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Bothrops asper
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Bothrops asper
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Squamata
Suborder: Serpentes
Family: Viperidae
Genus: Bothrops
Species: B. asper
Binomial name
Bothrops asper
(Garman, 1884)
Geographical range of Bothrops asper.
Synonyms
B[othrops]. atrox var. dirus
Jan, 1863
Trigonocephalus xanthogrammus Cope, 1868
Trigonocephalus asper
Garman, 1884
B[othrops]. atrox septentrionalis
F. Müller, 1885
B[othrops]. quadriscutatus
Posada Arango, 1889
Lachesis xanthogrammus
– Boulenger, 1896
Bothrops xanthogramma
– Amaral, 1930
Bothrops atrox asper
– H.M. Smith & Taylor, 1945
Bothrops asper – Stuart, 1963
Bothrops xantogrammus
– Hoge, 1966
Trigonocephalus xantogrammus
– Hoge, 1966
Lachesis xantogrammus
– Hoge, 1966
Bothrops xantogramma
– Hoge, 1966
Bothrops asper – J. Peters &
Orejas-Miranda, 1970
Bothrops xanthogrammus
– J. Peters &
Orejas-Miranda, 1970
Bothrops andianus asper
– Mertens, 1987
Bothrops lanceolatus asper
– Sandner-Montilla, 1990
Bothrops atrox xanthogrammus
– Schätti & Kramer, 1993
Bothrops asper – Greene, 1997[1]
Common names: fer-de-lance,[2] terciopelo,
Bothrops asper is a highly venomous pit viper species ranging from southern Mexico to northern South America and is considered to be one of the most dangerous snakes in the central hemisphere.[citation needed] Sometimes referred to as the "ultimate pit viper",[2] these snakes are found in a wide range of lowland habitats, often near human habitations. Its proximity to human habitations and temperament are likely the reasons why it is considered more dangerous to humans than others. This species is the main cause of snakebite incidents within its range.[1] No subspecies are currently recognized.[3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Common names
3 Description
4 Distribution
5 Habitat
6 Behavior
7 Reproduction
8 Venom
9 Taxonomy
10 Predators
11 See also
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Etymology[edit]
The generic name, Bothrops, comes from the Greek words bothros and ops, which mean "pit" and "face" (or "eye"), respectively. This is a reference to these snakes' highly sensitive heat-detecting pit organs. The specific epithet, asper, which is a Latin word meaning "rough" or "harsh", may allude to the species' keeled dorsal scales.[4]
Common names[edit]
Some of the common names applied to this snake are terciopelo, fer-de-lance,[2] Mapepire balsain (Trinidad), barba amarilla (Guatemala, Honduras; "yellow beard"), equis (Ecuador & Panama; "x"),[5] taya equis (Colombia), cuaima (Venezuela), nauyaca (México; from Nahuatl nahui, four, and yacatl, nose; "four noses"),[6] and yellow-jaw tommygoff (Belize).
The name fer-de-lance is commonly used in North America to refer to this species, as well as to B. atrox, although B. atrox is more commonly referred to as the "lancehead" in North America. The name fer-de-lance is not used in the countries inhabited by this species.[2] The name terciopelo means velvet in Spanish.[7]
Description[edit]
B. asper, Panama
Bothrops species can be distinguished by their broad, flattened heads which are set apart from the rest of their bodies. The head of this snake is light to dark brown or even black. Although usually absent, it may have occipital blotches or streaks that range from indistinct to distinct. The underside is most often pale yellow. This species has different patterns and colors on its dorsal and ventral sides and it exhibits a postorbital stripe. The ventral side is yellow, cream, or a whitish gray, with dark blotches that are more frequent closer to the posterior end. Ventrolaterally, B. asper has interchanging gray scales which are more pale towards the medial line. Dark triangles with pale edges can be seen laterally, which range in number from 18 to 25. Apices either alternate or are reflective of each other over the middorsal line. In the interspaces, there are dark, paravertebral blotches. Specimens may have a yellow zig-zag-shaped line on each side of the body. There is a great variety of colours on its dorsal side: olive, gray, light brown to dark brown, tan or sometimes nearly black. To prevent water loss where they occur in drier regions, this species has more scales.[2]
Colied terciopelo in Panama
Specimens of this species may weigh up to 6 kilograms (13 lb) and are often 1.2 to 1.8 meters (3.9 to 5.9 ft) in length. Very big females can reach lengths up to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft), although this is uncommon.[2][8] These are among the most sexually dimorphic of all snakes. The two sexes are born the same size, but by age 7 to 12 months, females begin to grow at a much faster rate than males. Females have thick, heavy bodies and grow significantly larger than males.[2] They also have heads two or three times the size of males relative to their size and proportionally bigger fangs (typically 2.5 cm), as well.[9]
Across its geographic range, this species varies greatly phenotypically. As a result, great confusion between it and other related species, most notably Bothrops atrox, which is similar in color but usually has yellow or rust-like tones and rectangular or trapezoidal blotches.[2]
Distribution[edit]
It is found in the Atlantic lowlands of eastern Mexico and Central America, including Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. An isolated population occurs in southeastern Chiapas (Mexico) and southwestern Guatemala. In northern South America, it is found in Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana and Venezuela. The type locality given is "Obispo, on the Isthmus of Darien" (Panama).[1]
This is mostly a lowland species that, in Mexico and Central America, occurs from about sea level to 1,200 to 1,300 meters (3,900 to 4,300 ft) altitude. In South America, it apparently ranges to considerably higher elevations: up to 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) in Venezuela and at least 2,640 metres (8,660 ft) in Colombia according to herpetologist Lancini.[2]
According to Campbell and Lamar (2004), its range in Ecuador extends as far south along the Pacific coast as El Oro Province and the Vilcabamba area of the Río Catamayo Valley.[2] This species is reported to occur from seven (Bolívar, Carchi, Chimborazo, Esmeraldas, Guayas, Los Ríos and Pichincha) of the fourteen provinces along the Pacific slope of Ecuador. There are even a few records from northern coastal Peru, with these snakes being reported in the Tumbes Region.[10] It is also known from the island of Gorgona off the Pacific coast of Colombia.[2]
B. asper occurs throughout the inter-Andes valleys of Colombia across the Caribbean coastal plain through central Venezuela north of the Orinoco as far east as the Delta Amacuro region. This is the only Bothrops species that occurs on the island of Trinidad, although the situation there is complicated due to proximity of Trinidad to the Orinoco Delta where it may be sympatric with B. atrox.[2]
It is also found on the island of Martinique.[11]
Habitat[edit]
This species likes moist environments, and occurs in most life zones located at low or middle elevations (up to 600 metres (2,000 ft)), excluding those with strong seasonal dry periods. They are, however, sometimes found at much higher elevations. This is true in the premontane forest in Costa Rica, the cloud forest of Guatemala and Mexico, or the lower montane wet forest in the Caribbean Region of Colombia and Ecuador. It chiefly inhabits tropical rainforest and evergreen forest, but it also occurs in drier areas of tropical deciduous forest, thorn forest and pine savannah near lakes, rivers and streams. The home range of B. asper averages between 3.71 ha and 5.95 ha, which is comparatively small in relation to other pitvipers.[12]
Behavior[edit]
B. asper, Panama
This species is nocturnal and solitary. It is less active in colder and drier periods. B. asper is often found near rivers and streams, basking under the sun during the day and lying still while well camouflaged in leaf litter or under forest cover waiting to ambush prey (including rats and mice) that comes within range during the night. When cornered or threatened, this species can be very defensive and may exhibit an S-coiled defense display. Juveniles are often semiarboreal and even adults are sometimes encountered in bushes and low trees. Juveniles are also known to exhibit caudal luring, a use of their differently colored tail tips to lure prey.[2] Although both males and females display this behavior, only males have bright coloured tail tips.[13]
Compared to the common lancehead, B. atrox, these snakes have been described as excitable and unpredictable when disturbed. They can, and often will, move very quickly,[2] usually opting to flee from danger,[9] but are capable of suddenly reversing direction to vigorously defend themselves. Adult specimens, when cornered and fully alert, should be considered dangerous. In a review of bites from this species suffered by field biologists, Hardy (1994) referred to it as the "ultimate pit viper".[2]
Reproduction[edit]
Young terciopelo on the couch at the hotel, El Gringo Perdido, El Remate, Guatemala
The timing of the reproductive cycle and the litter size of this species vary according to location: in some parts of Costa Rica, for example, it is more prolific than in others. Reproduction is highly seasonal and in Costa Rica, reproductive cycles are tightly related to rainfall patterns. The timing of breeding differs between populations in the Caribbean and Pacific lowlands. On the Pacific side, mating took place between September and November, with females giving birth between April and June. The average number of offspring was 18.6 (five to 40) in this population. Neonates ranged in total length from 28 to 34.6 centimeters (11.0 to 13.6 in) and in weight from 6.7 to 13.1 grams (0.24 to 0.46 oz). On the Atlantic side, mating was observed in March, and births occurred between September and November. The average number of offspring was 41.1 (14–86), whereas the total length of neonates ranged from 27 to 36.5 centimeters (10.6 to 14.4 in), and weighed from 6.1 to 20.2 grams (0.22 to 0.71 oz). In both populations, gestation time ranged from six to eight months, and the size of a litter correlated significantly with the size of the female.[14] This species is considered to be the most prolific of all snakes in the Americas.[2]
Male-male combat in this species has not been observed. Females will mate with more than one male during mating season. Mating includes a series of movements of the male, which then slowly chases an accepting female. The female then stops movement and extends her posture to mate. It is not known whether this species exhibits annual or biannual reproduction.[12]
Venom[edit]
Severe tissue necrosis following B. asper envenomation – The tissue necrosis resulted in gangrene and the doctors had to amputate the leg above the knee. The victim was an 11-year-old boy, bitten two weeks earlier in Ecuador, but treated only with antibiotics.[15]
This species is an important cause of snakebite within its range. Together with Crotalus durissus, it is the leading cause of snakebite in Yucatán, Mexico.
It is considered the most dangerous snake in Costa Rica, responsible for 46% of all bites and 30% of all hospitalized cases; before 1947, the fatality rate was 9%, but this has since declined to almost 0% (Bolaños, 1984), mostly due to the Clodomiro Picado Research Institute,[16] responsible for the production of snake antiophidic sera (which are also exported to other Latin American and African countries) and scientific research on serpents and their venoms, as well as educational and extension programs in rural areas and hospitals.
In the Colombian states of Antioquia and Chocó, it causes 50–70% of all snakebites, with a sequelae rate of 9% and a fatality rate of 6% (Otero et al., 1992).
In the state of Lara, Venezuela, it is responsible for 78% of all envenomations and all snakebite fatalities (Dao-L., 1971). One of the reasons so many people are bitten is because of its association with human habitation and many bites actually occur indoors (Sasa & Vázquez, 2003).
Well-known herpetologist Douglas March died after being bitten by this species.[17]
This species is irritable and fast-moving. It is also regarded as being more excitable and unpredictable than B. atrox. Its large size and habit of raising its head high off the ground can result in bites above the knee. It has also been observed to eject venom over a distance of at least 6 ft (1.8 m) in fine jets from the tips of its fangs (Mole, 1924).[17]
Bite symptoms include pain, oozing from the puncture wounds, local swelling that may increase for up to 36 hours, bruising that spreads from the bite site, blisters, numbness, mild fever, headache, bleeding from the nose and gums, hemoptysis, gastrointestinal bleeding, hematuria, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, impaired consciousness and tenderness of the spleen. In untreated cases, local necrosis frequently occurs and may cause gangrene which often requires amputation. In 12 fatal cases, the cause of death was sepsis (5), intracranial hemorrhage (3), acute renal failure with hyperkalemia and metabolic acidosis (2) and hemorrhagic shock (1).[17]
Venom yield (dry weight) averages 458 mg, with a maximum of 1530 mg (Bolaños, 1984)[17] and an LD50 in mice of 2.844 mg/kg IP.[9]
The venomous bite of B. asper has been suggested to have been a factor in the choice of certain Mayan settlements, such as Nim Li Punit, where the thick jungle inhabited by these snakes was used as a defensive boundary.[18]
Taxonomy[edit]
This species is a subspecies of B. atrox and can still often confused be with it.[9]
Predators[edit]
Despite being one of the most venomous snakes in Central and South America, the snake is often preyed on by spiders, specifically the Goliath tarantula. The Jaguar will also prey on the snake.[19][20]
See also[edit]
List of crotaline species and subspecies
Bothrops by common name
Bothrops by taxonomic synonyms
Crotalinae by common name
Crotalinae by taxonomic synonyms
Snakebite
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ISBN 1-893777-00-6 (series). ISBN 1-893777-01-4 (volume).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Campbell; Lamar, Jonathan; William (2004). The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. p. 870. ISBN 0-8014-4141-2.
Jump up ^ "Bothrops asper". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 6 November 2006.
Jump up ^ Uetz, Peter. "Bothrops asper (GARMAN, 1883)". Reptile-Database. Zoological Museum Hamburg. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2011-04-26. Retrieved 2011-01-23.
Jump up ^ Diccionario de la Real Academia Española, 22a. ed. Consulted March 27, 2009
Jump up ^ Clothes at Online resources for Spanish language learning. Accessed 3 February 2007.
Jump up ^ O'Shea, Mark (2011). Venomous Snakes of the World. United States: New Holland Publishers Ltd. ISBN 1-84773-871-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Sierra. "Captive care of B.asper". A collection of captive care notes. www.venomousreptiles.org. Retrieved 6 November 2006.
Jump up ^ Cisneros-Heredi, Diego F.; Touzet, Jean-Marc (30 December 2004). "Distribution and conservation status of Bothrops asper (GARMAN, 1884) in Ecuador" (PDF). Herpetozoa. 17 (3/4): 135–141. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
Jump up ^ Fermor, Patrick Leigh, "The Traveler's Tree," at 18-19 (New York: New York Review Book) (ISBN 9781590173800)
^ Jump up to: a b Sasa, Mahmood; Dennis K. Waskob; William W. Lamarc (2009). "Natural history of the terciopelo Bothrops asper (Serpentes: Viperidae) in Costa Rica" (PDF). Toxicon. 54 (7): 904–922. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.06.024. PMID 19563822. Retrieved 2011-02-10.
Jump up ^ Mattison, Chris (2007) [first published in UK by Blandford (1995)]. The New Encyclopedia of Snakes. New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-13295-X.
Jump up ^ Solórzano, Alejandro; Cerdas, Luis (1989). "Reproductive biology and the distribution of the Terciopelo, Bothrops asper Garman (Serpentes, Viperidae), in Costa Rica". Herpetologica. 45 (4): 444–450. Retrieved 1 January 2012.
Jump up ^ Leg necrosis
Jump up ^ "Clodomiro Picado Research Institute".
^ Jump up to: a b c d Warrell DA. 2004. Snakebites in Central and South America: Epidemiology, Clinical Features, and Clinical Management. In Campbell JA, Lamar WW. 2004. The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca and London. 870 pp. 1500 plates. ISBN 0-8014-4141-2.
Jump up ^ Nim Li Punit by C. Michael Hogan, at Megalithic Portal. Accessed 15 March 2008.
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=urOCCXbLsMo
Jump up ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWXeWulrfCY
Further reading[edit]
Bolaños R. 1984. Serpientes, venenos, y ofidismo en Centroamérica. Editoria Universidad de Costa Rica, San José. 136 pp.
Dao-L. L. 1971. Emponzoñamiento ofícido en el Estado Lara. Gaceta Medica de Caracas 79: 383–410.
Garman S. 1884 ["1883"]. The Reptiles and Batrachians of North America. Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. Vol. VIII, No. 3. xxxi + 185 pp. + 10 Plates. (Trigonocephalus asper, p. 124.)
Otero R, Tobón GS, Fernando Gómez L, Osorio R, Valderrama R, Hoyos D, Urreta JE, Molina S, Arboleda JJ. 1992. Accidente ofídico en Antioquia y Chocó. Aspectos clínicos y epidimiológicos (marzo de 1989-febrero de 1990). Acta Médica Colombiana 17: 229–249.
Sasa M, Vázquez S. 2003. Snakebite envenomation in Costa Rica: a revision of incidence in the decade 1990–2000. Toxicon 41(1): 19–22.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bothrops asper.
Bothrops asper at the Reptarium.cz Reptile Database. Accessed 6 December 2007.
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q384987
ADW: Bothrops_asper
EoL: 453977
GBIF: 5220796
iNaturalist: 30798
ITIS: 585769
NCBI: 8722
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bothrops_asper&oldid=835727589"
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Vegetarianism by country
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Vegetarian restaurant buffet, Taipei, Taiwan
This article deals with vegetarianism and veganism by country, comparing the prevalence of vegetarianism and veganism in each country when sources are available by the number of vegetarians and vegans, and listing food standards, laws and general cultural attitudes.
Some countries have strong cultural or religious traditions that promote vegetarianism, such as in India, while in other countries secular ethical concerns dominate, including animal rights and environmental protection, along with health concerns. In many countries, food labeling laws make it easier for vegetarians to identify foods compatible with their diets.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Demographics
2 Africa
3 Asia
3.1 China
3.2 India
3.3 Israel
3.4 Japan
3.5 Malaysia
3.6 Singapore
3.7 Taiwan
3.8 Thailand
4 Europe
4.1 Austria
4.2 Belgium
4.3 Denmark
4.4 Finland
4.5 France
4.6 Germany
4.7 Italy
4.8 Netherlands
4.9 Poland
4.10 Portugal
4.11 Russia
4.12 Spain
4.13 Sweden
4.14 Switzerland
4.15 United Kingdom
5 North America
5.1 Canada
5.2 United States
6 Oceania
6.1 Australia
6.2 New Zealand
7 South America
7.1 Brazil
8 See also
9 References
Demographics[edit]
See also: Veganism § Demographics
Color coded map indicating vegetarianism as a percentage of the population
Reliable data is lacking due to a lack of polling and the varying definitions of vegetarianism and veganism used in the polls. For example, the latest US poll defines "vegan" according to diets that exclude meat, eggs and dairy, rather than following the accepted definition of veganism as avoiding all animal products as far as possible including honey and clothing. Other polls, like the latest Australian poll, place strict vegetarians and those who follow "almost" vegetarian diets in the same category, while this poll and many others measure only vegetarianism and neglect to include veganism in the poll. Many poll results are contradicted by other poll results from the same country despite similar publication dates, implying a wide margin of error.
A study from 2010[2] estimated that there are 1,450 million vegetarians of necessity and another 75 million of choice. They make approximately 21.8% of the world’s population.
Country
Vegetarian diet (%) (includes vegan diet)
Approx. no. of individuals
Data set year
Vegan diet (%)
Approx. no. of individuals
Data set year
Note
Australia 7001110000000000000♠11% 2,100,000 2016[3] 2010[4] As of March 2016, 11.2% of people living in Australia agreed that "The food I eat is all, or almost all, vegetarian."
Austria 7000900000000000000♠9% 765,000 2013[5]
Brazil 7000800000000000000♠8.0% 15,200,000 2012[6]
Canada 7000940000000000000♠9.4% 3,411,000 2016[7] 2.3 835,000 2016[8]
Czech Republic 7000150000000000000♠1.5% 235,000 2003[9]
China 7000400000000000000♠4% – 7000500000000000000♠5% 54,428,000 – 68,035,000 2013[10]
Denmark 7000400000000000000♠4% 220,000 2011[11]
Finland 7000200000000000000♠2% 108,000 – 329,000 2011[12] 2015[13] 0.5% 27,000 2013[14] % of vegans only an estimation
France 7000150000000000000♠1.5% 1,988,000 – 3,300,000 2011[15]
Germany 7001100000000000000♠10% 8,000,000 2018[16] 1.6% 1,300,000 2018[17]
India 7001290000000000000♠29% – 7001400000000000000♠40% 360,576,000 2009[18] 2014[19][20] 27%
Israel 7001130000000000000♠13% 1,046,000 2015[21][22] 5% 421,000 2015[21][22]
Italy 7000710000000000000♠7.1% – 7001100000000000000♠10% 4,246,000 2009[18] 2015[23] 0.6% – 2.8% 400,000 – 1,680,000 2015[23][24]
Japan 7000470000000000000♠4.7% 18,370,300 2014[25] 2.7% 5,875,000 2014[25]
Latvia 7000300000000000000♠3% – 7000500000000000000♠5% 60,000 – 100,000 2013[26] estimation
Netherlands 7000500000000000000♠5.0% 800,000
2016[27] 2017[28]
New Zealand 7001103000000000000♠10.3% 463,500 2016[29]
Norway 7001100000000000000♠10% 550,000 2012[30] estimation
Poland 7000320000000000000♠3.2% 1,228,800 2013[31] 1.6% 608,000 2013[31]
Portugal 7000120000000000000♠1.2% 120,000 2017[32] 0.6% 2017[32] survey conducted by marketing research firm Nielsen Corporation
Russia 7000300000000000000♠3% – 7000400000000000000♠4% 4,380,000 – 5,840,000 2014[33][34]
Slovenia 1.4% – 1.6% 28,922 – 33,054 2007/2008[35] 0.3% – 0.5% 6,197 – 10,329 2007/2008[35] Age group: 18-65; a representative sample; unbiased data (survey conducted by National Institute of Public Health); new data will be available soon (2018/2019/2020).
Spain 7000150000000000000♠1.5% 697,000 2017[36] 0.2% 93,000 2017[36] adult population
Sweden 7001100000000000000♠10% 969,000 2014[37] 4% 388,000 2014[37] Based on a 1000 person telephone survey.
Switzerland 7001140000000000000♠14% 1,176,156 2017[38] 3% 252,033 2017[38]
United Kingdom 7001140000000000000♠14% [39] 9,100,000[39] 2015[40] 2014[41] 2016[42] 7% 3,500,000[39] 2018[39]
United States 7000930000000000000♠9.3% 30,290,000
2016[43]
6% 2017[44]
Belgium 7001100000000000000♠10.0% 1,130,177 2016[45]
Taiwan 7001140000000000000♠14.0% 3,297,011
2015[46] 2016[47] 2017[48]
South Korea 7000100000000000000♠1.0% 500,000 2011[49]
[50]
Africa[edit]
The prevalence of strict ethical vegetarianism in Africa is reported to be low since most of the traditional food consist of meat ,[51] while scientific polls are lacking. Countries in North Africa have a tradition of cooking in a vegetarian style, with Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Tunisia being particularly connected with this type of cooking which includes couscous and spiced vegetables.[52] Indian immigrants to Africa, particularly in South Africa, brought vegetarianism with them which has been documented as far back as 1895 in Natal Province.[53] Also, some African countries, for example Egypt and Ethiopia, have regular weekly and special periods of religious fasting requiring observance of a vegetarian diet.[51][54]
Asia[edit]
China[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion and Buddhist vegetarianism
In China, consumption of meat is rapidly increasing while a small but growing number of young people in large cities are vegan.[10] An estimated 4 to 5 percent of Chinese are vegetarian.[10] However, in a survey conducted by SJTU researchers, only 0.77 percent of respondents labeled themselves vegetarian.
Native Chinese, generally falling under the label of Taoism (though this tends to confuse the native religion with the Daoist school of philosophy, represented by Laotzu, Chuangtzu, and others), is a form of animism. Similar to Shintoism in Japan, though the killing and eating of animals is not forbidden, it is considered impure.
Classical Chinese texts pointed to a period of abstinence from meat before undertaking matters of great importance or of religious significance.
With the influx of Buddhist influences, vegetarianism became more popular, but there is a distinction—Daoist vegetarianism is based on a perception of purity, while Buddhist vegetarianism is based on the dual bases of refraining from killing and subduing one's own subservience to the senses. Because of this, two types of "vegetarianism" came to be—one where one refrained from eating meat, the other being refraining from eating meat as well as garlic, onions, and other such strongly flavored foods. This Buddhism-influenced vegetarianism has been known and practiced by some since at least the 7th century.
The early 20th century saw some intellectuals espousing vegetarianism as part of their program for reforming China culturally, not just politically. The anarchist thinker Li Shizeng, for instance, argued that tofu and soy products were healthier and could be a profitable export. Liang Shuming, a philosopher and reform activist, adopted a basically vegetarian diet, but did not promote one for others. In recent years, it has seen a resurgence in the cities among the emerging middle class.[55]
India[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion, Diet in Hinduism, and Buddhist vegetarianism
Further information: Vegetarian mark
Vegetarian mark: Mandatory labeling in India to distinguish vegetarian products (left) from non-vegetarian ones (right)
In 2007, UN FAO statistics indicated that Indians had the lowest rate of meat consumption in the world.[56] India has more vegetarians than the rest of the world put together.[57] In India, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with lacto vegetarianism. Most restaurants in India clearly distinguish and market themselves as being either "non-vegetarian", "vegetarian", or "pure vegetarian". Vegetarian restaurants abound, and many vegetarian options are usually available. Animal-based ingredients (other than milk and honey) such as lard, gelatin, and meat stock are not used in the traditional cuisine. India has devised a system of marking edible products made from only vegetarian ingredients, with a green dot in a green square. A mark of a brown dot in a brown square conveys that some animal-based ingredients were used. Products like honey, milk, or its direct derivatives are often categorized under the green mark.[58]
According to the 2006 Hindu-CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey, 31% of Indians are vegetarian, while another 9% also consume eggs (ovo-vegetarian).[59] Among the various communities, vegetarianism was most common among the Lingayat, Vaishnav Community, Jain community and then Brahmins at 55%, and less frequent among Muslims (3%) and residents of coastal states. Other surveys cited by FAO[60] and USDA[61][62] estimate 40% of the Indian population as being vegetarian. These surveys indicate that even Indians who do eat meat, do so infrequently, with less than 30% consuming it regularly, although the reasons are mainly cultural.[62] In states where vegetarianism is more common, milk consumption is higher and is associated with lactase persistence. This allows people to continue consuming milk into adulthood and obtain proteins that are substituted for meat, fish and eggs in other areas.[63][64] An official survey conducted by the Government of India, with a sample size of 8858 and the census frame as 2011, indicated India's vegetarian population to be 28-29% of the total population.[65] Compared to a similar survey done almost a decade earlier, India's vegetarian population has increased.[66]
According to a survey 2014 released by the registrar general of India, 29% of Indians over the age of 15 are vegetarian, compared with 25% in 2004.[67] Rajasthan has the highest fraction of vegetarians: 74.9%. Other states with large fraction of vegetarians are Haryana (69.25%) Punjab, (66.75%), Gujarat (60.95%) and MP (50.6%). Bengal (1.4%) and Telangana (1.3%) have the fewest vegetarians.
The recent growth in India's organized retail sector has also been hit by some controversy, because some vegetarians are demanding meat-free supermarkets.[68]
In 2016, the Government of India announced the decision to provide students, at a few of the Institutes of Hotel Management, Catering Technology and Applied Nutrition (IHMCTANs), the option to choose only vegetarian cooking. Earlier, it was compulsory for all IHMCTAN students to learn non-vegetarian cooking. These IHMCTANs are located at Ahmedabad, Bhopal and Jaipur.[69][70]
In 2018, a study from Economic and Political Weekly shows that in facts the percentage of vegetarians could be around 20 %, because people declarations in governemental surveys are different than the reality of meat consumption in the country.[71]
Israel[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism in Judaism
A study by the Israeli Ministry of Health in 2001 found that 7.2% of men and 9.8% of women were vegetarian. Although vegetarianism is quite common, the actual percentage of vegetarians in Israel may be lower — the Israeli food industry estimated it at 5%.[72] In 2010, one study found that 2.6% of Israelis were vegetarians or vegans.[73]
According to a 2015 poll by the newspaper ''Globe'' and Channel 2, 8% of the Israeli population were vegetarians and 5% were vegans. 13% consider turning vegan or vegetarian. Tel Aviv beat out Berlin, New York and Chennai, India as U.S. food website The Daily Meal's top destination for vegan travelers.[73][74]
Japan[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion and Buddhist vegetarianism
According to a 2014/12 survey 4.7% of the Japanese population are vegetarian or vegan (2.7% vegan). NOTE: The referenced web survey included 1,188 valid responses and is not representative of the population of Japan.[25]
Malaysia[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion, Diet in Hinduism, and Buddhist vegetarianism
Vegetarian diets are categorized as lacto vegetarianism, ovo-lacto vegetarianism, and veganism in general. The reasons for being vegetarian include influence from friends and family members, concern about global warming, health issues and weight management, religion and mercy for animals, in descending order of significance.[75]
Singapore[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion, Diet in Hinduism, and Buddhist vegetarianism
Rice, mushrooms, vegetables are some of the dietary staples, mixed with a rich variety of spices, coconut, lime and tamarind. Buddhist Chinese monastics are vegetarians or vegans. Singapore is also the headquarters of the world's first international, vegetarian, fast food chain, VeganBurg.[76] The bigger communities of vegetarians and vegans in Singapore are Vegetarian Society (VSS) and SgVeganCommunity. Vegetarian and vegan places have an active role in the gastronomy of Singapore.
Taiwan[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion and Buddhist vegetarianism
In Taiwan, 1.7 million people, or 13% of the population of Taiwan, follow a vegetarian diet at least some of the time.[77][78] There are more than 6,000 vegetarian eating establishments in Taiwan.[79] The country's food labelling laws for vegetarian food are the world's strictest, because around 2 million Taiwanese people eat vegetarian food.[80] A popular movement of "one day vegetarian every week" has been advocated on a national level,[81] and on a local level, even government bodies are involved, such as the Taipei City Board of Education.[82]
Thailand[edit]
See also: Vegetarianism and religion, Buddhist vegetarianism, and Thai cuisine § Vegetarianism in Thailand
Europe[edit]
The definition of vegetarianism throughout Europe is not uniform, creating the potential for products to be labelled inaccurately.[1]
Austria[edit]
According to a study of ISEF[83] from 2013 (n=500), 9% of Austrians are vegetarian or vegan.
Belgium[edit]
Since May 2009, Belgium has had the first city in the world (Ghent) with a weekly "veggie day".[84]
Denmark[edit]
According to a survey by Coop Analyse published in June 2011, just under 4% of Danes considered themselves either vegetarians or vegans.[11]
Finland[edit]
There is no recent data about amount of vegetarians or vegans in Finland. In 2015, according to a survey by meat producers' association Lihatiedotusyhdistys, 6% of the population, or 329,000 people, did not eat meat.[13] In 2014, the percentage was 5%; it was 10% among 25–34 year old people. The survey did not ask about eating fish.[85] Otherwise, it is estimated that 2–3% of Finns are vegetarians[12] and 0.5% vegans.[14] By combining the data of three surveys (a sample of 24,000 people) published in 2008, 3.3% of Finns identified themselves vegetarians but only 0.66% actually followed a vegetarian diet. 1.4% ate fish but not meat. 0.18% were vegans or lacto-vegetarians.[86]
In most of the cities's schools the students are offered two options, a vegetarian and a non-vegetarian meal, on four school days a week, and one day a week they have a choice between two vegetarian meals, for grades 1 to 12. In secondary schools and universities, from 10 to 40 percents of the students preferred vegetarian food in 2013.[87][88] Vegetarianism is most popular in secondary art schools where in some schools over half of the students were vegetarians in 2013.[89]
France[edit]
Studies in the 1990s showed that one million French (1.5% of the total population) called themselves vegetarians, although more recently this number has reportedly increased to 2%.[15]
Germany[edit]
According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Germany has over six million vegetarians.[90] A survey conducted by Institut Produkt und Markt found that 9% of the population (7,380,000 people) are vegetarian.[91]
However, the statistically representative German National Nutrition Monitoring (NEMONIT) only found there to be slightly less than 2% vegetarians in the German population in 2012.[92]
Italy[edit]
The Italian research institute Eurispes estimates that 10% of Italians are vegetarian and 1.1% are vegan.[18]
Netherlands[edit]
It is estimated that 4.5% of the Dutch population does not eat meat.[93]
A study has shown that the number of vegetarians out of a population of nearly 16.5 million people increased from 560,000 in 2004 to 720,000 in 2006.[94][95] The number of "part-time vegetarians" grew rapidly as well; around 3.5 million Dutch citizens abstain from eating meat a few days a week.[95]
The sales of meat substitutes have an annual growth of around 25%, making it one of the fastest-growing markets in the Netherlands.[95] In supermarkets and stores, it is sometimes necessary to read the fine print on products in order to make sure that there are no animal-originated ingredients. Increasingly, however, vegetarian products are labeled with the international "V-label," overseen by the Dutch vegetarian association Vegetarisch Keurmerk.[96] Veganism is uncommon in the Netherlands: the Dutch Association for Veganism estimates that there are approximately 70,000 vegans in the Netherlands, or around 0.4% of the population.[97]
Poland[edit]
According to a survey carried out in Poland by Mintel in 2017, 8% of respondents are vegetarian, while 7% identify themselves as vegans.[98]
The capital of Poland, Warsaw, was listed 3rd on the list of Top Vegan Cities In The World published by HappyCow in 2017.[99]
Portugal[edit]
In 2007, the number of vegetarians in Portugal was estimated at 30,000, which equates to less than 0.3% of the population. In 2014, the number was estimated to be 200,000 people.[100]
Vegan and vegetarian products like soy milk, soy yogurts, rice milk and tofu are widely available in major retailers, and across the country.
Russia[edit]
2013-2014 polls revealed that 3[33] to 4%[34] of the Russian population considered themselves vegetarian.[101]
Spain[edit]
A 2012 article in El Pais stated that 0.5% of the population are vegetarian, but that interest in vegetarianism is growing.[102]
In Spain, different sources estimate that there are between 1.5 and 2 million vegetarians. In a 2002 article El Mundo stated that there are 1.5 million vegetarians.[103] More recent sources (Asociación Vegana) estimate the number to be two million and observe that in recent years the number of people adopting a vegetarian diet has been growing.[104][105] According to a new study, the number of vegans in Spain increased to 3.5 millions in 2017. [106]
Sweden[edit]
A 2014 survey of 1,000 people found that the number of vegetarians had increased to 10% (4% vegans and 6% vegetarians).[37] The same survey found that 17% in the age group 15-24 were vegetarians.
Switzerland[edit]
1997 government figures suggested that 2.3% of the population never ate meat, and the observed trend seemed to point towards less meat consumption.[107] A 2007 study suggested that the percentage of vegetarians had risen to 5%.[107]
United Kingdom[edit]
In the United Kingdom, increasing numbers of people have adopted a vegetarian diet since the end of World War II.[108] The Food Standards Agency Public Attitudes to Food Survey 2009 reported that 3% of respondents were found to be "completely vegetarian", with an additional 5% "partly vegetarian (do not eat some types of fish or meat)".[40] The UK's National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) reported in 2014 that its four-year study found 2.6% of adults and 1.9% of children were vegetarian.[41] The "How many vegans?" survey conducted in May 2016 by the Vegan Society found that 3.25% of UK residents were vegetarian or vegan, while 1.05% were vegan.[42] Some less formal market studies suggest that vegetarians constitute 7% to 11% of the UK adult population (4 million people).[109][110][111] There are twice as many vegetarian women as men.[111] According to Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, the UK has the third highest rate of vegetarianism in the European Union.[90] Flexitarianism is also becoming more popular in the UK.[112]
Despite the clear classification by the Vegetarian Society, some people in the UK misidentify as vegetarians while still eating fish, either for perceived "health reasons", or because of differing ethical perspectives on vegetarianism, while others use the terms "flexitarian" or "part-vegetarian".[108] As of 2009, people in the UK are now also identified with the labels "meat-avoiders" and "meat-reducers" by marketers, denoting people who do not self-identify as vegetarians, but are reducing or avoiding meat for reasons of health or climate change impacts, with one survey identifying 23% of the population as "meat-reducers", and 10% as "meat-avoiders", although the same survey indicated the "vast majority" in the UK still eat meat, with one in five liking to eat meat every day.[108]
Foods labelled as suitable for vegetarians or vegans are subject to provisions within the Trades Descriptions Act 1968.[113] The Food Standards Agency issues guidance on the labelling of foods as suitable for vegetarians:
The term 'vegetarian' should not be applied to foods that are, or are made from or with the aid of, products derived from animals that have died, have been slaughtered, or animals that die as a result of being eaten. Animals means farmed, wild or domestic animals, including for example, livestock poultry, game, fish, shellfish, crustaceans, amphibians, tunicates, echinoderms, molluscs, and insects.
—  Food Standards Agency[114]
The FSA's definition has now passed into European law, with legislation due in 2015[needs update].
In addition to voluntary labelling, the Vegetarian Society operates a scheme whereby foods that meet its criteria can be labelled "Vegetarian Society approved".[115] Under this scheme, a product is vegetarian if it is free of meat, fowl, fish, shellfish, meat or bone stock, animal or carcass fats, gelatin, aspic, or any other ingredient resulting from slaughter, such as rennet.[116] Cheese is often labelled as well, making it possible to identify cheeses that have been made with rennet derived from non-animal sources.[117]
North America[edit]
Canada[edit]
In Canada, vegetarianism is usually synonymous with ovo-lacto vegetarianism. However, vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians or pollotarians. Approximately 4.0% of adults were vegetarians as of 2003[update].[118]
United States[edit]
In 1971, 1 percent of U.S. citizens described themselves as vegetarians.[119] In 2008 Harris Interactive found that 3.2% are vegetarian and 0.5% vegan,[120] while a 2013 Public Policy Polling survey of 500 respondents found that 13% of Americans are either vegetarian or vegan—6% vegetarian and 7% vegan.[121] U.S. vegetarian food sales (dairy replacements such as soy milk and meat replacements such as textured vegetable protein) doubled between 1998 and 2003, reaching $1.6 billion in 2003.[122] According to a report in 2017, the number of consumers claiming to be vegan has risen to 6% in the US [123] In 2015, a Harris Poll National Survey of 2,017 adults aged 18 and over found that eight million Americans, or 3.4%, ate a solely vegetarian diet, and that one million, or 0.4%, ate a strictly vegan diet.[43]
Many American children whose parents follow vegetarian diets follow them because of religious, environmental or other reasons.[124] In the government's first estimate[125] of how many children avoid meat, the number is about 1 in 200.[126][127] The CDC survey included children ages 0 to 17 years.
By U.S. law, food packaging is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration, and generally must be labeled with a list of all its ingredients.[128][129] However, there are exceptions. For example, certain trace ingredients that are "ingredients of ingredients" do not need to be listed.[130]
Oceania[edit]
Australia[edit]
In Australia, some manufacturers who target the vegetarian market label their foods with the statement "suitable for vegetarians"; however, for foods intended for export to the UK, this labelling can be inconsistent because flavourings in ingredients lists do not need to specify if they come from animal origin. As such, "natural flavour" could be derived from either plant or animal sources.
Animal rights organisations such as Animal Liberation promote vegan and vegetarian diets. "Vegetarian Week" runs from 1–7 October every year,[131] and food companies are taking advantage of the growing number of vegetarians by producing meat-free alternatives of popular dishes, including sausages and mash and spaghetti Bolognese.[132]
A 2000 Newspoll survey (commissioned by Sanitarium) shows 44% of Australians report eating at least one meat-free evening meal a week, while 18% said they prefer plant-based meals.
According to a 2010 Newspoll survey, 5% of Australians identify themselves as vegetarians, with 2% actually eating a diet defined by the survey as vegetarian.[133]
Roy Morgan Research in August 2016 reported, "Between 2012 and 2016, the number of Australian adults whose diet is all or almost all vegetarian has risen from 1.7 million people (or 9.7% of the population) to almost 2.1 million (11.2%), the latest findings from Roy Morgan Research reveal."[134]
New Zealand[edit]
Similar to Australia, in New Zealand the term "vegetarian" refers to individuals who eat no animal meat such as pork, chicken, and fish; they may consume animal products such as milk and eggs. In contrast, the term "vegan" is used to describe those who do not eat or use any by-products of animals.[135] In 2002 New Zealand's vegetarians made up a minority of 1-2% of the country’s 4.5 million people.[136] By 2011 Roy Morgan Research claimed the number of New Zealanders eating an "all or almost all" vegetarian diet to be 8.1%, growing to 10.3% in 2015 (with men providing the most growth, up 63% from 5.7% to 9.3%).[29] In New Zealand there is a strong enough movement for vegetarianism that it has created significant enough demand for a number of vegetarian and vegan retailers to set up.[137]
As New Zealand and Australia work together to form common food standards (as seen in the Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) and the Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code), there is also a lot of ambiguity surrounding the "natural flavour" ingredients.[138]
South America[edit]
Brazil[edit]
In 2004, Marly Winckler, President of the Brazilian Vegetarian Society, claimed that 5% of the population was vegetarian.[139] According to a 2012 survey undertaken by the Brazilian Institute of Public Opinion and Statistics, 8% of the population, or 15.2 million people, identified themselves as vegetarian.[6] The city of São Paulo has the most vegetarians in absolute terms (792,120 people), while Fortaleza has the highest percentage, at 14% of the total population.[140]
Marly Winckler claims that the central reasons for the deforestation of the Amazon are expansive livestock raising (mainly cattle) and soybean crops, most of it for use as animal feed, and a minor percentage for edible oil processing (being direct human consumption for use as food nearly negligible),[141] claims that are widely known to have a basis.[142][143][144][145]
As in Canada, vegetarianismo (Portuguese pronunciation: [veʒiˌtaɾjɐ̃ˈnizmu]) is usually synonymous with lacto-ovo-vegetarianism, and vegetarians are sometimes wrongly assumed to be pescetarians and/or pollotarians who tolerate the flesh of fish or poultry, respectively. Nevertheless, veganism, and freeganism, are very common among Brazilian anarchists, punks and members of other groups in the counterculture and/or left-wing movements. Other beliefs generally associated with Brazilian vegetarians are Eastern philosophies and religions, New Age and Spiritism. It is also commonly said to be related to the emo and indie youth subcultures as influence from the local punks. Brazilian vegetarians reportedly tend to be urban, of middle or upper class[139] and live in the Central-Southern half of the country. Since the 1990s, and especially since the 2000s, several vegetarian and vegan restaurants have appeared in many cities like São Paulo, Brasília, Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Recife, Florianópolis, Campinas, João Pessoa, Caxias do Sul, Salvador, Sorocaba, Santo André, Fortaleza, São Caetano do Sul and Ubatuba.[146]
See also[edit]
List of vegetarian festivals
List of vegetarian organizations
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^ Jump up to: a b "Wyniki badania Instytutu Badania Opinii Homo Homini dla LightBox, wrzesień 2013". Lightbox.pl. Retrieved 2016-04-09.
^ Jump up to: a b "120 000 vegetarianos - Número quadruplica em 10 anos". Centrovegetariano.org. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "ФОМ: "Кто такие вегетарианцы?"".
^ Jump up to: a b "Superjob.ru: "Более 10% населения мира - вегетарианцы. Как Вы относитесь к этой системе питания?"".
^ Jump up to: a b Gabrijelčič Blenkuš ... [et al.] (2009). Prehrambene navade odraslih prebivalcev Slovenije z vidika varovanja zdravja (in Slovenian). Ljubljana, Slovenia: Inštitut za varovanje zdravja Republike Slovenije. pp. 118–119. ISBN 978-961-253-042-6.
^ Jump up to: a b "Photographic image" (JPG). Lantern.es. Retrieved 23 January 2018.
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^ Jump up to: a b "The vegetable will set you free - embracing vegetarianism and flexitarianism in Africa". Mail & Guardian Africa. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
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Jump up ^ Blogger: Aanmelden om te lezen. Taiwantalking.blogspot.com. Retrieved on 2011-01-06.
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value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Vegetarianism_by_country rootpage-Vegetarianism_by_country skin-vector action-view