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Rain of animals
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A rain of fish was recorded in Singapore in 1861, when during three days of torrential rain numerous fish were found in puddles
Raining snakes, 1680.
Raining animals is a rare meteorological phenomenon in which flightless animals fall from the sky. Such occurrences have been reported in many countries throughout history.[1] One hypothesis is that tornadic waterspouts sometimes pick up creatures such as fish or frogs, and carry them for up to several miles.[1][2] However, this aspect of the phenomenon has never been witnessed by scientists.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Explanations
3 Occurrences
3.1 Fish
3.2 Spiders
3.3 Frogs and toads
3.4 Others
4 "Raining cats and dogs"
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
History[edit]
Rain of flightless animals and things has been reported throughout history.[1] In the first century AD, Roman naturalist Pliny The Elder documented storms of frogs and fish.[4] In 1794, French soldiers saw toads fall from the sky during heavy rain at Lalain, near the French city of Lille.[5] Rural inhabitants in Yoro, Honduras, claim 'fish rain' happens there every summer, a phenomenon they call Lluvia de Peces.[6]
Explanations[edit]
Tornadoes and waterspouts may lift up animals into the air and deposit them miles away
French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775 – 1836) was among the first scientists to take seriously accounts of raining animals. Addressing the Society of Natural Sciences,[when?] Ampère suggested that at times frogs and toads roam the countryside in large numbers, and that violent winds could pick them up and carry them great distances.[3]
After a reported rain of fish in Singapore in 1861, French naturalist Francis de Laporte de Castelnau speculated that a migration of walking catfish had taken place, dragging themselves over land from one puddle to another, following the rain.[7]
Sometimes the animals survive the fall, suggesting the animals are dropped shortly after extraction. Several witnesses of raining frogs describe the animals as startled but healthy, and exhibiting relatively normal behavior shortly after the event. In some incidents, the animals are frozen to death or even completely encased in ice. There are examples where the product of the rain is not intact animals, but shredded body parts.
A current scientific hypothesis involves tornadic waterspouts: a tornado that forms over the water.[1][8][9][10] Under this hypothesis, a tornadic waterspout transports animals to relatively high altitudes, carrying them over large distances. This hypothesis appears supported by the type of animals in these rains: small and light, usually aquatic,[11] and by the suggestion that the rain of animals is often preceded by a storm. However, the theory does not account for how all the animals involved in each individual incident would be from only one species, and not a group of similarly-sized animals from a single area.[12]
Doppler Image from Texas showing the collision of a thunderstorm with a group of bats in flight. The color red indicates the animals flying into the storm.
In the case of birds, storms may overcome a flock in flight, especially in times of migration. The image to the right shows an example wherein a group of bats is overtaken by a thunderstorm.[13] In the image, the bats are in the red zone, which corresponds to winds moving away from the radar station, and enter into a mesocyclone associated with a tornado (in green). These events may occur easily with birds, which can get killed in flight, or stunned and then fall (unlike flightless creatures, which first have to be lifted into the air by an outside force). Sometimes this happens in large groups, for instance, the blackbirds falling from the sky in Beebe, Arkansas, United States on December 31, 2010.[14] It is common for birds to become disoriented (for example, because of bad weather or fireworks) and collide with objects such as trees or buildings, killing them or stunning them into falling to their death. The number of blackbirds killed in Beebe is not spectacular considering the size of their congregations, which can be in the millions.[15] The event in Beebe, however, captured the imagination and led to more reports in the media of birds falling from the sky across the globe, such as in Sweden and Italy,[16] though many scientists claim such mass deaths are common occurrences but usually go unnoticed.[17] In contrast, it is harder to find a plausible explanation for rains of terrestrial animals.
Occurrences[edit]
The following list is a selection of examples.
Fish[edit]
Main article: Waterspout § Threat to marine animals
1555 engraving of rain of fish
Singapore, February 22, 1861[18]
Madhesh, Nepal, May 15, 1900[19]
Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, Canada, July 1, 1903[20]
Marksville, Louisiana, October 23, 1947[21]
Knighton, Powys, Wales, 18 August 2004.[22]
Kerala State, India, February 12, 2008[23]
Bhanwad, Jamnagar, India, Oct 24, 2009[24]
Lajamanu, Northern Territory, Australia, February 25 and 26, 2010,[25]
Loreto, Agusan del Sur, Philippines, January 13, 2012[26][27]
IIT Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, Sep 12, 2013[28]
The yearly Lluvia de Peces in Yoro, Honduras
Chilaw, Sri Lanka, 6 May 2014[29]
Nandigama, Andhra Pradesh India, 19 June 2015,[30]
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh India, 16 August 2015[31]
Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, 20 January 2016[32]
Pathapatnam, Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh, 19 May 2016[33]
Mexico, Tamaulipas, Tampico, 26 September 2017[34]
Oroville, California, 16 May 2017[35]
Jaffna, Sri Lanka, 7 November 2017[36]
Spiders[edit]
Albury, Australia, 1974[37]
San Bernardo Mountain, Salta Province, Argentina, 2007[38]
Santo Antônio da Platina, Brazil, February 3, 2013[39]
Goulburn, Australia, 15 May 2015[37]
Frogs and toads[edit]
Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan, June 2009 (occurrences reported throughout the month)[40]
Rákóczifalva, Hungary, 18–20 June 2010 (twice)[41]
Cabo Polonio, Uruguay, Since 2011 (twice)[42]
Others[edit]
Jellyfish: Bath, England, 1894[43]
Worms: Jennings, Louisiana, July 11, 2007[44]
"Raining cats and dogs"[edit]
A 19th-century English cartoon illustrating the phrase "it is raining cats and dogs" (and "pitchforks" too)
The English idiom "it is raining cats and dogs", used to describe an especially heavy rain, is of unknown etymology, and is not necessarily related to the "raining animals" phenomenon.[45] The phrase (with "polecats" instead of "cats") was used at least since the 17th century.[46][47] A number of possible etymologies have been put forward to explain the phrase, for example:[48]
Drainage systems on buildings in 17th-century Europe were poor, and may have disgorged their contents during heavy showers, including the corpses of any animals that had accumulated in them. This occurrence is documented in Jonathan Swift's 1710 poem 'Description of a City Shower', in which he describes "Drowned puppies, stinking sprats, all drenched in mud,/Dead cats and turnip-tops come tumbling down the flood."[49]
"Cats and dogs" may be a corruption of the Greek word Katadoupoi, referring to the waterfalls on the Nile,[45] possibly through the old French word catadupe ("waterfall").
The Greek phrase "kata doksa", which means "contrary to expectation" is often applied to heavy rain, but there is no evidence to support the theory that it was borrowed by English speakers.[45]
In addition to at least one folk etymology:
An "explanation" widely circulated by email claimed that in 16th-century Europe when peasant homes were commonly thatched, animals could crawl into the thatch to find shelter from the elements, and would fall out during heavy rain. However, there seems to be no evidence in support of either assertion.[50]
There may not be a logical explanation; the phrase may have been used just for its nonsensical humor value, like other equivalent English expressions ("it is raining pitchforks", "hammer handles", etc.).
Other languages have equally bizarre expressions for heavy rain:[51][52]
Afan Oromo: Waaqatu baqaqe ("the sky got torned")
Afrikaans: ou vrouens met knopkieries reën ("old women with clubs")
Bengali: মুষলধারে বৃষ্টি পড়ছে musholdhare brishṭi poṛchhe ("rain is falling like pestles")
Bosnian: padaju ćuskije ("crowbars")
Bosnian: lije ko iz kabla ("it's pouring like from a bucket")
Cantonese: "落狗屎" ("dog poo")
Chinese: "倾盆大雨" ("its pouring out of basins")
Catalan: Ploure a bots i barrals ("boats and barrels")
Croatian: padaju sjekire ("axes dropping")
Czech: padají trakaře ("wheelbarrows")
Czech: leje jako z konve ("like from a watering can")
Danish: det regner skomagerdrenge ("shoemakers' apprentices")
Dutch: het regent pijpenstelen ("pipe stems or stair rods")
Dutch (Flemish): het regent oude wijven ("old women")
Dutch (Flemish): het regent kattenjongen ("kittens")
Estonian: sajab nagu oavarrest ("It's raining like from a beanstalk")
Finnish: Sataa kuin Esterin perseestä ("It's raining like from Esteri's ass")
Finnish: Sataa kuin saavista kaatamalla ("It's raining like poured from a bucket")
French: il pleut comme vache qui pisse ("it is raining like a peeing cow")
French: il pleut des seaux ("it's raining buckets")
French: il pleut des hallebardes ("it is raining halberds"), clous ("nails"), or cordes ("ropes")
German: Es regnet junge Hunde ("young dogs") or Es schüttet wie aus Eimern ("like poured from buckets")
Greek: βρέχει καρεκλοπόδαρα ("chair legs")
Hindi: मुसलधार बारिश (musaldhār bārish) ("rain like a pestle [onto a mortar]")
Hungarian: mintha dézsából öntenék ("like poured from a vat")
Icelandic: Það rignir eins og hellt sé úr fötu ("like poured from a bucket")
Kannada:ಮುಸಲಧಾರೆ, ಕುಂಭದ್ರೋಣ ಮಳೆ ("a stream of mallets")
Italian: piove a catinelle ("poured from a basin")
Latvian: līst kā no spaiņiem ("it's raining like from buckets")
Lithuanian: pila kaip iš kibiro ("it's pouring like from a bucket")
Malayalam: പേമാരി pemari ("mad rain")
Marathi: मुसळधार पाउस("rain like a pestle [onto a mortar]")
Nepali: मुसलधारे झरी ("rain like a pestle [onto a mortar]")
Norwegian: det regner trollkjerringer ("she-trolls")
Polish: leje jak z cebra ("like from a bucket")
Portuguese: chovem or está chovendo/a chover canivetes ("penknives")
Portuguese: chove a potes/baldes ("it is raining by the pot/bucket load")
Portuguese: chove a cântaros/canecos ("it is raining by the jug load")
Portuguese (Brazil): chovem cobras e lagartos ("snakes and lizards")
Portuguese (Brazil): está caindo um pau-d'água ("a stick of water is falling")
Portuguese (Brazil): está caindo um pé-d'água ("a foot of water is falling")
Romanian: plouă cu broaşte ("raining frogs")
Romanian: plouă cu găleata ("from a bucket")
Russian: льет как из ведра ("from a bucket")
Spanish: están lloviendo chuzos de punta ("shortpikes/icicles point first" - not only is it raining a lot, but it's so cold and windy that being hit by the drops hurts)
Spanish: está lloviendo a cántaros ("by the clay pot-full")
Spanish: llueven sapos y culebras ("toads and snakes")
Spanish (Argentina): caen soretes de punta ("pieces of dung head-first")
Spanish (Venezuela): está cayendo un palo de agua ("a stick of water is falling")
Spanish (Colombia): estan lloviendo maridos ("it's raining husbands")
Serbian: padaju sekire ("axes")
Swedish: Det regnar smådjävlar ("It is raining little devils")
Swedish: Det regnar småspik ("It is raining small nails")
Swedish: regnet står som spön i backen ("the rain stands like canes hitting the ground")
Tamil: பேய் மழை pei mazhi ("ghost rain")
Telugu: కుండపోత వర్షం kundapotha varsham ("torrential rain")
Turkish: bardaktan boşanırcasına ("like poured from a cup")
Urdu: musladhār bārish ("rain like a pestle [on a mortar]")
Welsh: mae hi'n bwrw hen wragedd a ffyn ("old ladies and sticks")
See also[edit]
Blood rain
Flying fish
Lluvia de Peces, (Honduras, "Fish rain")
Magnolia
Red rain in Kerala
Star jelly
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Can it rain frogs, fish or other objects". Library of Congress. August 26, 2010.
Jump up ^ How can it rain fish? BBC News 20 August 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b When It Rains Animals: The Science of True Weather Weirdness. Alasdair Wilkins. March 21, 2012.
Jump up ^ "How can it rain fish?", by Edward Green, BBC
Jump up ^ Hasler, Joe. "Weird Stories of Objects Falling From the Sky - Explained". www.popularmechanics.com. Retrieved 31 October 2017.
Jump up ^ Rivas, Orsy Campos (November 7, 2004). "Lo que la lluvia regala a Yoro (discusses a rain of fishes that occurs annually in Honduras)". Hablemos.
Jump up ^ Comptes Rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences. 52. 1861. pp. 880–81.
Jump up ^ Strange Rain: Why Fish, Frogs and Golf Balls Fall From the Skies. Sarah Zielinski, Smithsonian Magazine. 8 September 2015.
Jump up ^ What is animal rain phenomenon and how is it explained?. World Weather Online. 19 August 2014.
Jump up ^ When It Rains Animals: The Science of True Weather Weirdness. Alasdair Wilkins, iO9. 21 March 2012.
Jump up ^ Angwin, Richard (July 15, 2003). "Wiltshire weather". BBC.
Jump up ^ When Animals Rain From The Sky. Scribol.
Jump up ^ "Bat-eating Supercell". National Weather Service. March 19, 2006.
Jump up ^ "More than 1,000 blackbirds fall out of Arkansas sky". BBC News. 2 January 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Why Are Birds Falling From the Sky?". National Geographic. 6 January 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "Now It's Dead Doves Falling From Sky in Italy". "AOL". 7 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
Jump up ^ "FACT CHECK: Mass bird, fish deaths occur regularly". "Associated Press". 7 January 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
Jump up ^ McAtee, Waldo L. (May 1917). "Showers of Organic Matter" (PDF). Monthly Weather Review. 45 (5): 223. Bibcode:1917MWRv...45..217M. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1917)45<217:soom>2.0.co;2. Retrieved 2009-01-26.
Jump up ^ "Rained Fish", AP report in the Lowell (Mass.) Sun, May 16, 1900, p4
Jump up ^ "Canada Day weather through the years", reported in The Weather Network : [1] Archived 2012-06-30 at the Wayback Machine., June 27, 2012
Jump up ^ Greg Forbes. Spooky Weather. The Weather Channel. Posted: October 27, 2005 Archived December 10, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/features/halloween/raining_fish.shtml
Jump up ^ Fish Rain in Kerala, India
Jump up ^ "Fish Rain", reported in the India : [2], Oct 24, 2009
Jump up ^ "It's raining fish in Northern Territory", reported in news.com.au : [3], February 28, 2010
Jump up ^ Lani Nami Buan (January 15, 2012). "It's raining fish! It's normal". GMA News. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ Jereco O. Paloma (January 15, 2012). "Agusan's 'rain of fish' natural although unusual". SunStar Davao. Retrieved January 16, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Fish Rain", reported in the India : [4], Sep 12, 2013
Jump up ^ "Fish rain down on Sri Lanka village, reported in http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia : [5], 6 May 2014
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=So3c2GSXYs0
Jump up ^ Villagers wake up to find fish in fields!, The Times of India, August 17, 2015
Jump up ^ "Fish rain in diredawa Ethiopia.", http://mereja.com/news/1080799
Jump up ^ "Fish rain in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh". , One India Telugu, May 20, 2016
Jump up ^ "llovieron peces en Mexico, Tampico Tamaulipas".
Jump up ^ http://www.ktvu.com/news/how-100-fish-rained-down-on-an-oroville-school-remains-a-mystery
Jump up ^ https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/11/07/fish-rain-falls-on-sri-lankan-village/
^ Jump up to: a b Spiders Rain From Skies In Australian Town Of Goulburn, Huffington Post UK
Jump up ^ "It's Raining Spiders!".
Jump up ^ "Designer registra 'chuva de aranhas' em cidade do interior do Paraná". Globo.com. 8 February 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Demetriou, Danielle (2009-06-10). "Sky 'rains tadpoles' over Japan". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
Jump up ^ "Szemtanúk szerint békaeső hullott a településre". szoljon.hu. 2010-06-21. Retrieved 2010-06-21.
Jump up ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20170404222205/http://ntd.la/como-fue-que-vivi-una-lluvia-de-ranas-y-sapos/. Archived from the original on 2017-04-04. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ Fort, Charles (1919). "Ch. 4". The Book of the Damned. sacred-texts.com. p. 48.
Jump up ^ "Worms Fall from the Sky in Jennings". WAFB Channel 9. 7 July 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2008.
^ Jump up to: a b c Raining Cats and Dogs, Anatoly Liberman
Jump up ^ Richard Brome (1652), The City Witt: "It shall rain dogs and polecats."
Jump up ^ Robert Laurence, Raining Cats And Dogs Archived 2009-10-06 at the Wayback Machine.. Accessed on 2009-07-28.
Jump up ^ Raining cats and dogs at The Phrase Finder site. Accessed on 2009-07-28.
Jump up ^ "The meaning and origin of the expression: Raining cats and dogs". 2017.
Jump up ^ "Life in the 1500s". Snopes.com. 2007.
Jump up ^ WordReference.com Language Forums, accessed on 2009-07-28.
Jump up ^ It's raining cats and dogs at Omniglot.com. Accessed through Google's cache on 2009-07-28.
Further reading[edit]
Bajkov, A.D. Do fish fall from the sky? Science, v. 109, April 22, 1949: 402.
Bourchier, Daniel. “It’s raining fish…no really.” Sunday Territorian, Australia, Feb. 28, 2010.
Branley, Franklyn M. It’s raining cats and dogs: all kinds of weather and why we have it. Illustrated by True Kelley. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1987. 112 p. (Juvenile)
Cerveny, Randall S. Freaks of the storm: from flying cows to stealing thunder, the world’s strangest true weather stories. New York, Thunder’s Mouth Press, c2006. 371 p.
Chandler, Barb. Froggy weather. Weatherwise, v. 57, Jan./Feb. 2004: 42.
Christian, Spencer and Antonia Felix. Can it really rain frogs?: the world’s strangest weather events. New York, Wiley, 1997. 121 p. (Juvenile).
Corliss, William. Tornados, dark days, anomalous precipitation, and related weather phenomena: a catalog of geophysical anomalies. Glen Arm, MD: Sourcebook Project, c1983. 196 p.
Dennis, Jerry. It’s raining frogs and fishes: four seasons of natural phenomena and oddities of the sky. New York, HarperCollins, c1992. 323 p.
Englebert, Phillis. The complete weather resource. Detroit, UXL, c1997-2000. 4 v.
“Frogs fall from the sky.” Herald Sun, Melbourne, Australia, June 8, 2005. p. 2.
Gray, J. E. The shower of fishes. Zoologist; a monthly journal of natural history, v. 17, 1859: 6540-41
Gudger, E. W. Do fish fall from the sky with rain? Scientific Monthly, v. 29, Dec. 1929: 523-527.
McAtee, Waldo L. Showers of organic matter. Monthly Weather Review, v. 45, May 1917: 217-224. [6] (PDF).
Posey, Carl A. The living earth book of wind and weather. Pleasantville, NY, Reader’s Digest Association, c1994. 224 p.
Waterspouts. In McGraw-Hill concise encyclopedia of science and technology. 5th edition. New York, McGraw-Hill, c2005. p. 2369-2370.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Raining animals.
Raining cats and dogs
Mysterious Falls from the Sky. A review on the American perspective.
10 Craziest Things To Fall From the Sky
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2017 Sugar Bowl
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2017 Allstate Sugar Bowl
CFP Bowl Game
83rd Allstate Sugar Bowl
Auburn Tigers Oklahoma Sooners
(8–4) (10–2)
SEC Big 12
19 35
Head coach:
Gus Malzahn Head coach:
Bob Stoops
AP Coaches CFP
17 17 14
AP Coaches CFP
7 7 7
1
2
3
4
Total
Auburn 7 6 0 6 19
Oklahoma 0 14 14 7 35
Date
January 2, 2017
Season
2016
Stadium
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
Location
New Orleans, Louisiana
Favorite
Oklahoma by 3[1]
Referee
John O'Neill (Big Ten)[2]
Attendance
54,077
United States TV coverage
Network
ESPN
Announcers
Brent Musburger (play-by-play)
Jesse Palmer (analyst)
Kaylee Hartung (sideline reporter)
Sugar Bowl
< 2016 2018 >
The 2017 Sugar Bowl is a bowl game that was played on January 2, 2017 at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome in New Orleans, Louisiana. This 83rd Sugar Bowl was played between a team from the Big 12 Conference and the Southeastern Conference. It is one of the 2016–17 bowl games that concluded the 2016 FBS football season. Sponsored by the Allstate insurance company, the game is officially known as the Allstate Sugar Bowl.
Contents
[hide]
1 Teams
1.1 Auburn
1.2 Oklahoma
2 Game summary
2.1 Scoring summary
2.2 Statistics
3 References
Teams[edit]
The two teams were selected by the College Football Playoff committee on December 4, 2016. The highest-ranked team from the SEC and the Big 12 were to be selected. However, the highest-ranked team from the SEC, Alabama, was selected in the semifinals of the playoff, so the second highest ranked SEC team went in their place. Auburn was the second highest ranked team at 14th in the playoff rankings, so they were selected for the Sugar Bowl. Oklahoma was the Big 12 champion and the conference's highest ranked at 7th, therefore sending the Sooners to the Sugar Bowl.
This was the second meeting between the two schools; the previous meeting was the 1972 Sugar Bowl, which saw the Sooners defeat the Tigers by a score of 40–22.
Auburn[edit]
After a disappointing 2015 season, Auburn coach Gus Malzahn was considered to be at risk of losing his job if a similar season followed. The season started out poorly for the Tigers, as they started 1–2, with both losses coming to nationally-ranked teams. However, in week 4, the Tigers played rival LSU. LSU was #18 heading into the game, but it was Auburn that won 18–13. That started a six-game win streak that put the Tigers into the national Top 10. Towards the end of the season, injuries began to plague the Tigers, and they lost 2 of their final 3 games. However, losses by Tennessee and Florida sent the Tigers to the Sugar Bowl.
Oklahoma[edit]
Oklahoma made the playoff in the 2015 season, and many experts expected them to compete for another playoff berth. However, much like Auburn, the Sooners started 1–2, with both losses coming against nationally-ranked opponents. That start ended any hope of going back to the playoff. In the annual rivalry game against Texas, the Sooners won a close and hard-fought victory over the Longhorns, which started a turnaround and a nine-game win streak for the Sooners. Included in that win streak was a win against Oklahoma State which gave the Sooners the Big 12 championship and the Sugar Bowl berth.
Game summary[edit]
Scoring summary[edit]
[hide]Scoring summary
Quarter
Time
Drive
Team
Scoring information
Score
Plays
Yards
TOP
AUB
OKLA
1 9:04 14 75 5:56 AUB Chandler Cox 3-yard touchdown run, Daniel Carlson kick good 7 0
2 11:24 14 90 6:39 OKLA Mark Andrews 13-yard touchdown reception from Baker Mayfield, Austin Seibert kick good 7 7
2 7:16 12 43 4:08 AUB 49-yard field goal by Daniel Carlson 10 7
2 3:37 9 75 3:39 OKLA Joe Mixon 3-yard touchdown run, Austin Seibert kick good 10 14
2 0:41 11 63 2:56 AUB 39-yard field goal by Daniel Carlson 13 14
3 12:39 6 75 2:21 OKLA Dede Westbrook 7-yard touchdown reception from Baker Mayfield, Austin Seibert kick good 13 21
3 2:28 7 85 3:02 OKLA Joe Mixon 4-yard touchdown run, Austin Seibert kick good 13 28
4 12:40 8 71 3:57 OKLA Samaje Perine 2-yard touchdown run, Austin Seibert kick good 13 35
4 0:00 10 91 2:30 AUB Jalen Harris 1-yard touchdown reception from Kerryon Johson, no conversion attempted / kick noneβ 19 35
"TOP" = time of possession. For other American football terms, see Glossary of American football.
19
35
^β NCAA rules state "the try shall not be attempted unless the point(s) would affect the outcome of the game."[3]
Statistics[edit]
Statistics
Auburn
Oklahoma
First Downs 30 36
Plays-yards 73/339 71/524
Third down efficiency 5/15 5/10
Rushes-yards 185 228
Passing yards 154 296
Passing, Comp-Att-Int 13/27, 1 int. 19/28, 0 int.
Time of Possession 26:42 33:18
Team
Category
Player
Statistics
Auburn Passing Sean White 4/10, 35 yards, 0 TD, 0 int., QB rating = 69.4
Rushing Kamryn Pettway 24/101 yards, 0 TD
Receiving Eli Stove 4/39 yards, 0 TD
Oklahoma Passing Baker Mayfield 19/28, 296 yards, 2 TD, 0 int., QB rating = 180.2
Rushing Joe Mixon 19/91 yards, 2 TD
Receiving Dede Westbrook 6/59 yards, 1 TD
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Sports Betting News and Vegas Odds". Archived from the original on 27 December 2011. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
Jump up ^ http://stats.statbroadcast.com/statmonitr/?id=155858
Jump up ^ http://newsok.com/article/3788492
[show]
v
t
e
2016–17 NCAA football bowl game season
New Mexico (Dec. 17)
Las Vegas (Dec. 17)
Camellia (Dec. 17)
Cure (Dec. 17)
New Orleans (Dec. 17)
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Boca Raton (Dec. 20)
Poinsettia (Dec. 21)
Famous Idaho Potato (Dec. 22)
Armed Forces (Dec. 23)
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Dollar General (Dec. 23)
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Holiday (Dec. 27)
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Outback (Jan. 2)
Rose (Jan. 2)
Sugar (Jan. 2)
Cotton (Jan. 2)
College Football Playoff games: Peach (semifinal) (Dec. 31)
Fiesta (semifinal) (Dec. 31)
National Championship Game (Jan. 9)
All-Star Games: 2017 East–West Shrine Game (Jan. 21)
NFLPA Collegiate Bowl (Jan. 21)
Senior Bowl (Jan. 28)
[show]
v
t
e
Sugar Bowl Game
History & conference tie-ins
History
Tulane Stadium
Georgia Dome
Mercedes-Benz Superdome
College Football Playoff
Broadcasters
Southeastern Conference
Big 12 Conference
Games
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
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1963
1964
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1972
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1974
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1985
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1998
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2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
Notes
The 2006 game took place in Atlanta, Georgia due to Hurricane Katrina.
The game was also the national title game for either the Bowl Coalition, Bowl Alliance, or Bowl Championship Series in 1993, 1997, 2000, and 2004.
There was a Sugar Bowl in January and December in 1972 and 1995.
The game was a College Football Playoff semifinal in its 2015 and 2018 editions.
[show]
v
t
e
Auburn Tigers bowl games
1937 Bacardi Bowl
1938 Orange Bowl
1954 Gator Bowl
1954 Gator Bowl
1955 Gator Bowl
1964 Orange Bowl
1965 Liberty Bowl
1968 Sun Bowl
1969 Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl
1971 Gator Bowl
1972 Sugar Bowl
1972 Gator Bowl
1973 Sun Bowl
1974 Gator Bowl
1982 Tangerine Bowl
1984 Sugar Bowl
1984 Liberty Bowl
1986 Cotton Bowl Classic
1987 Florida Citrus Bowl
1988 Sugar Bowl
1989 Sugar Bowl
1990 Hall of Fame Bowl
1990 Peach Bowl
1996 Outback Bowl
1996 Independence Bowl
1998 Peach Bowl
2001 Florida Citrus Bowl
2001 Peach Bowl
2003 Capital One Bowl
2003 Music City Bowl
2005 Sugar Bowl
2006 Capital One Bowl
2007 Cotton Bowl Classic
2007 Chick-fil-A Bowl
2010 Outback Bowl
2011 BCS National Championship Game #
2011 Chick-fil-A Bowl
2014 BCS National Championship Game #
2015 Outback Bowl
2015 Birmingham Bowl
2017 Sugar Bowl
2018 Peach Bowl
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game.
[show]
v
t
e
Oklahoma Sooners bowl games
1939 Orange Bowl
1947 Gator Bowl
1949 Sugar Bowl
1950 Sugar Bowl
1951 Sugar Bowl
1954 Orange Bowl
1956 Orange Bowl
1958 Orange Bowl
1959 Orange Bowl
1963 Orange Bowl
1965 Gator Bowl
1968 Orange Bowl
1968 Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl
1970 Astro-Bluebonnet Bowl
1972 Sugar Bowl (January)
1972 Sugar Bowl (December)
1976 Orange Bowl
1976 Fiesta Bowl
1978 Orange Bowl
1979 Orange Bowl
1980 Orange Bowl
1981 Orange Bowl
1981 Sun Bowl
1983 Fiesta Bowl
1985 Orange Bowl
1986 Orange Bowl
1987 Orange Bowl
1988 Orange Bowl
1989 Florida Citrus Bowl
1991 Gator Bowl
1993 John Hancock Bowl
1994 Copper Bowl
1999 Independence Bowl
2001 Orange Bowl #
2002 Cotton Bowl Classic
2003 Rose Bowl
2004 Sugar Bowl #
2005 Orange Bowl #
2005 Holiday Bowl
2007 Fiesta Bowl
2008 Fiesta Bowl
2009 BCS National Championship Game #
2009 Sun Bowl
2011 Fiesta Bowl
2011 Insight Bowl
2013 Cotton Bowl Classic
2014 Sugar Bowl
2014 Russell Athletic Bowl
2015 Orange Bowl /
2017 Sugar Bowl
2018 Rose Bowl /
Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Forward slash (/) denotes College Football Playoff semifinal game
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Quorum sensing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In biology, quorum sensing is a system of stimuli and response correlated to population density. As one example, quorum sensing (QS) enables bacteria to restrict the expression of specific genes to the high cell densities at which the resulting phenotypes will be most beneficial. Many species of bacteria use quorum sensing to coordinate gene expression according to the density of their local population. In similar fashion, some social insects use quorum sensing to determine where to nest.
In addition to its function in biological systems, quorum sensing has several useful applications for computing and robotics. In general, quorum sensing can function as a decision-making process in any decentralized system in which the components have: (a) a means of assessing the number of other components they interact with and (b) a standard response once a threshold number of components is detected.
Contents
[hide]
1 Bacteria
1.1 Mechanism
1.1.1 Gram-positive Bacteria
1.1.2 Gram-negative Bacteria
1.2 Examples
1.2.1 Aliivibrio fischeri
1.2.2 Escherichia coli
1.2.3 Salmonella enterica
1.2.4 Pseudomonas aeruginosa
1.2.5 Acinetobacter sp.
1.2.6 Aeromonas sp.
1.2.7 Yersinia
1.3 Molecules involved in quorum sensing
1.4 Evolution
1.4.1 Sequence analysis
1.4.2 Controversy
1.4.3 Interaction of quorum-sensing molecules with mammalian cells and its medical applications
2 Archaea
2.1 Examples
2.1.1 Methanosaeta harundinacea 6Ac
3 Plants
4 Quorum quenching
5 Social insects
5.1 Examples
5.1.1 Ants
5.1.2 Honey bees
6 Computing and robotics
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Bacteria[edit]
Some of the best-known examples of quorum sensing come from studies of bacteria. Bacteria use quorum sensing to regulate certain phenotype expressions, which in turn, coordinate their behaviours. Some common phenotypes include biofilm formation, virulence factor expression, and motility. Certain bacteria are able to use quorum sensing to regulate bioluminescence, nitrogen fixation and sporulation. [1]
Quorum sensing functions based on the local density of the bacterial population in the immediate environment. [2] It can occur within a single bacterial species, as well as between diverse species. Both Gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria use quorum sensing, but there are some major differences in their mechanisms.[3]
Mechanism[edit]
In order for the bacteria to use quorum sensing constitutively, they must possess three characteristics: to secrete a signaling molecule, an autoinducer, to detect the change in concentration of signaling molecules, and to regulate gene transcription as a response. [1] This process is highly dependent on the diffusion mechanism of the signaling molecules. Signaling molecules are usually constitutively secreted at a low level by individual bacteria. At low cell density, the molecules may just diffuse away. At high cell density, the local concentration of signaling molecules may exceed its threshold level, and trigger changes in gene expressions.[3]
Gram-positive Bacteria[edit]
Gram-positive bacteria use autoinducing peptide (AIP) as their autoinducers. [4]
When gram-positive bacteria detect high concentration of AIP in the environment, AIP bind to a receptor to activate kinase. The kinase phosphorylates a transcription factor, which regulated gene transcription. This is called a two-component system.
Another possible mechanism is that AIP is transported into the cytosol, and binds directly to a transcription factor to initiate or inhibit transcription.[4]
Gram-negative Bacteria[edit]
Gram-negative bacteria produce N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHL) as their signaling molecule.[4] Usually AHLs do not need additional processing, and bind directly to transcription factors to regulate gene expression. [3]
Some gram-negative bacteria may use the two-component system as well. [4]
Quorum sensing of Gram Negative cell
Examples[edit]
Aliivibrio fischeri[edit]
Quorum sensing was first observed in Aliivibrio fischeri, a bioluminescent bacterium that lives as a mutualistic symbiont in the photophore (or light-producing organ) of the Hawaiian bobtail squid.[5] When A. fischeri cells are free-living (or planktonic), the autoinducer is at low concentration, and, thus, cells do not luminesce. However, when they are highly concentrated in the photophore (about 1011 cells/ml), transcription of luciferase is induced, leading to bioluminescence.
Escherichia coli[edit]
In the Gram-negative bacterium Escherichia coli (E. coli), cell division may be partially regulated by AI-2-mediated quorum sensing. This species uses AI-2, which is produced and processed by the lsr operon. Part of it encodes an ABC transporter, which imports AI-2 into the cells during the early stationary (latent) phase of growth. AI-2 is then phosphorylated by the LsrK kinase, and the newly produced phospho-AI-2 can be either internalized or used to suppress LsrR, a repressor of the lsr operon (thereby activating the operon). Transcription of the lsr operon is also thought to be inhibited by dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) through its competitive binding to LsrR. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate has also been shown to inhibit the lsr operon through cAMP-CAPK-mediated inhibition. This explains why, when grown with glucose, E. coli will lose the ability to internalize AI-2 (because of catabolite repression). When grown normally, AI-2 presence is transient.
E. coli and Salmonella enterica do not produce AHL signals commonly found in other Gram-negative bacteria. However, they have a receptor that detects AHLs from other bacteria and change their gene expression in accordance with the presence of other "quorate" populations of Gram-negative bacteria.[6]
Gram positive bacteria quorum sensing
Salmonella enterica[edit]
Salmonella encodes a LuxR homolog, SdiA, but does not encode an AHL synthase. SdiA detects AHLs produced by other species of bacteria including Aeromonas hydrophila, Hafnia alvei, and Yersinia enterocolitica.[7] When AHL is detected, SdiA regulates the rck operon on the Salmonella virulence plasmid (pefI-srgD-srgA-srgB-rck-srgC) and a single gene horizontal acquisition in the chromosome srgE.[8][9] Salmonella does not detect AHL when passing through the gastrointestinal tracts of several animal species, suggesting that the normal microbiota does not produce AHLs. However, SdiA does become activated when Salmonella transits through turtles colonized with Aeromonas hydrophila or mice infected with Yersinia enterocolitica.[10][11] Therefore, Salmonella appears to use SdiA to detect the AHL production of other pathogens rather than the normal gut flora.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa[edit]
The opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses quorum sensing to coordinate the formation of biofilms, swarming motility, exopolysaccharide production, virulence, and cell aggregation.[12] These bacteria can grow within a host without harming it, until they reach a threshold concentration. Then they become aggressive, developing to the point at which their numbers are sufficient to overcome the host's immune system, and form a biofilm, leading to disease within the host as the biofilm is a protective layer encasing the bacteria population. Another form of gene regulation that allows the bacteria to rapidly adapt to surrounding changes is through environmental signaling. Recent studies have discovered that anaerobiosis can significantly impact the major regulatory circuit of quorum sensing. This important link between quorum sensing and anaerobiosis has a significant impact on production of virulence factors of this organism.[13] Garlic and ginseng experimentally block quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.[14] It is hoped that the therapeutic enzymatic degradation of the signaling molecules will prevent the formation of such biofilms and possibly weaken established biofilms. Disrupting the signalling process in this way is called quorum sensing inhibition.
Acinetobacter sp.[edit]
It has recently been found that Acinetobacter sp. also show quorum sensing activity. This bacterium, an emerging pathogen, produces AHLs.[15] Interestingly, Acinetobacter sp. shows both quorum sensing and quorum quenching activity. It produces AHLs and also, it can degrade the AHL molecules as well.[15]
Aeromonas sp.[edit]
This bacterium was previously considered a fish pathogen, but it has recently emerged as a human pathogen.[16] Aeromonas sp. have been isolated from various infected sites from patients (bile, blood, peritoneal fluid, pus, stool and urine). All isolates produced the two principal AHLs, N-butanoylhomoserine lactone (C4-HSL) and N-hexanoyl homoserine lactone (C6-HSL). It has been documented that Aeromonas sobria has produced C6-HSL and two additional AHLs with N-acyl side chain longer than C6.[17]
Yersinia [edit]
The YenR and YenI proteins produced by the gammaproteobacterium Yersinia enterocolitica are similar to Aliivibrio fischeri LuxR and LuxI.[18][19] YenR activates the expression of a small non-coding RNA, YenS. YenS inhibits YenI expression and acylhomoserine lactone production.[20] YenR/YenI/YenS are involved in the control of swimming and swarming motility.[19][20]
Molecules involved in quorum sensing[edit]
Three-dimensional structures of proteins involved in quorum sensing were first published in 2001, when the crystal structures of three LuxS orthologs were determined by X-ray crystallography.[21] In 2002, the crystal structure of the receptor LuxP of Vibrio harveyi with its inducer AI-2 (which is one of the few biomolecules containing boron) bound to it was also determined.[22] Many bacterial species, including E. coli, an enteric bacterium and model organism for Gram-negative bacteria, produce AI-2. A comparative genomic and phylogenetic analysis of 138 genomes of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes found that "the LuxS enzyme required for AI-2 synthesis is widespread in bacteria, while the periplasmic binding protein LuxP is present only in Vibrio strains," leading to the conclusion that either "other organisms may use components different from the AI-2 signal transduction system of Vibrio strains to sense the signal of AI-2 or they do not have such a quorum sensing system at all."[23] Farnesol is used by the fungus Candida albicans as a quorum sensing molecule that inhibits filamentation.[24]
A database of quorum-sensing peptides is available under the name Quorumpeps.[25][26]
Certain bacteria can produce enzymes called lactonases that can target and inactivate AHLs. Researchers have developed novel molecules which block the signalling receptors of bacteria. mBTL is a compound that has been shown to inhibit quorum sensing and decrease the amount of cell death by a significant amount.[27] Additionally, researchers are also examining the role of natural compounds (such as caffeine) as potential quorum sensing inhibitors.[28] Research in this area has been promising and could lead to the development of natural compounds as effective therapeutics.
Evolution[edit]
Sequence analysis[edit]
The majority of quorum sensing systems that fall under the "two-gene" (an autoinducer synthase coupled with a receptor molecule) paradigm as defined by the Vibrio fischeri system occur in the Gram-negative Proteobacteria. A comparison between the Proteobacteria phylogeny as generated by 16S ribosomal RNA sequences and phylogenies of LuxI-, LuxR-, or LuxS-homologs shows a notably high level of global similarity. Overall, the quorum sensing genes seem to have diverged along with the Proteobacteria phylum as a whole. This indicates that these quorum sensing systems are quite ancient, and arose very early in the Proteobacteria lineage.[29][30]
Although examples of horizontal gene transfer are apparent in LuxI, LuxR, and LuxS phylogenies, they are relatively rare. This result is in line with the observation that quorum sensing genes tend to control the expression of a wide array of genes scattered throughout the bacterial chromosome. A recent acquisition by horizontal gene transfer would be unlikely to have integrated itself to this degree. Given that the majority of autoinducer–synthase/receptor occurs in tandem in bacterial genomes, it is also rare that they switch partners and so pairs tend to co-evolve.[30]
The phylogeny of quorum sensing genes in Gammaproteobacteria (which includes Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) is especially interesting.[according to whom?] The LuxI/LuxR genes form a functional pair, with LuxI as the auto-inducer synthase and LuxR as the receptor. Gamma Proteobacteria are unique in possessing quorum sensing genes, which, although functionally similar to the LuxI/LuxR genes, have a markedly divergent sequence.[30] This family of quorum-sensing homologs may have arisen in the gamma Proteobacteria ancestor, although the cause of their extreme sequence divergence yet maintenance of functional similarity has yet to be explained. In addition, species that employ multiple discrete quorum sensing systems are almost all members of the gamma Proteobacteria, and evidence of horizontal transfer of quorum sensing genes is most evident in this class.[29][30]
Controversy[edit]
As quorum sensing implies a cooperative behavior, this concept has been challenged by the evolutionary implication of cooperative cheaters. This is circumvented by the concept of diffusion sensing, which has been an alternative and complementary model to quorum sensing.[31] However, both explanations face the problems of signalling in either complex (multiple species sharing the same space) or simple (one single cell confined to a limited volume) environments where the spatial distribution of the cells can be more important for sensing than the cell population density. A new model, efficiency sensing, which takes into account both problematics, population density and spatial confinement, has been proposed as an alternative.[32] One of the probable reasons for controversy is that current terminologies (quorum sensing, diffusion sensing, efficiency sensing) arise from different models of how natural selection has acted to shape and maintain the process. Since each of the various models does apply under some circumstances but not others, a sensible resolution to these controversies could be to return the terminology of the process to autoinduction, as originally described by Hastings and coworkers, as this term does not imply understanding of the function of the process.
Interaction of quorum-sensing molecules with mammalian cells and its medical applications[edit]
Next to the potential antimicrobial functionality, quorum-sensing derived molecules, especially the peptides, are being investigated for their use in other therapeutic domains as well, including immunology, central nervous system disorders and oncology. Quorum-sensing peptides have been demonstrated to interact with cancer cells, as well as to permeate the blood-brain barrier permeation reaching the brain parenchyma[33][34][35][36]
Archaea[edit]
Examples[edit]
Methanosaeta harundinacea 6Ac[edit]
Methanosaeta harundinacea 6Ac, a methanogenic archaeon, produces carboxylated acyl homoserine lactone compounds that facilitate the transition from growth as short cells to growth as filaments.[37]
Plants[edit]
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Quorum sensing was described when it was known that bacteria possess the ability to communicate. Hence, in the last few years, there are interactions shown between bacteria and eukaryotic hosts, like plants. These interactions are carried in presence of quorum sensing molecules which play a major role in maintaining the pathogenicity of bacteria towards other hosts like humans. This mechanism can be understood by looking at the effects of N-acyl Homoserine Lactone (AHL) which is one of the quorum sensing-signalling molecules in Gram-negative bacteria, on plants.The model organism used is Arabidopsis thaliana.[38]
The role of AHLs having long Carbon chain (C12, C14) have an unknown mechanism and short Carbon chain (C4, C6, C8) was understood by G-protein Coupled Receptor. A phenomenon called AHL Priming which is a dependent signalling pathway enhanced the knowledge for long chain AHLs. The role of quorum sensing molecules was better explained with three categories: host physiology based impact of quorum sensing molecules; ecological effects; and cellular signaling. Calcium Signalling and Calmodulin has a great role in Short Chain AHLs response to Arabidopsis. Research was also conducted on Barley, Crop yam bean which reveals the AHLs determining the detoxification enzymes called GST which was found less in yam bean.[39]
Looking towards developing new strategies based on plant-associated microbiomes it is aimed to improve the food supply and quality. It opens more new opportunity to learn about the inter-kingdom communication explaining quorum sensing in humans. Quorum sensing-based regulatory systems are necessary to maintain plant diseases caused due to bacteria.[40]
Quorum quenching[edit]
Quorum quenching is the process of preventing quorum sensing by disrupting signalling.[41] This is achieved by inactivating signalling enzymes, by introducing molecules that mimic signalling molecules and block their receptors, or by degrading signalling molecules themselves.[41][42][43]
Closantel and triclosan are known inhibitors of quorum sensing enzymes.[44] Closantel induces aggregation of the histamine kinase sensor in two-component signalling. The latter disrupts the synthesis of a class of signalling molecules known as N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHLs) by blocking the enoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) reductase.[44][45]
Two groups of well-known mimicking molecules include halogenated furanones, which mimic AHL molecules, and synthetic Al peptides (AIPs), which mimic naturally occurring AIPs. These groups inhibit receptors from binding substrate or decrease the concentration of receptors in the cell.[44] Furanones have also been found to act on AHL-dependant transcriptional activity, whereby the half life of the autoinducer-binding LuxR protein is significantly shortened.[46]
Recently, a well-studied quorum quenching bacterial strain (KM1S) was isolated and its AHL degradation kinetic was studied using rapid resolution liquid chromatography (RRLC).[47] RRLC efficiently separates components of a mixture to a high degree of sensitivity, based on their affinities for different liquid phases.[48] It was found that the genome of this strain encoded an inactivation enzyme with distinct motifs targeting the degradation of AHLs.[47]
Applications of quorum quenching that have been exploited by humans include the use of AHL-degrading bacteria in aquacultures to limit the spread of diseases in aquatic populations of fish, mollusks and crustaceans.[49]This technique has also been translated to agriculture, to restrict the spread of pathogenic bacteria that use quorum sensing in plants.[49][50] Anti-biofouling is another process that exploits quorum quenching bacteria to mediate the dissociation of unwanted biofilms aggregating on wet surfaces, such as medical devices, transportation infrastructure and water systems.[49][51]
Social insects[edit]
Social insect colonies are an excellent example of a decentralized system, because no individual is in charge of directing or making decisions for the colony. Several groups of social insects have been shown to use quorum sensing in a process that resembles collective decision-making.
Examples[edit]
Ants[edit]
Colonies of the ant Temnothorax albipennis nest in small crevices between rocks. When the rocks shift and the nest is broken up, these ants must quickly choose a new nest to move into. During the first phase of the decision-making process, a small portion of the workers leave the destroyed nest and search for new crevices. When one of these scout ants finds a potential nest, she assesses the quality of the crevice based on a variety of factors including the size of the interior, the number of openings (based on light level), and the presence or absence of dead ants.[52][53] The worker then returns to the destroyed nest, where she waits for a short period before recruiting other workers to follow her to the nest that she has found, using a process called tandem running. The waiting period is inversely related to the quality of the site; for instance, a worker that has found a poor site will wait longer than a worker that encountered a good site.[54] As the new recruits visit the potential nest site and make their own assessment of its quality, the number of ants visiting the crevice increases. During this stage, ants may be visiting many different potential nests. However, because of the differences in the waiting period, the number of ants in the best nest will tend to increase at the greatest rate. Eventually, the ants in this nest will sense that the rate at which they encounter other ants has exceeded a particular threshold, indicating that the quorum number has been reached.[55] Once the ants sense a quorum, they return to the destroyed nest and begin rapidly carrying the brood, queen, and fellow workers to the new nest. Scouts that are still tandem-running to other potential sites are also recruited to the new nest, and the entire colony moves. Thus, although no single worker may have visited and compared all of the available options, quorum sensing enables the colony as a whole to quickly make good decisions about where to move.
Honey bees[edit]
Honey bees (Apis mellifera) also use quorum sensing to make decisions about new nest sites. Large colonies reproduce through a process called swarming, in which the queen leaves the hive with a portion of the workers to form a new nest elsewhere. After leaving the nest, the workers form a swarm that hangs from a branch or overhanging structure. This swarm persists during the decision-making phase until a new nest site is chosen.
The quorum sensing process in honey bees is similar to the method used by Temnothorax ants in several ways. A small portion of the workers leave the swarm to search out new nest sites, and each worker assesses the quality of the cavity it finds. The worker then returns to the swarm and recruits other workers to her cavity using the honey bee waggle dance. However, instead of using a time delay, the number of dance repetitions the worker performs is dependent on the quality of the site. Workers that found poor nests stop dancing sooner, and can therefore be recruited to the better sites. Once the visitors to a new site sense that a quorum number (usually 10–20 bees) has been reached, they return to the swarm and begin using a new recruitment method called piping. This vibration signal causes the swarm to take off and fly to the new nest location. In an experimental test, this decision-making process enabled honey bee swarms to choose the best nest site in four out of five trials.[56][57]
Computing and robotics[edit]
Quorum sensing can be a useful tool for improving the function of self-organizing networks such as the SECOAS (Self-Organizing Collegiate Sensor) environmental monitoring system. In this system, individual nodes sense that there is a population of other nodes with similar data to report. The population then nominates just one node to report the data, resulting in power savings.[58] Ad-hoc wireless networks can also benefit from quorum sensing, by allowing the system to detect and respond to network conditions.[59]
Quorum sensing can also be used to coordinate the behavior of autonomous robot swarms. Using a process similar to that used by Temnothorax ants, robots can make rapid group decisions without the direction of a controller.[60]
See also[edit]
Cell signaling
Collective behavior
Interspecies quorum sensing
Microbial intelligence
Swarm intelligence
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Jump up ^ Franks, N.R.; Dornhaus, A.; et al. (2006). "Not everything that counts can be counted: ants use multiple metrics for a single nest trait". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1583): 165–9. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3312. PMC 1560019  . PMID 16555783.
Jump up ^ Franks, N.R.; Hooper, J.; et al. (2005). "Tomb evaders: house-hunting hygiene in ants". Biology Letters. 1 (2): 190–2. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0302. PMC 1626204  . PMID 17148163.
Jump up ^ Mallon, E.B.; Pratt, S.C.; et al. (2001). "Individual and collective decision-making during nest site selection by the ant Leptothorax albipennis". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 50 (4): 352–9. doi:10.1007/s002650100377.
Jump up ^ Pratt, S.C. (2005). "Quorum sensing by encounter rates in the ant Temnothorax albipennis". Behavioral Ecology. 16 (2): 488–96. doi:10.1093/beheco/ari020.
Jump up ^ Seeley, T.D.; Visscher, P.K. (2004). "Group decision making in nest-site selection by honey bees". Apidologie. 35 (2): 101–16. doi:10.1051/apido:2004004.
Jump up ^ Seeley, T.D.; Visscher, P.K. (2006). "Group decision making in honey bee swarms". American Scientist. 94 (3): 220–9. doi:10.1511/2006.3.220.
Jump up ^ Britton, M.; Sacks, L. (2004). "The SECOAS Project—Development of a Self-Organising, Wireless Sensor Network for Environmental Monitoring" (PDF). SANPA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-16.
Jump up ^ Peysakhov, M.; Regli, W. (2005). "Ant inspired server population management in a service based computing environment". Proceedings 2005 IEEE Swarm Intelligence Symposium, 2005. SIS 2005. Swarm Intelligence Symposium, Proceedings 2005 IEEE. pp. 357–64. doi:10.1109/SIS.2005.1501643. ISBN 0-7803-8916-6.
Jump up ^ Sahin, E.; Franks, N. (2002). "Measurement of Space: From Ants to Robots". Proceedings of WGW 2002: EPSRC/BBSRC International Workshop. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.161.6407  .
Further reading[edit]
Dedicated issue of Philosophical Transactions B on quorum sensing. Some articles are freely available.
External links[edit]
The Quorum Sensing Website
Cell-to-Cell Communication in Bacteria
The SECOAS project—Development of a Self-Organising, Wireless Sensor Network for Environmental Monitoring
Measurement of Space: From Ants to Robots
Instant insight into quorum sensing from the Royal Society of Chemistry
Bonnie Bassler: Discovering bacteria's amazing communication system
Bonnie Bassler's seminar: "Cell-Cell Communication in Bacteria"
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