text:
Expulsion of the Acadians
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Grand Dérangement" redirects here. For the Acadian folk band, see Grand Dérangement (band).
"Great Upheaval" redirects here. For the American labor unrest, see Great Railroad Strike of 1877.
Expulsion of the Acadians
Part of French and Indian War
St. John River Campaign: "A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grimross" (1758)
Watercolor by Thomas Davies
Date
August 10, 1755 – July 11, 1764
Location
Canada's Maritimes
Result
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
Burying the Hatchet Ceremony
Forced Displacement of Acadian Populace
Belligerents
Great Britain
British America
France
New France
Acadian militia
Wabanaki Confederacy
Mi'kmaq militia
Maliseet militia
Commanders and leaders
Robert Monckton
George Scott
Joseph Gorham
Moses Hazen
Benoni Danks
Silvanus Cobb
Charles Lawrence
Alexander Murray
John Winslow
Andrew Rollo
James Wolfe
James Murray
Naval Captain John Rous
Charles Hardy
Montague Wilmot
Jedidiah Preble
Roger Morris Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil)
Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot
Father Pierre Maillard
Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope
Joseph-Nicolas Gautier's sons
Chief Étienne Bâtard
Pierre II Surette
Prudent Robichaud[1]
Joseph LeBlanc[2]
Alexandre Bourg[3]
Joseph Godin
Father Jacques Manach[4]
Units involved
40th Regiment
22nd Regiment
43rd Regiment
Gorham's Rangers
Danks' Rangers Acadian militia
Wabanaki Confederacy (Mi'kmaq militia and Maliseet militia)
Troupes de la marine
[show]
v
t
e
Seven Years' War in North America: The French and Indian War, Atlantic theater
1st Northeast Coast
Cape Race
Chignecto
Bay of Fundy
Petitcodiac
2nd Northeast Coast
1st Lunenburg
1st Louisbourg
Bloody Creek
2nd Lunenburg
2nd Louisbourg
Petitcodiac River
Ile Saint-Jean
Gulf of St. Lawrence
Cape Sable
St. John River
Restigouche
St. John's
The Expulsion of the Acadians, also known as the Great Upheaval, the Great Expulsion, the Great Deportation and Le Grand Dérangement, was the forced removal by the British of the Acadian people from the present day Canadian Maritime provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island— parts of an area also known as Acadia.[5] The Expulsion (1755–1764) occurred during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War)[6] and was part of the British military campaign against New France. The British first deported Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, and after 1758 transported additional Acadians to Britain and France. In all, of the 14,100 Acadians in the region, approximately 11,500 Acadians were deported[7][8] (a census of 1764 indicates that 2,600 Acadians remained in the colony, presumably having eluded capture[9]).
During the War of the Spanish Succession, the British captured Port Royal, the capital of the colony, in a siege. The 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, which concluded the conflict, ceded the colony to Great Britain while allowing the Acadians to keep their lands. Over the next forty-five years, however, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During the same period, some also participated in various military operations against the British, and maintained supply lines to the French fortresses of Louisbourg and Fort Beauséjour.[10] As a result, the British sought to eliminate any future military threat posed by the Acadians and to permanently cut the supply lines they provided to Louisbourg by removing them from the area.[11][12]
Without making distinctions between the Acadians who had been neutral and those who had resisted the occupation of Acadia, the British governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council ordered them to be expelled.[13] In the first wave of the expulsion, Acadians were deported to other British colonies. During the second wave, they were deported to Britain and France, from where they migrated to Louisiana. Acadians fled initially to Francophone colonies such as Canada, the uncolonized northern part of Acadia, Isle Saint-Jean (present-day Prince Edward Island) and Isle Royale (present-day Cape Breton Island). During the second wave of the expulsion, these Acadians were either imprisoned or deported.
Throughout the expulsion, Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy continued a guerrilla war against the British in response to British aggression which had been continuous since 1744 (see King George's War and Father Le Loutre's War).[14]
Along with the British achieving their military goals of defeating Louisbourg and weakening the Mi'kmaq and Acadian militias, the result of the Expulsion was the devastation of both a primarily civilian population and the economy of the region. Thousands of Acadians died in the expulsions, mainly from diseases and drowning when ships were lost.
On July 11, 1764, the British government passed an order-in-council to permit Acadians to legally return to British territories, provided that they take an unqualified oath of allegiance.
The American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow memorialized the historic event in his poem about the plight of the fictional character Evangeline, which was popular and made the expulsion well known. According to Acadian historian Maurice Basque, the story of Evangeline continues to influence historic accounts of the deportation, emphasising neutral Acadians and de-emphasising those who resisted the British Empire.[15]
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical context
1.1 French and Indian War
2 British deportation campaigns
2.1 Bay of Fundy (1755)
2.2 Cape Sable
2.3 Île St. Jean and Île Royale
2.4 Petitcodiac River Campaign
2.5 St. John River Campaign
2.6 Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign
2.7 Restigouche
2.8 Halifax
2.9 Maine
3 Deportation destinations
3.1 Maryland
3.2 Massachusetts
3.2.1 Maine
3.3 Connecticut
3.4 Pennsylvania and Virginia
3.5 Carolinas and Georgia
3.6 France and Britain
4 Fate of the Acadians
4.1 Louisiana
4.2 Nova Scotia
5 Historical comparisons
6 Commemorations
7 See also
8 References
9 General references
10 External links
Historical context[edit]
Main article: Military history of the Acadians
[[File:Acadians 2, inset of painting by Samuel Scot Les Britanniques ont ordonné l'expulsion des Acadiens après la bataille de Beauséjour.ns; only pre-deportation image of Acadians]]
After the British officially gained control of Acadia in 1713, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of loyalty to become British subjects. Instead, they negotiated a conditional oath that promised neutrality. Some Acadians remained neutral and refused the unconditional oath. The difficulty was partly religious, as the British monarch was the head of the Protestant Church of England and the Acadians were Roman Catholic. They also worried that signing the oath might commit male Acadians to fight against France during wartime and that it would be perceived by their Mi'kmaq neighbors as an acknowledgment of the British claim to Acadia, putting Acadian villages at risk of attack from Mi'kmaq.[16]
Otter Aids refused to sign an unconditional oath because otter aids were anti-British. Various historians have observed that some Acadians were labelled "neutral" when they were not.[17] By the time of the Expulsion of the Acadians, there was already a long history of political and military resistance by Acadians and the Wabanaki Confederacy to the British occupation of Acadia.[18] The Mi'kmaq and the Acadians were allies through their Catholicism and numerous inter-marriages.[19] While the Acadians were the largest population, the Wabanaki Confederacy, particularly the Mi'kmaq, held the military strength in Acadia even after the British conquest.[20] They resisted the British occupation and were joined on numerous occasions by Acadians. These efforts were often supported and led by French priests in the region.[21] The Wabanaki Confederacy and Acadians fought against the British Empire in six wars, including the French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War, over a period of seventy-five years.
French and Indian War[edit]
Charles Lawrence
In 1753, French troops from Canada marched south and seized and fortified the Ohio Valley. Britain protested the invasion and claimed Ohio for itself. On May 28, 1754, the war began with the Battle of Jumonville Glen. French Officer Ensign de Jumonville and a third of his escort were killed by a British patrol led by George Washington. In retaliation the French and the Indians defeated the British at Fort Necessity. Washington lost a third of his force and surrendered. Major General Edward Braddock's troops were defeated in the Battle of the Monongahela, and William Johnson's troops stopped the French advance at Lake George.
In Acadia, the primary British objective was to defeat the French fortifications at Beauséjour and Louisbourg and to prevent future attacks from the Wabanaki Confederacy, French and Acadians on the northern New England border.[22][23] (There was a long history of these attacks from Acadia – see the Northeast Coast Campaigns 1688, 1703, 1723, 1724, 1745, 1746, 1747.) The British saw the Acadians' allegiance to the French and the Wabanaki Confederacy as a military threat. Father Le Loutre's War had created the conditions for total war; British civilians had not been spared and, as Governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council saw it, Acadian civilians had provided intelligence, sanctuary, and logistical support while others had fought against the British.[24] During Le Loutre's war, to protect the British settlers from attacks along the former border of New England and Acadia, the Kennebec River, the British built Fort Halifax (Winslow), Fort Shirley (Dresden, formerly Frankfurt) and Fort Western (Augusta).
After the British capture of Beauséjour, the plan to capture Louisbourg included cutting trade to the Fortress in order to weaken the Fortress and, in turn, weaken the French ability to supply the Mi'kmaq in their warfare against the British. According to historian Stephen Patterson, more than any other single factor – including the massive assault that eventually forced the surrender of Louisbourg – the supply problem brought an end to French power in the region. Lawrence realized he could reduce the military threat and weaken Fortress Louisbourg by deporting the Acadians, thus cutting off supplies to the fort.[25] During the expulsion, French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert led the Mi'kmaq and the Acadians in a guerrilla war against the British.[26] According to Louisbourg account books, by late 1756 the French had regularly dispensed supplies to 700 natives. From 1756 to the fall of Louisbourg in 1758, the French made regular payments to Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope and other natives for British scalps.[27]
British deportation campaigns[edit]
Bay of Fundy (1755)[edit]
Main article: Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755)
The first wave of the expulsion began on August 10, 1755, with the Bay of Fundy Campaign during the French and Indian War.[28] The British ordered the expulsion of the Acadians after the Battle of Beausejour (1755). The campaign started at Chignecto and then quickly moved to Grand-Pré, Piziquid (Falmouth/Windsor, Nova Scotia) and finally Annapolis Royal.[14]
Deportation of the Acadians, Grand-Pré
On November 17, 1755, George Scott took 700 troops, attacked twenty houses at Memramcook, arrested the remaining Acadians and killed two hundred head of livestock to deprive the French of supplies.[29] Acadians tried to escape the expulsion by retreating to the St. John and Petitcodiac rivers, and the Miramichi in New Brunswick. The British cleared the Acadians from these areas in the later campaigns of Petitcodiac River, Saint John River, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1758.
The Acadians and Mi'kmaq resisted in the Chignecto region and were victorious in the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755).[30] In the spring of 1756, a wood-gathering party from Fort Monckton (former Fort Gaspareaux) was ambushed and nine were scalped.[31] In April 1757, the same band of Acadian and Mi'kmaq partisans raided Fort Edward and Fort Cumberland near present-day Jolicure, New Brunswick, killing and scalping two men and taking two prisoners.[32] July 20, 1757, Mi'kmaq killed 23 and captured two of Gorham's rangers outside Fort Cumberland.[33][34] In March 1758, forty Acadians and Mi'kmaq attacked a schooner at Fort Cumberland and killed its master and two sailors.[35] In the winter of 1759, the Mi'kmaq ambushed five British soldiers on patrol while they were crossing a bridge near Fort Cumberland. They were ritually scalped and their bodies mutilated as was common in frontier warfare.[36] During the night of 4 April 1759, a force of Acadians and French in canoes captured the transport. At dawn they attacked the ship Moncton and chased it for five hours down the Bay of Fundy. Although the Moncton escaped, one of its crew was killed and two were wounded.[34]
Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot
In September 1756, a group of 100 Acadians ambushed a party of thirteen soldiers who were working outside Fort Edward at Piziquid. Seven were taken prisoner and six escaped back to the fort.[37] In April 1757, a band of Acadian and Mi'kmaq partisans raided a warehouse near Fort Edward, killed thirteen British soldiers, took what provisions they could carry and set fire to the building. Days later, the same partisans raided Fort Cumberland.[38] By November 1756, French Officer Lotbiniere wrote about the difficulty of recapturing Fort Beausejour: "The English have deprived us of a great advantage by removing the French families that were settled there on their different plantations; thus we would have to make new settlements."[39]
The Acadians and Mi'kmaq fought in the Annapolis region. They were victorious in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757).[30] Acadians being deported from Annapolis Royal on the ship Pembroke rebelled against the British crew, took over the ship and sailed to land. In December 1757, while cutting firewood near Fort Anne, John Weatherspoon was captured by Natives—presumably Mi'kmaq— and was carried away to the mouth of the Miramichi River, from where he was sold or traded to the French, taken to Quebec and was held until late in 1759 and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, when General Wolfe's forces prevailed.[40]
Raid on Lunenburg (1756)
Approximately 55 Acadians, who escaped the initial deportation at Annapolis Royal, are reported to have made their way to the Cape Sable region—which included south western Nova Scotia—from where they participated in numerous raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.[41] The Acadians and Mi'kmaq raided the Lunenburg settlement nine times over a three-year period during the war. Boishebert ordered the first Raid on Lunenburg (1756). In 1757, the second raid on Lunenburg occurred, in which six people from the Brisson family were killed.[42] The following year, March 1758, there was a raid on the Lunenburg Peninsula at the Northwest Range (present-day Blockhouse, Nova Scotia) when five people from the Ochs and Roder families were killed.[43] By the end of May 1758, most of those on the Lunenburg Peninsula had abandoned their farms and retreated to the protection of the fortifications around the town of Lunenburg, losing the season for sowing their grain.[44]
For those who did not leave their farms, the number of raids intensified. During the summer of 1758, there were four raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula. On 13 July 1758, one person on the LaHave River at Dayspring was killed and another seriously wounded by a member of the Labrador family.[45] The next raid happened at Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia on 24 August 1758, when eight Mi'kmaq attacked the family homes of Lay and Brant. They killed three people in the raid, but were unsuccessful in taking their scalps, a common practice for payment from the French.[46] Two days later, two soldiers were killed in a raid on the blockhouse at LaHave, Nova Scotia.[46] On 11 September, a child was killed in a raid on the Northwest Range.[47] Another raid happened on 27 March 1759, in which three members of the Oxner family were killed.[42] The last raid happened on 20 April 1759 at Lunenburg, when the Mi'kmaq killed four settlers who were members of the Trippeau and Crighton families.[48]
Cape Sable[edit]
Main article: Cape Sable Campaign
Major Jedidiah Preble
The Cape Sable campaign involved the British removing Acadians from present-day Shelburne County and Yarmouth County. In April 1756, Major Jedidiah Preble and his New England troops, on their return to Boston, raided a settlement near Port La Tour and captured 72 men, women and children.[49][50] In the late summer of 1758, Major Henry Fletcher led the 35th regiment and a company of Gorham's Rangers to Cape Sable. He cordoned off the cape and sent his men through it. One hundred Acadians and Father Jean Baptistee de Gray surrendered, while about 130 Acadians and seven Mi'kmaq escaped. The Acadian prisoners were taken to Georges Island in Halifax Harbour.[51]
En route to the St. John River Campaign in September 1758, Moncton sent Major Roger Morris of the 35th Regiment, in command of two men-of-war and transport ships with 325 soldiers, to deport more Acadians.[52] On October 28, Moncton's troops sent the women and children to Georges Island. The men were kept behind and forced to work with troops to destroy their village. On October 31, they were also sent to Halifax.[53][47] In the spring of 1759, Joseph Gorham and his rangers arrived to take prisoner the remaining 151 Acadians. They reached Georges Island with them on June 29.[50][54][55] November 1759 saw the deportation to Britain of 151 Acadians from Cape Sable who had been prisoners on George's Island since June.[56] In July 1759 on Cape Sable, Captain Cobb arrived and was fired upon by 100 Acadians and Mi'kmaq.[57]
Île St. Jean and Île Royale[edit]
Main article: Île Saint-Jean Campaign
The second wave of the expulsion began with the French defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Thousands of Acadians were deported from Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton). The Île Saint-Jean Campaign resulted in the largest percentage of deaths of the deported Acadians. The sinking of the ships Violet (with about 280 persons aboard) and Duke William (with over 360 persons aboard) marked the highest numbers of fatalities during the expulsion.[58] By the time the second wave of the expulsion had begun, the British had discarded their policy of relocating the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies, and had begun deporting them directly to France.[59] In 1758, hundreds of Île Royale Acadians fled to one of Boishebert's refugee camps south of Baie des Chaleurs.[51]
Petitcodiac River Campaign[edit]
Main article: Petitcodiac River Campaign
The Petitcodiac River Campaign was a series of British military operations that occurred from June to November 1758 to deport the Acadians who either lived along the river or had taken refuge there from earlier deportations. Benoni Danks and Gorham's Rangers carried out the operation.[14] Contrary to Governor Lawrence's direction, New England Ranger Danks engaged in frontier warfare against the Acadians. On July 1, 1758, Danks began to pursue the Acadians on the Petiticodiac. They arrived at present day Moncton and Danks' Rangers ambushed about thirty Acadians who were led by Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil). The Acadians were driven into the river where three of them were killed and scalped, and the others were captured. Broussard was seriously wounded.[51][60] Danks reported that the scalps were Mi'kmaq and received payment for them. Thereafter, he went down in local lore as "one of the most reckless and brutal" of the Rangers.[51]
St. John River Campaign[edit]
Main article: St. John River Campaign
Colonel Robert Monckton led a force of 1,150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements along the banks of the Saint John River until they reached the largest village of Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (Fredericton, New Brunswick) in February 1759.[61][62] Monckton was accompanied by New England Rangers led by Joseph Goreham, Captain Benoni Danks, Moses Hazen and George Scott.[61] The British started at the bottom of the river, raiding Kennebecais and Managoueche (City of St. John), where they built Fort Frederick. Then they moved up the river and raided Grimross (Gagetown, New Brunswick), Jemseg, and finally reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.[61]
Contrary to Governor Lawrence's direction, New England Ranger Lieutenant Hazen engaged in frontier warfare against the Acadians in what has become known as the "Ste Anne's Massacre". On 18 February 1759, Hazen and about fifteen men arrived at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The Rangers pillaged and burned the village of 147 buildings, two Mass-houses and various barns and stables. The Rangers burned a large store-house, containing a large quantity of hay, wheat, peas, oats and other foodstuffs, and killed 212 horses, about five head of cattle and a large number of hogs. They also burned the church located just west of Old Government House, Fredericton.[14][63] The leader of the Acadian militia on the St. John river, Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine, refused to swear an oath despite the Rangers torturing and killing members of his family in front of him. The Rangers also took six prisoners.[64][65][66][14]
Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign[edit]
Main article: Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (1758)
A view of Miramichi, a French settlement in the Gulf of St. Laurence, destroyed by Brigadier Murray detached by General Wolfe for that purpose, from the Bay of Gaspe, (1758)
Raid on Miramichi Bay – Burnt Church Village by Captain Hervey Smythe (1758)
In the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign, also known as the Gaspee Expedition, British forces raided French villages along present-day New Brunswick and the Gaspé Peninsula coast of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Sir Charles Hardy and Brigadier-General James Wolfe commanded the naval and military forces, respectively. After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Wolfe and Hardy led a force of 1500 troops in nine vessels to Gaspé Bay, arriving there on September 5. From there they dispatched troops to Miramichi Bay on September 12, Grande-Rivière, Quebec and Pabos on September 13, and Mont-Louis, Quebec on September 14. Over the following weeks, Hardy took four sloops or schooners, destroyed about 200 fishing vessels, and took about 200 prisoners.[67]
Restigouche[edit]
The Acadians took refuge along the Baie des Chaleurs and the Restigouche River.[68] Boishébert had a refugee camp at Petit-Rochelle, which was probably located near present-day Pointe-à-la-Croix, Quebec.[69][70] The year after the Battle of Restigouche, in late 1761, Captain Roderick Mackenzie and his force captured over 330 Acadians at Boishebert's camp.[71][72]
Halifax[edit]
Monument to Imprisoned Acadians on Georges Island (background), Bishops Landing, Halifax
After the French conquered St. John's, Newfoundland in June 1762, the success galvanized both the Acadians and the natives, who gathered in large numbers at various points throughout the province and behaved in a confident and, according to the British, "insolent fashion". Officials were especially alarmed when natives gathered close to the two principal towns in the province, Halifax and Lunenburg, where there were also large groups of Acadians. The government organized an expulsion of 1,300 people and shipped them to Boston. The government of Massachusetts refused the Acadians permission to land and sent them back to Halifax.[73]
Mi'kmaq and Acadian resistance was evident in the Halifax region. On 2 April 1756, Mi'kmaq received payment from the Governor of Quebec for 12 British scalps taken at Halifax.[74] Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Mi'kmaq warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax Peninsula in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners, scalps or both. Their last raid happened in September and Gautier went with four Mi'kmaq, and killed and scalped two British men at the foot of Citadel Hill. Pierre went on to participate in the Battle of Restigouche.[75]
Arriving on the provincial vessel King George, four companies of Rogers Rangers (500 rangers) were at Dartmouth April 8 until May 28 awaiting the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). While there they scoured the woods to stop raids on Dartmouth.[76]
In July 1759, Mi'kmaq and Acadians killed five British in Dartmouth, opposite McNabb's Island.[57] By June 1757, the settlers had to be completely withdrawn from Lawrencetown (established 1754) because the number of Indian raids prevented settlers from leaving their houses.[77] In nearby Dartmouth, in the spring of 1759, another Mi'kmaq attack was launched on Fort Clarence, located at the present day Dartmouth Refinery, in which five soldiers were killed.[78] Before the deportation, the Acadian population was estimated at 14,000. Most were deported,[79] but some Acadians escaped to Quebec, or hid among the Mi'kmaq or in the countryside, to avoid deportation until the situation settled down.[80]
Maine[edit]
A map of the British and French settlements in North America in 1755. The province of Nova Scotia had expanded to encompass all of Acadie, or present-day New Brunswick.
In present-day Maine, the Mi'kmaq and the Maliseet raided numerous New England villages. At the end of April 1755, they raided Gorham, killing two men and a family. Next they appeared in New Boston (Gray) and went through the neighbouring towns destroying the plantations. On May 13, they raided Frankfort (Dresden), where two men were killed and a house burned. The same day they raided Sheepscot (Newcastle) and took five prisoners. Two people were killed in North Yarmouth on May 29 and one taken captive. The natives shot one person at Teconnet, took prisoners at Fort Halifax and two prisoners at Fort Shirley (Dresden). They also captured two workers at the fort at New Gloucester. During this period, the Maliseet and Mi'kmaq were the only tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy who were able to fight.[81]
On 13 August 1758, Boishebert left Miramichi, New Brunswick with 400 soldiers, including Acadians whom he led from Port Toulouse. They marched to Fort St. George (Thomaston) and unsuccessfully laid siege to the town, and raided Munduncook (Friendship) where they wounded eight British settlers and killed others. This was Boishébert's last Acadian expedition; from there he and the Acadians went to Quebec and fought in the Battle of Quebec (1759).[82][83]
Deportation destinations[edit]
Destinations for deported Acadians[84]
Colony
# of Exiles
Massachusetts 2,000
Virginia 1,100
Maryland 1,000
Connecticut 700
Pennsylvania 500
North Carolina 500
South Carolina 500
Georgia 400
New York 250
TOTAL
6,950
Britain 866
France 3,500
TOTAL
11, 316[85]
In the first wave of the expulsion, most Acadian exiles were assigned to rural communities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland and South Carolina. In general, they refused to stay where they were put and large numbers migrated to the colonial port cities where they gathered in isolated, impoverished French-speaking Catholic neighbourhoods, the sort of communities Britain's colonial officials tried to discourage. More worryingly for the British authorities, some Acadians threatened to migrate north to French-controlled regions, including the Saint John River, Île Royale, the coasts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Canada.[86] Because the British believed their policy of sending the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies had failed, they deported the Acadians to France during the second wave of the Expulsion.
Maryland[edit]
Approximately 1,000 Acadians went to Maryland, where they lived in a section of Baltimore that became known as French Town.[87][88] The Irish Catholics were reported to have shown charity to the Acadians by taking orphaned children into their homes.[89]
Massachusetts[edit]
Approximately 2,000 Acadians disembarked at Massachusetts. For four long winter months, William Shirley, who had ordered their deportation, had not allowed them to disembark and as a result, half died of cold and starvation aboard the ships. Children were taken away from their parents and were distributed to various families throughout Massachusetts.[90] The government also arranged the adoption of orphaned children and provided subsidies for housing and food for a year.[91]
Maine[edit]
There were several families deported to Maine, then a part of the colony of Massachusetts.[92]
Connecticut[edit]
Connecticut prepared for the arrival of 700 Acadians.[93] Like Maryland, the Connecticut legislature declared that "[the Acadians] be made welcome, helped and settled under the most advantageous conditions, or if they have to be sent away, measures be taken for their transfer."[94]
Pennsylvania and Virginia[edit]
Pennsylvania accommodated 500 Acadians. Because they arrived unexpectedly, the Acadians had to remain in port on their vessels for months. Virginia refused to accept the Acadians on grounds that no notice was given of their arrival.[95] They were detained at Williamsburg,[citation needed] where hundreds died from disease and malnutrition. They were then sent to Britain where they were held as prisoners until the Treaty of Paris in 1763.[96]
Carolinas and Georgia[edit]
The Acadians who had offered the most resistance to the British—particularly those who had been at Chignecto—were reported to have been sent furthest south to the British colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia,[97] where about 1,400 Acadians settled and were “subsidized” and put to work on plantations.[98]
Under the leadership of Jacques Maurice Vigneau of Baie Verte, the majority of the Acadians in Georgia received a passport from the governor Reynolds.[99] Without such passports, travel between borders was not allowed.[100] As soon as the Acadians bearing passports from Georgia reached the Carolinas, the colonies granted passports to the Acadians in their territories.[101] Along with these papers, the Acadians were given two vessels.[102] After running aground numerous times in the ships, some Acadians returned to the Bay of Fundy.[98] Along the way, they were captured and imprisoned.[103] Only 900 managed to return to Acadia, less than half of those who had begun the voyage.[98] Others also tried to return home. The South Carolina Gazette reported that in February, about thirty Acadians fled the island to which they were confined and escaped their pursuers.[104] Alexandre Broussard, brother of the famed resistance leader Joseph Broussard, dit Beausoleil, was among them.[105] About a dozen are recorded to have returned to Acadia after an overland journey of 1,400 leagues.[106]
France and Britain[edit]
Mémorial des Acadiens de Nantes
After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), the British began to deport the Acadians directly to France rather than to the British colonies. Some Acadians deported to France never reached their destination. Almost 1,000 died when the transport ships Duke William,[107] Violet and Ruby sank in 1758 en route from Île St.-Jean to France. About 3,000 Acadian refugees eventually gathered in France's port cities and went to Nantes.[citation needed] Many Acadians who were sent to Britain were housed in crowded warehouses and subject to plagues due to the close conditions, while others were allowed to join communities and live normal lives.[108] In France, 78 Acadian families were repatriated to Belle-Île-en-Mer off the western coast of Brittany after the Treaty of Paris.[109] The most serious resettlement attempt was made by Louis XV, who offered 2 acres (8,100 m2) of land in the Poitou province to 626 Acadian families each, where they lived close together in a region they called La Grande Ligne ("The Great Road", also known as "the King's Highway"). About 1,500 Acadians accepted the offer, but the land turned out to be infertile, and by the end of 1775, most of them abandoned the province.[110]
Fate of the Acadians[edit]
Main article: History of the Acadians
Louisiana[edit]
Thomas Jefferys (1710–71) was a royal geographer to King George III and a London publisher of maps. He is well known for his maps of North America, produced to meet commercial demand, but also to support British territorial claims against the French. This map presents Nova Scotia and Cape Breton Island in the wake of the "great upheaval".
Acadians left France, under the influence of Henri Peyroux de la Coudreniere, to settle in Louisiana, which was then a colony of Spain.[111] The British did not deport Acadians to Louisiana.[112]
Louisiana was transferred to the Spanish government in 1762.[113] Because of the good relations between France and Spain, and their common Catholic religion, some Acadians chose to take oaths of allegiance to the Spanish government.[114] Soon the Acadians comprised the largest ethnic group in Louisiana.[115] They settled first in areas along the Mississippi River, then later in the Atchafalaya Basin, and in the prairie lands to the west—a region later renamed Acadiana. During the 19th century, as Acadians reestablished their culture, "Acadian" was elided locally into "Cajun".
Some were sent to colonize places as diverse as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands under the direction of Louis Antoine de Bougainville; these latter efforts were unsuccessful. Others migrated to places like Saint-Domingue, and fled to New Orleans after the Haitian Revolution. The Louisiana population contributed to the founding of the modern Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien" evolved to "Cadien", then to "Cajun".)[116]
Nova Scotia[edit]
On July 11, 1764, the British government passed an order-in-council to permit Acadians to legally return to British territories, provided that they take an unqualified oath of allegiance. Some Acadians returned to Nova Scotia (which included present-day New Brunswick). Under the deportation orders, Acadian land tenure had been forfeited to the British crown and the returning Acadians no longer owned land. Beginning in 1760 much of their former land was distributed under grant to the New England Planters. The lack of available farmland compelled many Acadians to seek out a new livelihood as fishermen on the west coast of Nova Scotia, known as the French Shore.[117] The British authorities scattered other Acadians in small groups along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was not until the 1930s, with the advent of the Acadian co-operative movements, that the Acadians became less economically disadvantaged.[118]
Historical comparisons[edit]
Part of a series on the
Military history of
Nova Scotia
Citadel Hill
Events
Battle of Port Royal
1690
Siege of Port Royal
1710
Battle of Jeddore Harbour
1722
Northeast Coast Campaign
1745
Battle of Grand Pré
1747
Dartmouth Massacre
1751
Bay of Fundy Campaign
1755
Fall of Louisbourg
1758
Headquarters established for Royal Navy's North American Station
1758
Halifax Treaties
1760-61
Battle of Fort Cumberland
1776
Raid on Lunenburg
1782
Halifax Impressment Riot
1805
Establishment of New Ireland
1812
Capture of USS Chesapeake
1813
Battle at the Great Redan
1855
Siege of Lucknow
1857
CSS Tallahassee Escape
1861
Departing Halifax for Northwest Rebellion
1885
Departing Halifax for the Boer War
1899
Imprisonment of Leon Trotsky
1917
Jewish Legion formed
1917
Sinking of HMHS Llandovery Castle
1918
Battle of the St. Lawrence
1942–44
Sinking of SS Point Pleasant Park
1945
Halifax VE-Day Riot
1945
Walter Callow Wheelchair Bus established
1947
Notable military regiments
Mi'kmaq militias
1677-1779
Acadian militias
1689-1761
40th Regiment
1717-57
Troupes de la marine
1717-58
Gorham's Rangers
1744-62
Danks' Rangers
1756-62
84th Regiment of Foot
1775-84
Royal Fencible American
1775-83
Royal Nova Scotia Volunteers
1775-83
King's Orange Rangers
1776-83
1st Field Artillery
1791-present
Royal Nova Scotia
1793-1802
Nova Scotia Fencibles
1803-16
The Halifax Rifles (RCAC)
1860-present
The Princess Louise Fusiliers
1867-present
78th Highlanders
1869-71
Cape Breton Highlanders
1871-present
Nova Scotia Rifles
1914-19
No. 2 Construction Battalion
1916-19
West Nova Scotia
1916-present
The Nova Scotia Highlanders
1954-present
Other
Nova Scotia Captivity Narratives
Impressment in Nova Scotia
Nova Scotia portal
History of Canada portal
Canadian Armed Forces portal
v
t
e
According to historian John Mack Faragher, the religious and ethnic dimensions of the Expulsion of Acadians are in addition to, and deeply connected to, the military exigencies cited as causes for the Removals. There is significant evidence in the correspondence of military and civil leaders for Anti-Catholicism. Faragher writes, "The first session of the Nova Scotia Assembly ... passed a series of laws intended to institutionalize Acadian dispossession" including an act titled "An Act for the Quieting of Possessions to Protestant Grantees of land formerly occupied by the French." In it and two subsequent acts the Church of England was made the official religion. These acts granted certain political rights to Protestants while the new laws excluded Catholics from public office and voting and forbade Catholics from owning land in the province. It also empowered British authorities to seize all "popish" property (Church lands) for the crown and barred Catholic clergy from entering or residing in the province, as they wanted no repeat of Le Loutre and his type of war. In addition to other anti-Catholic measures, Faragher concludes "These laws—passed by a popular assembly, not enacted by military fiat—laid the foundation for the migration of Protestant settlers."[119]
In the 1740s William Shirley hoped to assimilate Acadians into the Protestant fold. He did so by trying to encourage (or force) Acadian women to marry English Protestants and statutes were passed requiring the offspring of such unions be sent to English schools and raised as "English Protestants" (quote from letter by Shirley). This was linked to larger anxieties in the realm over the loyalty of Catholics in general—as Charles Stuart's Jacobite Rebellion was a Catholic-led rebellion as was Le Loutre's rebellion in Nova Scotia. Shirley, who in part was responsible for the Removals, according to historian Geoffery Plank, "recommended using military force to expel the most 'obnoxious' Acadians and replace them with Protestant immigrants. In time the Protestants would come to dominate their new communities." Shirley wanted "peaceable [loyal] subjects" and specifically, in his own words, "good Protestant ones."[120]
Faragher compared the expulsions to contemporary ethnic cleansing. In contrast, numerous leading historians have objected to this characterization of the expulsion. Historian John Grenier asserts that Faragher overstates the religious motivation for the expulsion and obscures the fact that the British accommodated Acadians by providing Catholic priests for forty years prior to the Expulsion. Grenier writes that Faragher "overstates his case; his focus on the grand dérangement as an early example of ethnic cleansing carries too much present-day emotional weight and in turn overshadows much of the accommodation that Acadians and Anglo-Americans reached."[121] As well, the British were clearly not concerned that the Acadians were French, given they were recruiting French foreign protestants to settle the region. Further, the New Englanders of Boston were not banishing Acadians from the Atlantic region; instead, they were actually deporting them to live in the heart of New England: Boston and elsewhere in the British colonies.
While clearly there was animosity between Catholics and Protestants during this time period, many historians point to the overwhelming evidence which suggests the motivation for the expulsion was military. The British wanted to cut off supply lines to the Mi'kmaq, Louisbourg and Quebec. They also wanted to end any military threat the Acadians posed (See Military history of the Acadians). A.J.B. Johnston wrote that the evidence for the removal of the Acadians indicates the decision makers thought the Acadians were a military threat, therefore the deportation of 1755 does not qualify as an act of ethnic cleansing. Geoffery Plank argues that the British continued the expulsion after 1758 for military reasons: present-day New Brunswick remained contested territory and the New Englanders wanted to make sure that British negotiators would be unlikely to return the region to the French as they had done after King George's War.[122]
Other historians have observed that it was not uncommon for empires during this time period to move their subjects and their populations. For Naomi E. S. Griffiths and A. J. B. Johnston the event is comparable with other deportations in history, should not be considered ethnic cleansing.[121] In From Migrant to Acadian, Griffiths writes that "the Acadian deportation, as a government action, was a pattern with other contemporary happenings."[123] The Expulsion of the Acadians has been compared to similar military operations during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The French carried out expulsions in Newfoundland in 1697 when they occupied the British portion of Newfoundland during Pierre d'Iberville's Avalon Peninsula Campaign, burning every British settlement and exiling over 500 inhabitants.[124] A.J.B. Johnston notes that in 1767 French authorities forcibly removed nearly 800 Acadian and French inhabitants from Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, transporting them against their will to France[125] and compares the expulsions to the fate of the United Empire Loyalists, who were expelled from the United States to present-day Canada after the American Revolution.[126] Another deportation was the Highland Clearances in Scotland between 1762 and 1886.[127] Another North American expulsion was the Indian Removal of the 1830s, in which the Cherokee and other Native Americans from the South-East United States were removed from their traditional homelands.[128]
Further, other historians have noted that civilian populations are often devastated during wartime. For example, there were five wars fought along the New England and Acadia border over the 70 years prior to the expulsion (See French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). During these wars, the French and Wabanaki Confederacy conducted numerous military campaigns killing British civilians and taking them captive. (See the Northeast Coast Campaigns 1688, 1703, 1723, 1724, 1745, 1746, 1747, 1750.)[129]
Acadian historian Maurice Basque writes that the term "'genocide'... does not apply at all to the Grand Derangement. Acadie was not Armenia, and to compare Grand-Pré with Auschwitz and the killing fields of Cambodia is a complete and utter trivialization of the many genocidal horrors of contemporary history."[130] Concerning the use of 20th century terms such as "ethnic cleansing" and "genocide" to understand the past, historian John G. Reid states, "I'm not sure that it's the best way to understand 18th century realities... What happened in the 18th century is a process of imperial expansion that was ruthless at times, that cost lives…. But to my mind, you can't just transfer concepts between centuries.”[131]
Commemorations[edit]
In 1847, American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published a long, narrative poem about the expulsion of the Acadians called Evangeline.[132] The Evangeline Oak is a tourist attraction in Louisiana. The song "Acadian Driftwood", recorded in 1975 by The Band, portrays the Great Upheaval and the displacement of the Acadian people.[133] Antonine Maillet wrote a novel, called Pélagie-la-Charrette, about the aftermath of the Great Upheaval. It was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1979. Grand-Pré Park is a National Historic Site of Canada situated in Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia, and preserved as a living monument to the expulsion. It contains a memorial church and a statue of Evangeline, the subject of Longfellow's poem. The song "1755" was composed by American Cajun fiddler and singer Dewey Balfa and performed on his 1987 album Souvenirs, and later covered by Steve Riley and the Mamou Playboys on their 1994 live album.
In December 2003, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, representing Queen Elizabeth II (Canada's head of state), acknowledged the expulsion but did not apologize for it. She designated July 28 as "A Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval."[134] This proclamation, officially the Royal Proclamation of 2003, closed one of the longest cases in the history of the British courts, initiated in 1760 when the Acadian representatives first presented their grievances of forced dispossession of land, property and livestock. December 13, the date on which the Duke William sank, is commemorated as Acadian Remembrance Day.[135] There is a museum dedicated to Acadian history and culture, with a detailed reconstruction of the Great Uprising, in Bonaventure, Quebec.[136]
See also[edit]
Acadia portal
New France portal
Nova Scotia portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Expulsion of the Acadians.
Military history of Nova Scotia
Grand-Pré National Historic Site
Expulsion of the Loyalists
France in the Seven Years War
Great Britain in the Seven Years War
Michel Bastarache dit Basque
Indian removal
References[edit]
Jump up ^ He was a leader of the mutiny on the Pembroke (See article
Jump up ^ Pothier, Bernard (1974). "LeBlanc, Joseph". In Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Jump up ^ d’Entremont, C. J. (1974). "Bourg, Belle-Humeur, Alexandre". In Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Jump up ^ Johnson, Micheline D. (1974). "Manach, Jean". In Halpenny, Francess G. Dictionary of Canadian Biography. III (1741–1770) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press.
Jump up ^ The term "forced removal" is being used intentionally. For the academic discussions about referring to this event as "ethnic cleansing" or a "deportation" see the Historical Comparisons section.
Jump up ^ This conflict is also referred to as "Anglo French Rivalry of 1749–63" and War of British Conquest.
Jump up ^ Plank, Geoffrey (2003). An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia. Early American Studies. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-8122-1869-5.
Jump up ^ Stephen White calculated the number of Acadians in 1755 (See Stephen White. The True Number of Acadians. In Rene Gilles-LeBlanc. Du Grand Derangement a la Deportation. pp. 21–56
Jump up ^ p. 82
Jump up ^ Grenier, John (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710–1760. Norman: Oklahoma University Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-3876-3.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Stephen E. (1998). "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749–61: A Study in Political Interaction". 1. The Acadiensis Reader: 105–106.
Jump up ^ Patterson, Stephen. "Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples". The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-8020-0553-3.
Jump up ^ British officer John Winslow raised his concern that officials were not distinguishing between Acadians who rebelled against the British and those who did not. (John Faragher, p. 337)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Grenier (2008).
Jump up ^ Maurice Basque. "Atlantic Realities, Acadian Identities, Arcadian Dreams", In Ried and Savoie (eds) Shaping An Agenda for Atlantic Canada, Fernwood Press. 2011. p 66
Jump up ^ Reid, John. Nova Scotia: A Pocket History, Fernwood Publishing. 2009. p. 49.
Jump up ^ Marice Basque (2004). "Family and Political Culture in Pre-Conquest Acadia," In The Conquest of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions. 2004, University of Toronto Press. p. 49; John Reid, Six Crucial Decades, 29–32; John Reid. 1686–1720: Imperial Intrusions; Barnes, "Twelve Apostles" or a "Dozen Traitors?"; Basque, Des hommes de pouvoir, 51–99; Basque and Brun, La neutralite l' epreuve.; Bernard Pothier, Course d l'Accadie; Bobert Rumilly, L'Acadie angalise.
Jump up ^ Faragher, John Mack, A Great and Noble Scheme New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. pp. 110–112 ISBN 0-393-05135-8
Jump up ^ Geoffery Plank. An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 72
Jump up ^ Geoffery Plank. An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 67
Jump up ^ Grenier, John (2005). The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44470-5.
Jump up ^ Thomas Akins. Papers on Forced Removal of the French Inhabitants p. 382-385, 394
Jump up ^ Letter by Charles Morris May 15, 1754 Documentary history of the state of Maine, p. 266
Jump up ^ Patterson, 1994, p. 146
Jump up ^ Patterson, 1994, p. 152
Jump up ^ John Gorham. The Far Reaches of Empire: War In Nova Scotia (1710–1760). University of Oklahoma Press. 2008. p. 177–206
Jump up ^ Patterson, Stephen E. "1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples." In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Conderation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. p. 148
Jump up ^ Faragher, John Mack (2005-02-22). A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 338. ISBN 978-0-393-05135-3.
Jump up ^ Grenier (2008), p. 184.
^ Jump up to: a b Faragher, John Mack, A Great and Noble Scheme, New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. pp. 110–112 ISBN 0-393-05135-8
Jump up ^ Webster as cited by bluepete, p. 371
Jump up ^ John Faragher.Great and Noble Scheme. Norton. 2005. p. 398.
Jump up ^ Grenier (2008), p. 190.
^ Jump up to: a b New Brunswick Military Project
Jump up ^ Grenier (2008), p. 195.
Jump up ^ John Faragher, p. 410
Jump up ^ Boston Evening Post. 1756 October 18. p.2
Jump up ^ John Faragher. Great and Noble Scheme. Norton. 2005. p. 398.
Jump up ^ https://archive.org/stream/documentsrelativ10brod#page/496/mode/2up/search/acadia
Jump up ^ The journal of John Weatherspoon was published in Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society for the Years 1879–1880 (Halifax 1881) that has since been reprinted (Mika Publishing Company, Belleville, Ontario, 1976).
Jump up ^ Bell, Winthrop (1961). The Foreign Protestants and the Settlement of Nova Scotia: The History of a Piece of Arrested British Colonial Policy in the Eighteenth Century. University of Toronto Press. p. 503. OCLC 6132479.
^ Jump up to: a b McMechan, Archibald (1931). Red Snow of Grand-Pré. McClelland & Stewart. p. 192.
Jump up ^ Bell (1961), p. 509.
Jump up ^ Bell (1961), p. 510, 513.
Jump up ^ Bell (1961), p. 510.
^ Jump up to: a b Bell (1961), p. 511.
^ Jump up to: a b Bell (1961), p. 512.
Jump up ^ Bell (1961), p. 513.
Jump up ^ Bell (1961), p. 504.
^ Jump up to: a b Landry, Peter (2007). The Lion and the Lily: Nova Scotia Between 1600–1760. Trafford Press. p. 555. ISBN 978-1-4251-5450-9.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Grenier (2008), p. 198.
Jump up ^ Roger Morris and Joseph Gorham Accounts of expedition, 1758
Jump up ^ Marshall, p. 98[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Murdoch, Beamish (1866). A History of Nova Scotia, or Acadie,. Vol. 2. Halifax, Nova Scotia: James Barnes, Printer and Publisher. p. 373.
Jump up ^ Marshall, p. 98;[full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Murdoch (1866), p. 375.
^ Jump up to: a b Murdoch (1866), p. 366.
Jump up ^ Earle Lockerby, The Expulsion of the Acadians from Prince Edward Island. Nimbus Publications. 2009
Jump up ^ Plank, p. 160
Jump up ^ Faragher, p. 402.
^ Jump up to: a b c Grenier (2008), pp. 199-200.
Jump up ^ Note that John Faragher in the Great and Nobel Scheme indicates that Monckton had a force of 2000 men for this campaign. p. 405.
Jump up ^ Plank, p. 61
Jump up ^ Grenier (2008), p. 61.
Jump up ^ A letter from Fort Frederick which was printed in Parker's New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy on 2 April 1759 provides additional details of the behaviour of the Rangers.
Jump up ^ William O. Raymond. The River St. John: Its Physical Features, Legends and History from 1604 to 1784. St. John, New Brunswick. 1910. pp. 96–107
Jump up ^ J.S. McLennan, Louisbourg: From its Founding to its Fall, Macmillan and Co. Ltd London, UK 1918, pp. 417–423, Appendix 11 https://archive.org/stream/louisbourgfromit00mcleuoft/louisbourgfromit00mcleuoft_djvu.txt
Jump up ^ Lockerby, 2008, p. 17, p. 24, p. 26, p. 56
Jump up ^ Faragher, p. 414
Jump up ^ History: Commodore Byron's Conquest. The Canadian Press. July 19, 2008, http://www.acadian.org/La%20Petite-Rochelle.html
Jump up ^ Grenier (2008), p. 211.
Jump up ^ John Faragher, p. 41 MacKenzie's Raid
Jump up ^ Patterson, 1994, p. 153; Brenda Dunn, p. 207
Jump up ^ J.S. McLennan. Louisbourg: From its Foundation to Its Fall (1713–1758). 1918, p. 190
Jump up ^ Earle Lockerby. Pre-Deportation Letters from Île Saint Jean. Les Cahiers. La Societe hitorique acadienne. Vol. 42, No2. June 2011. pp. 99–100
Jump up ^ Burt Loescher. Rogers Rangers: The First Green Berets. 1969. p. 29
Jump up ^ Bell (1961), p. 508.
Jump up ^ Harry Chapman, p. 32; John Faragher, p. 410
Jump up ^ Griffith, 2005, p. 438
Jump up ^ Faragher, p. 423–424
Jump up ^ William Williamson. The history of the state of Maine. Vol. 2. 1832. p. 311-112
Jump up ^ Phyllis E. Leblanc, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online; Cyrus Eaton's history, p. 77
Jump up ^ Williamson, William Durkee (1832). The History of the State of Maine: From Its First Discovery, 1602, to the Separation, A. D. 1820, Inclusive. Glazier, Masters & Co. p. 459. Retrieved 27 February 2014.
Jump up ^ Statistics for the British colonies found in Geoffrey Plank. Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2001. p. 149.
Jump up ^ Total exiles for Britain and France found in R.A. LEBLANC. "Les migrations acadiennes", in Cahiers de géographie du Québec, Vol. 23, no 58, April 1979, p. 99–124.
Jump up ^ Plank, 2005, p. 70
Jump up ^ Arsenault 155
Jump up ^ Writers' Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Maryland (August 1940). Maryland: A Guide to the Old Line State. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-1-60354-019-3. Retrieved 30 April 2011. In time the Acadians were able to construct small houses along South Charles Street; for a century this section of Baltimore was called French Town
Jump up ^ Rieder, Milton P. Jr. and Rieder, Norma G. Acadian Exiles in the American Colonies, Metairie, LA, 1977, p. 2; Faragher 375
Jump up ^ Arsenault 197
Jump up ^ Faragher 374
Jump up ^ https://archive.org/stream/collectionsofmai28main#page/340/mode/2up
Jump up ^ Rieder and Rieder 1
Jump up ^ Arsenault 153
Jump up ^ Arsenault 156
Jump up ^ Renault 203
Jump up ^ Arsenault 157; Farragher 383
^ Jump up to: a b c Arsenault 157
Jump up ^ (Faragher 386)
Jump up ^ Farragher 389
Jump up ^ Farragher 386
Jump up ^ Rieder 2
Jump up ^ LeBlanc, Dudley J. The True Story of the Acadians (1932), p. 48
Jump up ^ Doughty 140
Jump up ^ Arsenault 160
Jump up ^ Faragher 388
Jump up ^ S. Scott and T. Scott, "Noel Doiron and the East Hants Acadians," Journal of the Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society, Vol. 11, 2008, pp 45–60.
Jump up ^ Laxer, James (2010-05-14). The Acadians: In Search of a Homeland. Doubleday Canada. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-385-67289-4. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Tallant, Robert (2000). Evangeline and the Acadians. Pelican Publishing. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-4556-0393-0. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Arceneaux, William (2004-08-30). No Spark of Malice: The Murder of Martin Begnaud. LSU Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 978-0-8071-3025-4. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
Jump up ^ Winzerling 91
Jump up ^ Doughty 150
Jump up ^ Winzerling 59
Jump up ^ Arsenault 203
Jump up ^ Faragher 436
Jump up ^ Calloway, pp. 161–164
Jump up ^ Bona Arsenault, p326.
Jump up ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia, Hurtig Publishers, p6.
Jump up ^ A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland (2005), pp. 137, 140, 407.
Jump up ^ Plank, An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign Against the Peoples of Acadia (2001), pp. 115–117.
^ Jump up to: a b Grenier (2008), p. 6.
Jump up ^ Plank, Geoffrey. "New England Soldiers in the Saint John River Valley: 1758–1760" in New England and the Maritime Provinces: Connections and Comparisons By Stephen Hornsby, John G. Reid. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005. p. 71
Jump up ^ (Griffith, p. 462)
Jump up ^ Reid, John G. "1686–1720 Imperial Intrusions" In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. p. 84
Jump up ^ John Johnston. French attitudes toward the Acadians. In Ronnie Gilles LeBlanc (ed.) Du Grand Derangement a la Deporation: Nouvelles perspectives historique p. 164
Jump up ^ See Johnston, p. 120.
Jump up ^ Johnston, p. 121.
Jump up ^ Johnston, p. 121
Jump up ^ Tod Scott. Mi'kmaw Armed Resistance to British Expansion in Northern New England (1676-1781). Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society Journal. Vol. 19, 2016. pp. 1-18
Jump up ^ Maurice Basque. "Atlantic Realities, Acadian Identities, Arcadian Dreams." In Ried and Savoie (eds) Shaping N Agenda for Atlantic Canada. Fernwood Press. 2011. p 66
Jump up ^ European settlers sought ‘genocide' on Mi'kmaq: historian by Kathryn Blaze Carlson National Post. Sep 16, 2011
Jump up ^ Calhoun, Charles C. Longfellow: A Rediscovered Life. Boston: Beacon Press, 2004: 189. ISBN 0-8070-7026-2.
Jump up ^ "Acadian Driftwood". The Band. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Acadian Affairs". Government of Nova Scotia. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Acadian Remembrance Day Dec. 13". The Journal Pioneer. 2009-12-09. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
Jump up ^ "Musée Acadien du Québec". Musée Acadien du Québec. Retrieved 2011-07-15.
General references[edit]
English
Brian D. Carroll, "Savages in the Service of Empire: Native American Soldiers in Gorham's Rangers, 1744–1762," New England Quarterly 85, no. 3 (Sept. 2012): 383–429.
Brenda Dunn, A History of Port-Royal/Annapolis Royal 1605–1800, Halifax: Nimbus, 2004 ISBN 1-55109-740-0
Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian. McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005 ISBN 0-7735-2699-4
Christopher Hodson. The Acadian Diaspora: An Eighteenth-Century History (Oxford University Press; 2012) 260 pages
John G. Reid. The 'Conquest' of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, an Aboriginal Constructions University of Toronto Press. 2004 ISBN 0-8020-3755-0
Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001 ISBN 0-8122-1869-8
Faragher, John Mack (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland, New York: W.W. Norton, 562 pages ISBN 0-393-05135-8
Jobb, Dean (2005). The Acadians: A people's story of exile and triumph, Mississauga (Ont.): John Wiley & Sons Canada, 296 p. ISBN 0-470-83610-5
Johnston, A.J.B. The Acadian Deportation in a Comparative Context: An Introduction. Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society: The Journal. 2007. pp. 114–131
Moody, Barry (1981). The Acadians, Toronto: Grolier. 96 pages ISBN 0-7172-1810-4
Patterson, Stephen E. 1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples. In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Conderation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. pp. 125–155
Rosemary Neering, Stan Garrod (1976). Life in Acadia, Toronto: Fitzhenry and Whiteside. ISBN 0-88902-180-5
Belliveau, Pierre (1972). French neutrals in Massachusetts; the story of Acadians rounded up by soldiers from Massachusetts and their captivity in the Bay Province, 1755–1766, Boston : Kirk S. Giffen, 259 p.
Griffiths, N.E.S. (1969). The Acadian deportation: deliberate perfidy or cruel necessity?, Toronto: Copp Clark Pub. Co., 165 p.
Doughty, Arthur G. (1916). The Acadian Exiles. A Chronicle of the Land of Evangeline, Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co. 178 pages
Government of Nova Scotia transcripts from Journal of John Winslow
Text of Charles Lawrence's orders to Captain John Handfield – Halifax 11 August 1755
Thomas Atkins. Acadian French. Selections from the public documents of the province of Nova Scotia (1869)
Thomas Atkins. Papers related to the Forced Removal of the Acadian French from Nova Scotia (1755–1768)
French
LeBlanc, Ronnie-Gilles, ed. (2005). Du Grand dérangement à la Déportation : nouvelles perspectives historiques, Moncton: Chaire d'études acadiennes, Université de Moncton, 465 p.
Arsenault, Bona and Pascal Alain (2004). Histoire des Acadiens, Saint-Laurent, Québec: Éditions Fides, 502 p.
Sauvageau, Robert (1987). Acadie : La guerre de Cent Ans des français d'Amérique aux Maritimes et en Louisiane 1670–1769 Paris: Berger-Levrault
Gaudet, Placide (1922). Le Grand Dérangement : sur qui retombe la responsabilité de l'expulsion des Acadiens, Ottawa: Impr. de l'Ottawa Printing Co.
d'Arles, Henri (1918). La déportation des Acadiens, Québec: Imprimerie de l'Action sociale
External links[edit]
Deportation Transports/ Ships – Departures and Arrivals
Grand-Pré National Historic Site of Canada
Acadian Ancestral Home – a repository for Acadian History & Genealogy
Tomb of the Acadians – memorial plaque at Find a Grave
French and Indian War: Expulsion of the Acadians
Podcast Episode discussing the Removal of the Acadians
[show]
v
t
e
Acadia
History
Acadia (New France)
Evangeline
Expulsion
Governors
Grand-Pré
General history
Military history
Royal Proclamation of 2003
People and culture
Acadian World Congress
Acadians (list)
Ave Maris Stella
Flag
National Acadian Day
Tintamarre
Language and education
Acadian French
Chiac
Université de Moncton
Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick
Université Sainte-Anne
Collège Acadie Î.-P.-É.
Maritime College of Forest Technology/Collège de Technologie forestière des Maritimes
Related
Acadian Peninsula
Cajun
French Canadian
French diaspora
Category
Portal
[show]
v
t
e
New France (1534–1763)
Subdivisions
Acadia (1604–1713)
Canada (1608–1763) Pays d'en Haut
Domaine du roy
Louisiana (1682–1762, 1802–1803) Illinois Country Ohio Country
Newfoundland (1662–1713)
Île Royale (1713–1763)
Towns
Acadia (Port Royal)
Canada
Quebec
Trois-Rivières
Montreal
Détroit
Île Royale
Louisbourg
Louisiana
Mobile
Biloxi
New Orleans
Newfoundland
Plaisance
List of towns
Forts
Fort Rouillé
Fort Michilimackinac
Fort de Buade
Fort de Chartres
Fort Detroit
Fort Carillon
Fort Condé
Fort Duquesne
Fortress of Louisbourg
Castle Hill
Fort St. Louis (Illinois)
Fort St. Louis (Texas)
List of Forts
Government
Canada
Governor General
Intendant
Sovereign Council
Bishop of Quebec
Governor of Trois-Rivières
Governor of Montreal
Acadia
Governor
Lieutenant-General
Newfoundland
Governor
Lieutenant-General
Louisiana
Governor
Intendant
Superior Council
Île Royale
Governor
Intendant
Superior Council
Law
Intendancy
Superior Council
Admiralty court
Provostship
Officiality
Seigneurial court
Bailiff
Maréchaussée
Code Noir
Economy
Seigneurial system
Fur trade
Company of 100 Associates
Crozat's Company
Mississippi Company
Compagnie de l'Occident
Chemin du Roy
Coureur des bois
Voyageurs
Society
Population
1666 census
Habitants
King's Daughters
Casquette girls
Métis
Amerindians
Slavery
Plaçage
Gens de couleur libres
Religious orders
Jesuit missions
Récollets
Grey Nuns
Ursulines
Sulpicians
War and peace
Military of New France
Intercolonial Wars
French and Iroquois Wars
Great Upheaval
Great Peace of Montreal
Schenectady massacre
Deerfield massacre
Related
French colonization of the Americas
French colonial empire
History of Quebec
History of the Acadians
History of the French-Americans
French West Indies
Carib Expulsion
Atlantic slave trade
Category
Portal
Commons
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Expulsion_of_the_Acadians&oldid=837137922"
Categories:
Acadian history
1755 in Canada
Events in New France
British colonization of the Americas
French colonization of the Americas
Conflicts in Nova Scotia
Deportation
Forced migration
French and Indian War
Conflicts in New Brunswick
Conflicts in Prince Edward Island
Political and cultural purges
Seven Years' War
Ethnic cleansing in North America
Human migrations
1755 in the Thirteen Colonies
1755 in North America
Hidden categories:
Articles needing more detailed references
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013
Find a Grave template with ID not in Wikidata
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
In other projects
Wikimedia Commons
Languages
አማርኛ
Español
Esperanto
Français
한국어
Italiano
Latina
Polski
Português
Русский
3 more
Edit links
This page was last edited on 18 April 2018, at 23:38.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

value: mw-page-base noprint

value: mw-head-base noprint

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

attr: role class

value:
note
hatnote navigation-not-searchable

attr: class colspan style

value: A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grymross, by Thomas Davies, 1758.JPG

tag: br

value: Burying the Hatchet Ceremony (Nova Scotia)

value:
/wiki/Acadian_militia
mw-redirect
Acadian militia

value:
/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_militia
mw-redirect
Mi'kmaq militia

value:
/wiki/George_Scott_(army_officer)
mw-redirect
George Scott (army officer)

value:
/wiki/Joseph_Gorham
mw-redirect
Joseph Gorham

value:
/wiki/James_Murray_(Quebec_governor)
mw-redirect
James Murray (Quebec governor)

value: Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot

value:
/wiki/Joseph_LeBlanc
mw-redirect
Joseph LeBlanc

value:
/wiki/40th_Regiment_of_Foot
mw-redirect
40th Regiment of Foot

value: Template:Campaignbox French and Indian War: Maritimes

value: Template talk:Campaignbox French and Indian War: Maritimes

value:
/wiki/Raid_on_Lunenburg_(1756)
mw-redirect
Raid on Lunenburg (1756)

value: nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Maritime_provinces
mw-redirect
Maritime provinces

value:
/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Royale_(New_France)
mw-redirect
Île Royale (New France)

value:
/wiki/Guerrilla_war
mw-redirect
Guerrilla war

value:
/wiki/Roman_Catholic
mw-redirect
Roman Catholic

value:
/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_people
mw-redirect
Mi'kmaq people

value:
/wiki/Father_Rale%27s_War
mw-redirect
Father Rale's War

value: Fort Shirley (Maine) (page does not exist)

value: Edit section: British deportation campaigns

value:
/wiki/Battle_of_Beausejour
mw-redirect
Battle of Beausejour

value:
/wiki/Mahone_Bay,_Nova_Scotia
mw-redirect
Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia

value:
/wiki/Shelburne_County
mw-redirect
Shelburne County

value:
/wiki/Yarmouth_County
mw-redirect
Yarmouth County

value: Edit section: Île St. Jean and Île Royale

value:
/wiki/%C3%8Ele_Saint-Jean_Campaign
mw-redirect
Île Saint-Jean Campaign

value: Edit section: Petitcodiac River Campaign

value:
/wiki/Moncton,_New_Brunswick
mw-redirect
Moncton, New Brunswick

value:
/wiki/Fredericton,_New_Brunswick
mw-redirect
Fredericton, New Brunswick

value:
/wiki/St._John,_New_Brunswick
mw-redirect
St. John, New Brunswick

value: Fort Frederick (Saint John, New Brunswick)

value:
/wiki/Old_Government_House,_Fredericton
mw-redirect
Old Government House, Fredericton

value:
/wiki/Joseph_Godin-Bellefontaine
mw-redirect
Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine

value: Edit section: Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign

value:
/wiki/Mont-Louis,_Quebec
mw-redirect
Mont-Louis, Quebec

value:
/wiki/Rogers_Rangers
mw-redirect
Rogers Rangers

value: Lawrencetown, Halifax County, Nova Scotia

value:
/wiki/Battle_of_Quebec_(1759)
mw-redirect
Battle of Quebec (1759)

value:
headerSort
0
columnheader button
Sort ascending

value:
/wiki/New_York_State
mw-redirect
New York State

value:
wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter
float: right; margin-left: 10px;

value:
/wiki/French_Town,_Baltimore
mw-redirect
French Town, Baltimore

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2012)

value:
noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact
white-space:nowrap;

value: Jacques Maurice Vigneau (page does not exist)

value: Alexandre Broussard (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Joseph_Broussard,_dit_Beausoleil
mw-redirect
Joseph Broussard, dit Beausoleil

value: This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)

value:
/wiki/King_George_III
mw-redirect
King George III

value: Category:Military history of Nova Scotia

value: padding:0.2em 0 0.4em;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;

value:
/wiki/Halifax_Riot
mw-redirect
Halifax Riot

value: width:22em;border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none

value: 40th (the 2nd Somersetshire) Regiment of Foot

value: 84th Regiment of Foot (Royal Highland Emigrants)

value: 1st (Halifax-Dartmouth) Field Artillery Regiment

value: 25th Battalion (Nova Scotia Rifles), CEF

value:
/wiki/The_Nova_Scotia_Highlanders
mw-redirect
The Nova Scotia Highlanders

value: padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold;border-top: 1px solid #ccc; text-align: center

value: Template:Military history of Nova Scotia

value: Template talk:Military history of Nova Scotia

value: float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%

value:
/wiki/Foreign_protestants
mw-redirect
Foreign protestants

value:
/wiki/United_Empire_Loyalists
mw-redirect
United Empire Loyalists

value:
/wiki/Indian_Removal
mw-redirect
Indian Removal

value: Pélagie-la-Charrette (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/National_Historic_Site_of_Canada
mw-redirect
National Historic Site of Canada

value:
/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II
mw-redirect
Queen Elizabeth II

value:
/wiki/Monarchy_in_Canada
mw-redirect
Monarchy in Canada

value: display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle

value: margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em;border:solid #aaa 1px

value: commons:Category:Expulsion of the Acadians

value:
/wiki/France_in_the_Seven_Years_War
mw-redirect
France in the Seven Years War

value:
nofollow
external text
//www.worldcat.org/oclc/6132479

value: A more detailed citation is required. (February 2016)

value:
/wiki/Work_Projects_Administration
mw-redirect
Work Projects Administration

value:
nofollow
external text
http://www.museeacadien.com

value: -moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;

value:
nofollow
http://www.grand-pre.com/
external text

value:
nofollow
http://www.acadian-home.org/
external text

value:
col
navbox-title
3
color:white; background-color:#DC3838;

value:
/wiki/List_of_Acadian_governors
mw-redirect
List of Acadian governors

value:
/wiki/File:Acadie_etoile.png
image
Star of Acadia

value:
navbox-image
4
width:1px;padding:0px 0px 0px 2px

value: Collège communautaire du Nouveau-Brunswick

value:
/wiki/French_Canadian
mw-redirect
French Canadian

value:
navbox-abovebelow hlist
3
background-color:transparent

value: nowraplinks collapsible collapsed navbox-inner

value:
/wiki/Habitation_at_Port-Royal
mw-redirect
Habitation at Port-Royal

value: List of Acadian lieutenant-generals (page does not exist)

value: List of lieutenant governors of Newfoundland and Labrador

value: List of lieutenant-generals of Terre-Neuve (page does not exist)

value: Intendant of Louisiana (page does not exist)

value: Superior Council of Louisiana (page does not exist)

value: List of governors of Île Royale (page does not exist)

value: Intendant of Île Royale (page does not exist)

value: Superior Council of Île Royale (page does not exist)

value:
/wiki/Population_of_New_France
mw-redirect
Population of New France

value:
/wiki/Gens_de_couleur_libres
mw-redirect
Gens de couleur libres

value:
/wiki/Society_of_Saint-Sulpice
mw-redirect
Society of Saint-Sulpice

value: nowraplinks hlist collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner

value: Category:British colonization of the Americas

value: Category:French colonization of the Americas

value: Category:Conflicts in Prince Edward Island

value: Category:Ethnic cleansing in North America

value: Category:Articles needing more detailed references

value: Category:All articles with unsourced statements

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2012

value: Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2013

value: Category:Find a Grave template with ID not in Wikidata

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value:
/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Acadians
View the content page [ctrl-alt-c]
c

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [ctrl-alt-j]

value: Recent changes in pages linked from this page [ctrl-alt-k]

value:
/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard
Upload files [ctrl-alt-u]
u

value: A list of all special pages [ctrl-alt-q]

value: Permanent link to this revision of the page

value: Link to connected data repository item [ctrl-alt-g]

value: Printable version of this page [ctrl-alt-p]

value: የአካዳውያን ታላቅ መፈንቀል – Amharic

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-am
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

value: 아카디아 퇴거 – Korean

value: Grande deportazione degli acadiani – Italian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-la
display: none;

value: Депортация акадийцев – Russian

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-Expulsion_of_the_Acadians rootpage-Expulsion_of_the_Acadians skin-vector action-view


text:
South African National Academy of Intelligence
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The South African National Academy of Intelligence (SANAI) is responsible for training the members of the South African intelligence services and agencies.[1] The South African National Academy of Intelligence is a part of the State Security Agency.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Organisational branches
3 Legislation
4 References
History[edit]
SANAI was established in February 2003 and comprises an academic faculty, an intelligence research institute as well as an education, training and development support component. The campus of SANAI is located in the town of Mafikeng and is known as the Mzwandile Piliso Campus.[2] Mzwandile Piliso was a previous head of the exiled ANC's Department of National Intelligence and Security.[2] This campus used to be owned by the Bophuthatswana Intelligence Service, which was one of the then statutory services amalgamated into the National Intelligence Agency and the South African Secret Service in 1995. In 2006, the principal of the academy was Mr. Mphakama Mbete.
Organisational branches[edit]
The South African National Academy of Intelligence is organized into three branches:[3]
Academic Faculty,
Intelligence Research Institute, and
Education, Training and Development Support.
Legislation[edit]
The National Academy of Intelligence is governed by the following legislation:[2]
Intelligence Services Act 65 of 2002,
Public Service Act, 103 of 1994,
Public Finance Management Act, 1 of 1999,
South African Qualifications Act of 1995.
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://intelligence.gov.za/Functions/SANAI.htm
^ Jump up to: a b c "Intelligence Academy". State Security Agency. 23 January 2017.
Jump up ^ "Police, Defence and Intelligence - SA YEARBOOK 2009/10" (PDF). Department of Government Communication and Information System. 24 January 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_African_National_Academy_of_Intelligence&oldid=761704045"
Categories:
South African intelligence agencies
Hidden categories:
Articles needing additional references from December 2009
All articles needing additional references
Navigation menu
Personal tools
Not logged in
Talk
Contributions
Create account
Log in
Namespaces
Article
Talk
Variants
Views
Read
Edit
View history
More
Search
Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikipedia store
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Wikidata item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Add links
This page was last edited on 24 January 2017, at 09:50.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers
Contact Wikipedia
Developers
Cookie statement
Mobile view
Enable previews

tag: div

attr: id class

value: mw-page-base noprint

key: html

type: local

value: mw-head-base noprint

tag: a

attr: id class lang

value: firstHeading firstHeading en

value: siteSub noprint

value: jump-to-nav mw-jump

tag: img

attr: alt src width height srcset data-file-width data-file-height

attr: href class

tag: td

attr: href title

tag: b

attr: class href

value: Help:Introduction to referencing with Wiki Markup/1

tag: span

tag: i

tag: small

tag: tr

tag: tbody

value: plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove

value: Department of National Intelligence and Security (South Africa)

value: National Intelligence Agency (South Africa)

value:
reflist mw-references-wrap
list-style-type: decimal;

value: Category:South African intelligence agencies

value: Category:Articles needing additional references from December 2009

value: Category:All articles needing additional references

value: Discussion about edits from this IP address [ctrl-alt-n]

value: A list of edits made from this IP address [ctrl-alt-y]

value: You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory

value: You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [ctrl-alt-o]

value: Discussion about the content page [ctrl-alt-t]

value: p-namespaces navigation vectorTabs p-namespaces-label

value:
p-variants
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-variants-label

value: Past revisions of this page [ctrl-alt-h]

value: p-views navigation vectorTabs p-views-label

value:
p-cactions
navigation
vectorMenu emptyPortlet
p-cactions-label

value:
mw-wiki-logo
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page

value:
/wiki/Main_Page
Visit the main page [ctrl-alt-z]
z

value: Featured content – the best of Wikipedia

value: Find background information on current events

value:
/wiki/Special:Random
Load a random article [ctrl-alt-x]
x

value: portal navigation p-navigation p-navigation-label

value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-South_African_National_Academy_of_Intelligence rootpage-South_African_National_Academy_of_Intelligence skin-vector action-view