and Steve Piner. It was written for the newly installed DEC PDP-1 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. After its initial creation, Spacewar was expanded further by other students and employees of universities in the area, including Dan Edwards and Peter Samson. It was also spread to many of the few dozen, primarily academic, installations of the PDP-1 computer, making Spacewar the first known video game to be played at multiple computer installations.
The game features two spaceships, "the needle" and "the wedge", engaged in a dogfight while maneuvering in the gravity well of a star. Both ships are controlled by human players. Each ship has limited fuel for maneuvering and a limited number of torpedoes, and the ships follow Newtonian physics, remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating. Flying near the star to provide a gravity assist was a common tactic. Ships are destroyed when hit by a torpedo or colliding with the star. At any time, the player can engage a hyperspace feature to move to a new, random location on the screen, though each use has an increasing chance of destroying the ship instead. The game was initially controlled with switches on the PDP-1, though Alan Kotok and Bob Saunders built an early gamepad to reduce the difficulty and awkwardness of controlling the game.
Spacewar is one of the most important and influential games in the early history of video games. It was extremely popular in the small programming community in the 1960s and was widely ported to other computer systems at the time. It has also been recreated in more modern programming languages for PDP-1 emulators. It directly inspired many other electronic games, such as the first commercial arcade games, Galaxy Game and Computer Space (1971), and later games such as Asteroids (1979). In 2007, Spacewar was named to a list of the ten most important video games of all time, which formed the start of the game canon at the Library of Congress.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Gameplay
3 Development
4 Legacy
5 Notes
6 References
7 External links
Background[edit]
Steve Russell, designer and main programmer of the initial version of Spacewar, in 2007
During the 1950s, various computer games were created in the context of academic computer and programming research and for demonstrations of computing power, especially after the introduction later in the decade of smaller and faster computers on which programs could be created and run in real time as opposed to being executed in batches. A few programs, however, while used to showcase the power of the computer they ran on were also intended as entertainment products; these were generally created by undergraduate and graduate students and university employees, such as at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) where they were allowed on occasion to develop programs for the TX-0 experimental computer.[1] These interactive graphical games were created by a community of programmers, many of them students and university employees affiliated with the Tech Model Railroad Club (TMRC) led by Alan Kotok, Peter Samson, and Bob Saunders. The games included Tic-Tac-Toe, which used a light pen to play a simple game of noughts and crosses against the computer, and Mouse in the Maze, which used a light pen to set up a maze of walls for a virtual mouse to traverse.[1][2][3]
In the fall of 1961, a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-1 minicomputer was installed in the "kludge room" of the MIT Electrical Engineering Department to complement the older TX-0, and even before its arrival a group of students and university employees had been brainstorming ideas for programs that would demonstrate the new computer's capabilities in a compelling way. Three of them—Steve Russell, then an employee at Harvard University and a former research assistant at MIT; Martin Graetz, a research assistant and former student at MIT; and Wayne Wiitanen, a research assistant at Harvard and former employee and student at MIT—referring to their collaboration as the "Hingham Institute" as Graetz and Wiitanen were living in a tenement building on Hingham Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, came up with the idea for Spacewar.[2][4] "We had this brand new PDP-1", Steve Russell told Rolling Stone in a 1972 interview. "Marvin Minsky [sic] had built some little pattern-generating programs which made interesting patterns like a kaleidoscope. Not a very good demonstration. Here was this display that could do all sorts of good things! So we started talking about it, figuring what would be interesting displays. We decided that probably you could make a two-dimensional maneuvering sort of thing, and decided that naturally the obvious thing to do was spaceships."[2][5]
Gameplay[edit]
Recreation of Spacewar in Java
The gameplay of Spacewar involves two monochrome spaceships called "the needle" and "the wedge", each controlled by a player, attempting to shoot one another while maneuvering on a two-dimensional plane in the gravity well of a star, set against the backdrop of a starfield.[2][4] The ships fire torpedoes which are not affected by the gravitational pull of the star. The ships have a limited number of torpedoes and a limited supply of fuel, which is used when the player fires his thrusters.[6] Torpedoes are fired one at a time by flipping a toggle switch on the computer or pressing a button on the control pad, and there is a cooldown period between launches. The ships follow Newtonian physics, remaining in motion even when the player is not accelerating, though the ships can rotate at a constant rate without inertia.[2]
Each player controls one of the ships and must attempt to shoot down the other ship while avoiding a collision with the star. Flying near the star can provide a gravity assist to the player at the risk of misjudging the trajectory and falling into the star. If a ship moves past one edge of the screen, it reappears on the other side in a wraparound effect. A hyperspace feature, or "panic button", can be used as a last-ditch means to evade enemy torpedoes by moving the player's ship to another location on the screen after disappearing for a few seconds, but the reentry from hyperspace occurs at a random location, and in some versions there is an increasing probability of the ship exploding with each use.[6]
Player controls include clockwise and counterclockwise rotation, forward thrust, firing torpedoes, and hyperspace.[6] Initially these were controlled using the front-panel test switches on the PDP-1 minicomputer, with four switches for each player, but these proved to be awkward to use and wore out quickly under normal gameplay, as well as causing players to accidentally flip the computer's control and power switches. The location of the switches also left one player off to one side of the CRT display due to the limited space in front of the computer, which left them at a disadvantage.[2] To alleviate these problems, Kotok and Saunders created a detached control device, essentially an early gamepad.[7][8] The gamepad had a switch for turning left or right, another for forward thrust or hyperspace, and a torpedo launch button. The button was silent so that the opposing player would not have a warning that the player was attempting to fire a torpedo during a cooldown period.[2]
Development[edit]
Vint Cerf playing Spacewar on the Computer History Museum's PDP-1 at a 2007 ICANN meeting
In the fall of 1961, while brainstorming ideas for a program for the PDP-1, Russell had just finished reading the Lensman series by E. E. "Doc" Smith and thought the stories would make a good basis for the program. "His heroes had a strong tendency to get pursued by the villain across the galaxy and have to invent their way out of their problem while they were being pursued. That sort of action was the thing that suggested Spacewar. He had some very glowing descriptions of spaceship encounters and space fleet maneuvers."[5] Other influences cited by fellow programmer Martin Graetz include E.E. Smith's Skylark novels and Japanese pulp fiction tokusatsu movies.[9]
For the first few months after its installation, the PDP-1 programming community at MIT focused on simpler programs to work out how to create software for the computer.[2] The community had heard of the Spacewar concept, however, and understood that Russell would spearhead the development of it. When members of the community began to feel the time was right to start work on the game, Russell, nicknamed "Slug" because of his tendency to procrastinate, began providing various excuses as to why he could not start programming the game.[2][10] One of these was the lack of a trigonometric function routine needed to calculate the trajectories of the spacecraft. This prompted Alan Kotok of TMRC to call DEC, who informed him that they had such a routine already written. Kotok drove to DEC to pick up a tape containing the code, slammed it down in front of Russell, and asked what other excuses he had. Russell, later explaining that "I looked around and I didn't find an excuse, so I had to settle down and do some figuring," started writing the code in December 1961.[2][10] The game was developed to meet three precepts Russell, Graetz, and Wiitanen had developed for creating a program that functioned equally well as an entertainment experience for the players and as a demonstration for spectators: to use as much of the computer's resources as possible, to be consistently interesting and therefore have every run be different, and to be entertaining and therefore a game.[2][11] It took Russell, with assistance from the other programmers—including Bob Saunders and Steve Piner (but not Wiitanen, who had been called up by the United States Army Reserve)—about 200 man-hours to write the first version of Spacewar, around six weeks to develop the basic game.[2][10][12]
Excerpt from the Expensive Planetarium star charts
Russell had a program with a movable dot by January 1962, and an early operational game with rotatable spaceships by February.[2] The two spaceships were designed to evoke the curvy spaceship from Buck Rogers stories and the PGM-11 Redstone rocket.[4] That early version also contained a randomly generated background star field, initially added by Russell because a blank background made it difficult to tell the relative motion of the two spaceships at slow speeds.[2] The programming community in the area, including the Hingham Institute and the TMRC, had developed what was later termed the "hacker ethic", whereby all programs were freely shared and modified by other programmers in a collaborative environment without concern for ownership or copyright, which led to a group effort to elaborate on Russell's initial Spacewar game.[4][12] Consequently, since the inaccuracy and lack of realism in the star field annoyed TMRC member Peter Samson, he wrote a program based on real star charts that scrolled slowly through the night sky, including every star in a band between 22.5° N and 22.5° S down to the fifth magnitude, displayed at their relative brightness. The program was called "Expensive Planetarium"—referring to the high price of the PDP-1 computer compared to an analog planetarium, as part of the series of "expensive" programs like Expensive Typewriter—and was quickly incorporated into the game in March by Russell, who served as the collator of the primary version of the game.[2][4][7]
Spacewar on the Computer History Museum's PDP-1 in 2007
The initial version of the game also did not include the central star gravity well or the hyperspace feature; they were written by MIT graduate student and TMRC member Dan Edwards and Graetz respectively to add elements of a strategy to what initially was a shooter game of pure reflexes. The initial version of the hyperspace function was limited to three jumps, but carried no risk save possibly re-entering the game in a dangerous position; later versions removed the limit but added the increasing risk of destroying the ship instead of moving it. Additionally, during this development period, Kotok and Saunders created the gamepads for the game.[2] The game was a multiplayer-only game because the computer had no resources left over to handle controlling the other ship.[7] Similarly, other proposed additions to the game such as a more refined explosion display upon the destruction of a spaceship and having the torpedoes also be affected by gravity had to be abandoned as there were not enough computer resources to handle them while smoothly running the game.[2] With the added features and changes, Spacewar was essentially complete by late April 1962, and Russell and the other programmers shifted focus from developing the game to preparing to show it off to others such as at the MIT Science Open House in May.[2][13] The group added a time limit, as well as a larger, second screen for viewers at the demonstration, and that same month Graetz presented a paper about the game, "SPACEWAR! Real-Time Capability of the PDP-1", at the first meeting of the Digital Equipment Computer Users' Society.[2] The demonstration was a success, and the game proved very popular at MIT; the laboratory that hosted the PDP-1 soon banned play except during lunch and after working hours.[2][14]
Beginning in the summer of 1962 and continuing over the next few years, members of the PDP-1 programming community at MIT, including Russell and the other Hingham Institute members, began to spread out to other schools and employers such as Stanford University and DEC, and as they did they spread the game to other universities and institutions with a PDP-1 computer.[2][4][7] As a result, Spacewar was perhaps the first video game to be available outside a single research institute.[15] Over the next decade, programmers at these other institutions began coding their own variants, including features such as allowing more ships and players at once, replacing the hyperspace feature with a cloaking device, space mines, and even a first-person perspective version played on two screens that simulates each pilot's view out of the cockpit.[5][6] Some of these Spacewar installations also replicated Kotok and Saunders' gamepad.[16] According to a second-hand account heard by Russell while working at DEC, Spacewar was reportedly used as a smoke test by DEC technicians on new PDP-1 systems before shipping because it was the only available program that exercised every aspect of the hardware.[12][16] Although the game was widespread for the era, it was still very limited in its direct reach: the PDP-1 was priced at US$120,000 and only 55 were ever sold, most without a monitor and many of the remainder to secure military locations or research labs with no free computer time, which prevented the original Spacewar from reaching beyond a narrow, academic audience.[4][7][16] Though some later DEC models, such as the PDP-6, came with Spacewar pre-loaded, the audience for the game remained very limited; the PDP-6, for example, sold only 23 units.[8][17]
Legacy[edit]
Two users playing Spacewar on a PDP-12 at the Vintage Computer Festival
Spacewar was extremely popular in the small programming community in the 1960s and was widely recreated on other minicomputer and mainframe computers of the time before migrating to early microcomputer systems in the 1970s.[4] Early computer scientist Alan Kay noted in 1972 that "the game of Spacewar blossoms spontaneously wherever there is a graphics display connected to a computer," and Graetz recalled in 1981 that as the game initially spread it could be found on "just about any research computer that had a programmable CRT".[2][5] The majority of this spread took place several years after the initial development of the game; while there are early anecdotes of players and game variants at a handful of locations, primarily near MIT and Stanford, it was only after 1967 that computers hooked up to monitors or terminals capable of playing Spacewar began to proliferate, allowing the game to reach a wider audience and influence later video game designers—by 1971, it is estimated that there were over 1000 computers with monitors, rather than a few dozen.[16] It is around this time that the majority of the game variants were created for various computer systems, such as later PDP systems, and in 1972 the game was well-known enough in the programming community that Rolling Stone sponsored the "SpaceWar! Olympics", possibly the first video game tournament.[5][16]
In the early 1970s, Spacewar migrated from large computer systems to a commercial setting as it formed the basis for the first two coin-operated video games. While playing Spacewar at Stanford sometime between 1966 and 1969, college student Hugh Tuck remarked that a coin-operated version of the game would be very successful. While the high price of a minicomputer prevented such a game from being feasible then, in 1971 Tuck and Bill Pitts created a prototype coin-operated computer game, Galaxy Game, with a US$20,000 PDP-11. Around the same time, a second prototype coin-operated game based on Spacewar, Computer Space, was developed by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, which would become the first commercially sold arcade video game and the first widely available video game of any kind.[18] Though Tuck felt that Computer Space was a poor imitation of Spacewar and his game a superior adaptation, many players believed both of the games to be upgraded variants of Spacewar.[11]
Byte magazine published an assembly language version of Spacewar in 1977 that ran on the Altair 8800 and other Intel 8080-based microcomputers using an oscilloscope as the graphical display and a lookup table for orbits,[19] as well as a three-dimensional variant in 1979 written in Tiny BASIC.[20] More modern recreations of the game for computers have been made as well.[21] An emulated version of the original game, based on the original source code made publicly available by Martin Graetz and running in a JavaScript PDP-1 emulator, was made available to play on the internet in 2012.[22] The only working PDP-1s that are known to exist are kept in the Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California, where demonstrations of the machine are held, which include playing Spacewar.[23]
In addition to Galaxy Game and Computer Space, numerous other games have been directly inspired by Spacewar.[24] These include Orbitwar (1974, PLATO network computers), Space Wars (1977, arcade), and Space War (1978, Atari 2600).[25][26] Additionally, in Asteroids (1979), designer Ed Logg used elements from Spacewar, namely the hyperspace button and the shape of the player's ship.[27] Products as late as the 1990 computer game Star Control drew direct inspiration from Spacewar.[16] Russell has been quoted as saying that the aspect of the game that he was most pleased with was the number of other programmers it inspired to write their own games without feeling restricted to using Russell's own code or design.[14]
On March 12, 2007, The New York Times reported that Spacewar was named to a list of the ten most important video games of all time, the so-called game canon, which were proposed to be archived in the Library of Congress.[28] The Library of Congress took up this video game preservation proposal, and began with the games from this list.[29][30]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Smith, Alexander (2014-07-10). "People Get Ready, There's a Train A-Coming". They Create Worlds. Archived from the original on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2015-12-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Graetz, J. M. (August 1981). "The origin of Spacewar". Creative Computing. Vol. 6 no. 8. pp. 56–67. ISSN 0097-8140.
Jump up ^ "The TX-0: Its Past and Present". The Computer Museum Report. The Computer Museum. 8. Spring 1984.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Smith, Alexander (2014-08-07). "One, Two, Three, Four I Declare a Space War". They Create Worlds. Archived from the original on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2015-12-18.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Brand, Stewart (1972-12-07). "Spacewar: Fantastic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums". Rolling Stone. No. 123. Straight Arrow Publishers. pp. 50–58. ISSN 0035-791X.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Goodavage, Joseph F. (November 1972). "Space War!: A Computer Game Today, a Reality Tomorrow?". Saga. Vol. 44 no. 8. Gambi Publications. pp. 34–37, 92–94.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Replay, pp. 10–13
^ Jump up to: a b "Get a Grip!!!: Joysticks Past, Present & Future". Next Generation. No. 17. Imagine Media. May 1996. pp. 34–42. ISSN 1078-9693.
Jump up ^ "Players Guide To Electronic Science Fiction Games". Electronic Games. Vol. 1 no. 2. Reese Publishing Company. March 1982. pp. 34–45. ISSN 0730-6687. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
^ Jump up to: a b c Bellis, Mary. "The History of Spacewar". About.com. IAC. Retrieved 2016-03-04.
^ Jump up to: a b High Score, p. 12–16
^ Jump up to: a b c Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution
Jump up ^ Lasar, Matthew (2011-10-25). "Spacewar!, the first 2D top-down shooter, turns 50". Ars Technica. Condé Nast. Archived from the original on 2015-07-26. Retrieved 2016-01-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Markoff, John (2002-02-28). "A Long Time Ago, in a Lab Far Away...". The New York Times. p. G9. Retrieved 2015-12-18.
Jump up ^ Understanding Digital Games, p. 22
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Monnens, Devin; Goldberg, Martin (June 2015). "Space Odyssey: The Long Journey of Spacewar! from MIT to Computer Labs Around the World". Kinephanos (Special Issue). ISSN 1916-985X.
Jump up ^ Computer Engineering, p. 478
Jump up ^ Replay, pp. 14–26
Jump up ^ Kruglisnki, Dave (October 1977). "How to Implement Space War (or Using Your Oscilloscope as a Telescope)". Byte. Vol. 2 no. 10. McGraw-Hill. pp. 86–111. Retrieved 2016-03-07.
Jump up ^ Beard, David (May 1979). "Spacewar in Tiny BASIC". Byte. Vol. 4 no. 5. McGraw-Hill. pp. 110–115. Retrieved 2016-03-07.
Jump up ^ Cox, Charles; Klucher, Michael (May 2007). "Unleash Your Imagination With XNA Game Studio Express". MSDN Magazine. Microsoft Corporation. Archived from the original on 2007-10-05. Retrieved 2016-03-07.
Jump up ^ Humphries, Matthew (2012-12-11). "Play Spacewar! on the DEC PDP-1 emulated in your browser". Geek.com. Ziff Davis. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2015-07-28.
Jump up ^ "The Mouse That Roared: A PDP-1 Celebration Event". Computer History Museum. 2006-05-15. Archived from the original on 2016-01-03. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ Markoff, John (1990-12-16). "Digital Fetes the 'Germ' That Began a Revolution". The New York Times. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ Barton, Matt; Loguidice, Bill (2009-06-10). "The History of Spacewar!: The Best Waste of Time in the History of the Universe". Gamasutra. UBM. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-03-07.
Jump up ^ Before the Crash, p. 212
Jump up ^ Lorge, Greta; Antonucci, Mike. "Game Changers - Ed Logg, MS '72". Stanford Magazine. No. May/June 2012. Stanford University. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ Chaplin, Heather (2007-03-12). "Is That Just Some Game? No, It's a Cultural Artifact". The New York Times. p. E7. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ Ransom-Wiley, James (2007-03-12). "10 most important video games of all time, as judged by 2 designers, 2 academics, and 1 lowly blogger". Joystiq. AOL. Archived from the original on 2007-03-14. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
Jump up ^ Owens, Trevor (2012-09-26). "Yes, The Library of Congress Has Video Games: An Interview with David Gibson". The Signal. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 2016-03-08. Retrieved 2016-03-08.
References[edit]
Bell, C. Gordon; Mudge, J. Craig; McNamara, John E. (1978). Computer Engineering: A DEC View of Hardware Systems Design. Digital Press. ISBN 978-0-932376-00-8.
DeMaria, Rusel; Wilson, Johnny L. (December 2003). High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games (2nd ed.). McGraw Hill/Osborne. ISBN 978-0-07-223172-4.
Donovan, Tristan (2010-04-20). Replay: The History of Video Games. Yellow Ant. ISBN 978-0-9565072-0-4.
Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-19195-1.
Rutter, Jason; Bryce, Jo (2006-05-09). Understanding Digital Games. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-0034-8.
Wolf, Mark J. P. (2012-06-05). Before the Crash: Early Video Game History. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8143-3450-8.
External links[edit]
Spacewar! page at the Computer History Museum
The original Spacewar! source code running on PDP-1 emulator in Java and in JavaScript
Spacewar! for the PDP-1 at the Internet Archive's Historical Software Collection
[hide]
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