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Indian nationalism
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Indian nationalism developed as a concept during the Indian independence movement fought against the colonial British Raj. Scholars note that a national consciousness has always been present in "India", or more broadly the Indian subcontinent, even if it was not articulated in modern terms.[1] Indian nationalism is an instance of territorial nationalism, inclusive of all its people, despite their diverse ethnic and religious backgrounds. It continues to strongly influence the politics of India and reflects an opposition to the sectarian strands of Hindu nationalism and Muslim nationalism.[2][3][4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 National consciousness in India
1.1 Conception of Pan-South Asianism
1.2 Ages of war and invasion
2 Colonial-era nationalism
2.1 Swadeshi
2.2 The Gandhian era
3 More than just "Indian"
3.1 Hindu Rashtra
3.2 The Qaum
4 Nationalism and politics
5 Nationalism and military conflicts
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography
National consciousness in India
Main article: History of India
The largest extent of the Mauryan Empire under Ashoka.
The largest extent of the Gupta Empire
India has been unified under many emperors and governments in history. Ancient texts mention India under emperor Bharata and Akhand Bharat, these regions roughly form the entities of modern-day greater India. The Mauryan Empire was the first to unite all of India, and South Asia (including much of Afghanistan).[6] In addition, much of India has also been unified under a central government by empires, such as the Gupta Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Pala Empire, Mughal Empire, Indian Empire etc.
Conception of Pan-South Asianism
India's concept of nationhood is based not merely on territorial extent of its sovereignty. Nationalistic sentiments and expression encompass that India's ancient history,[7] as the birthplace of the Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic Civilization, as well as four major world religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Indian nationalists see India stretching along these lines across the Indian Subcontinent.
Ages of war and invasion
Expansion of the Mughal Empire from 1526 to 1700
The extent of Maratha Empire(yellow), without its vassals.
India today celebrates many kings and queens for combating foreign invasion and domination,[8] such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire, Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, Kittur Chennamma, Maharana Pratap of Rajputana, Prithviraj Chauhan and Tipu Sultan who fought the British. The kings of Ancient India, such as Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka of the Magadha Empire, are also remembered for their military genius, notable conquests and remarkable religious tolerance.
Akbar was a Mughal emperor, was known to have a good relationship with the Roman Catholic Church as well as with his subjects – Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains.[8] He forged familial and political bonds with Hindu Rajput kings. Although previous Sultans had been more or less tolerant, Akbar took religious intermingling to new level of exploration. He developed for the first time in Islamic India an environment of complete religious freedom. Akbar undid most forms of religious discrimination, and invited the participation of wise Hindu ministers and kings, and even religious scholars to debate in his court.
Colonial-era nationalism
Main articles: Indian Independence Movement, Indian rebellion of 1857, and Indian National Congress - Freedom Era
See also: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo Ghosh, and 1905 Partition of Bengal
The flag adopted in 1931 by the Congress and used by the Provisional Government of Free India during the Second World War.
The consolidation of the British East India Company's rule in the Indian subcontinent during the 18th century brought about socio-economic changes which led to the rise of an Indian middle class and steadily eroded pre-colonial socio-religious institutions and barriers.[9] The emerging economic and financial power of Indian business-owners and merchants and the professional class brought them increasingly into conflict with the British Raj. A rising political consciousness among the native Indian social elite (including lawyers, doctors, university graduates, government officials and similar groups) spawned an Indian identity[10][11] and fed a growing nationalist sentiment in India in the last decades of the nineteenth century.[12] The creation in 1885 of the Indian National Congress in India by the political reformer A.O. Hume intensified the process by providing an important platform from which demands could be made for political liberalisation, increased autonomy, and social reform.[13] The leaders of the Congress advocated dialogue and debate with the Raj administration to achieve their political goals. Distinct from these moderate voices (or loyalists) who did not preach or support violence was the nationalist movement, which grew particularly strong, radical and violent in Bengal and in Punjab. Notable but smaller movements also appeared in Maharashtra, Madras and other areas across the south.[13]
Swadeshi
The controversial 1905 partition of Bengal escalated the growing unrest, stimulating radical nationalist sentiments and becoming a driving force for Indian revolutionaries.[14]
The Gandhian era
Mohandas Gandhi pioneered the art of Satyagraha, typified with a strict adherence to ahimsa (non-violence), and civil disobedience. This permitted common individuals to engage the British in revolution, without employing violence or other distasteful means. Gandhi's equally strict adherence to democracy, religious and ethnic equality and brotherhood, as well as activist rejection of caste-based discrimination and untouchability united people across these demographic lines for the first time in India's history. The masses participated in India's independence struggle for the first time, and the membership of the Congress grew over tens of millions by the 1930s. In addition, Gandhi's victories in the Champaran and Kheda Satyagraha in 1918–19, gave confidence to a rising younger generation of Indian nationalists that the British Raj could be defeated. National leaders like Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Maulana Azad, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Mohandas Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad and Badshah Khan brought together generations of Indians across regions and demographics, and provided a strong leadership base giving the country political direction.
More than just "Indian"
See also: Demographics of India
Indian nationalism is as much a diverse blend of nationalistic sentiments as its people are ethnically and religiously diverse. Thus the most influential undercurrents are more than just Indian in nature. The most controversial and emotionally charged fibre in the fabric of Indian nationalism is religion. Religion forms a major, and in many cases, the central element of Indian life. Ethnic communities are diverse in terms of linguistics, social traditions and history across India.
Hindu Rashtra
Main article: Hindu nationalism
Hindu Flag of the Maratha Empire with two pennants.
An important influence upon Hindu consciousness arises from the time of Islamic empires in India. Entering the 20th century, Hindus formed over 75% of the population and thus unsurprisingly the backbone and platform of the nationalist movement. Modern Hindu thinking desired to unite Hindu society across the boundaries of caste, linguistic groups and ethnicity. In 1925, K.B. Hedgewar founded the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh in Nagpur, Maharashtra, which grew into the largest civil organisation in the country, and more potent, mainstream base of Hindu nationalism.
Vinayak Damodar Savarkar coined the term Hindutva for his ideology that described India as a Hindu Rashtra, a Hindu nation. This ideology has become the cornerstone of the political and religious agendas of modern Hindu nationalist bodies like the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad. Hindutva political demands include revoking Article 370 of the Constitution that grants a special semi-autonomous status to the Muslim-majority state of Kashmir, adopting a uniform civil code, thus ending a special legal framework for Muslims. These particular demands are based upon ending laws that Hindu nationalists consider as offering special treatment to Muslims.
The Qaum
Main articles: Indian Muslim nationalism and Two-Nation Theory
In 1906–1907, the All India Muslim League was founded, created due to the suspicion of Muslim intellectuals and religious leaders with the Indian National Congress, which was perceived as dominated by Hindu membership and opinions. However, Mahatma Gandhi's leadership attracted a wide array of Muslims to the independence struggle and the Congress Party. The Aligarh Muslim University and the Jamia Millia Islamia stand apart – the former helped form the Muslim league, while the JMI was founded to promote Muslim education and consciousness upon nationalistic and Gandhian values and thought.
While prominent Muslims like Allama Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan embraced the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations, other major leaders like Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Maulana Azad and most of Deobandi clerics strongly backed the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian independence struggle, opposing any notion of Muslim nationalism and separatism. The Muslim school of Indian nationalism failed to attract Muslim masses and the Islamic nationalist Muslim League enjoyed extensive popular political support. State of Pakistan was ultimately formed following Partition of India
Nationalism and politics
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi led India to victory in 1971 against Pakistan, imposed the Indian Emergency, led it to become a nuclear power state in 1974 and is blamed for the Khalistan insurgency and Operation Blue Star – a controversial blend of nationalism and hard politics.
The political identity of the Indian National Congress, India's largest political party and one which controlled government for over 45 years, is reliant on the connection to Mohandas K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, and the Nehru-Gandhi family which has controlled the Congress since independence. The Congress Party's fortunes up till the 1970s were single-handedly propelled by its legacy as the flagship of India's Independence Movement, and the core platform of the party today evokes that past strongly, considering itself to be the guardian of India's independence, democracy and unity. Muslims have remained loyal voters of the Congress Party, seen as defender of Nehruvian secularism.[15] In contrast, the Bharatiya Janata Party employs a more aggressively nationalistic expression. The BJP seeks to preserve and spread the culture of the Hindus, the majority population. It ties nationalism with the aggressive defence of India's borders and interests against archrivals China and Pakistan, with the defence of the majority's right to be a majority.
Religious nationalist parties include the Shiromani Akali Dal, which is closely identified with the creation of a Sikh-majority state in Punjab and includes many Sikh religious leaders in its organisation. In Maharashtra, the Shiv Sena uses the legacy of the independent Maratha kingdom under famous figures like Shivaji to stir up support, and has adopted Hindutva as well. In Assam, the Asom Gana Parishad is a more state-focused party, arising after the frustration of the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) as a benevolent expression of Assamese nationalism. In Tamil Nadu came the first of such parties, the Dravidar Kazhagam (DK). Today the DK stands for a collection of parties,[16] with the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), the Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) and the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK). Caste-based politics invite the participation of the Bahujan Samaj Party and the party of Laloo Prasad Yadav, who build upon the support of poor low-caste and dalit Hindus in the northern, and most populated states of India like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. Almost every Indian state has a regional party devoted solely to the culture of the native people of that state.
Nationalism and military conflicts
Main article: Military History of India
Further information: Indo-Pakistani Wars, Sino-Indian War, and Chola incident
The Indian Armed Forces, over a million troops strong, is the 3rd largest army in the world
Military history, both past and present, serves as a source of nationalist sentiment in India. The first reference to armies is found in the Vedas and the epics Ramayana and Mahabaratha. There were many powerful dynasties in India such as the Maha Janapadas, Shishunaga Empire, Gangaridai Empire, Nanda Empire, Maurya Empire, Shunga Empire, Kharavela Empire, Kuninda Kingdom, Chola Empire, Chera Empire, Pandyan Empire, Satavahana Empire, Western Satrap Empire, Kushan Empire, Vakataka Empire, Kalabhras Kingdom, Gupta Empire, Pallava Empire, Kadamba Empire, Western Ganga Kingdom, Vishnukundina Empire, Chalukya Empire, Harsha Empire, Shahi Kingdom, Eastern Chalukya Kingdom, Pratihara Empire, Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, Paramara Kingdom, Yadava Empire, Chaulukya kingdom, Western Chalukya Empire, Hoysala Empire, Sena Empire, Eastern Ganga Empire, Kakatiya Kingdom, Kalachuri Empire, Delhi Sultanate, Deccan Sultanates, Ahom Kingdom, Vijayanagar Empire, Mysore Kingdom, Mughal Empire, Maratha Empire, Sikh Empire etc.
The modern Army of India was raised under the British Raj in the 19th century. Today the Republic of India maintains the world's third largest armed forces with over a million troops strong.[17] The official defence budget stands at ₹1,644,151.9 million (US$25 billion)[18] but the actual spending on the armed forces is estimated to be much higher.[19] The army is undergoing rapid expansion and modernisation[20] with plans to have an active military space program,[21] missile defence shield,[22] and nuclear triad capability.[23]
See also
History of India
Swadeshi movement
Indian century
References
Jump up ^ Mukherjee, Nationhood and Statehood in India 2001, p. 6: "Obviously the inhabitants of the subcontinent were considered by the Puranic authors as forming a nation, at least geographically and culturally. There were feelings among at least a section of the public that the whole of the subcontinent (or by and large the major part of it) was inhabited by a people or a group of peoples sharing a link-culture or some common features of an "umbrella" culture in so deep a manner that the could be called by a common name—Bhārati. So geographically and culturally, if not politically and ethnically, the Bhāratis were a nation."
Jump up ^ Lerner, Hanna (12 May 2011), Making Constitutions in Deeply Divided Societies, Cambridge University Press, pp. 120–, ISBN 978-1-139-50292-4
Jump up ^ Jaffrelot, Christophe (1999), The Hindu Nationalist Movement and Indian Politics: 1925 to the 1990s : Strategies of Identity-building, Implantation and Mobilisation (with Special Reference to Central India), Penguin Books India, pp. 13–15, 83, ISBN 978-0-14-024602-5
Jump up ^ Pachuau, Lalsangkima; Stackhouse, Max L. (2007), News of Boundless Riches, ISPCK, pp. 149–150, ISBN 978-81-8458-013-6
Jump up ^ Leifer, Michael (2000), Asian Nationalism, Psychology Press, pp. 112–, ISBN 978-0-415-23284-5
Jump up ^ "Afghanistan Country Study Guide Volume 1 Strategic Information and Developments geredigeerd door Inb, Inc". Retrieved 27 February 2015.
Jump up ^ Acharya, Shiva. "Nation, Nationalism and Social Structure in Ancient India By Shiva Acharya". Sundeepbooks.com. Archived from the original on 11 September 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Mahrattas, Sikhs and Southern Sultans of India : Their Fight Against Foreign Power/edited by H.S. Bhatia". Vedamsbooks.com. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ Mitra 2006, p. 63
Jump up ^ Croitt & Mjøset 2001, p. 158
Jump up ^ Desai 2005, p. xxxiii
Jump up ^ Desai 2005, p. 30
^ Jump up to: a b Yadav 1992, p. 6
Jump up ^ Bose & Jalal 1998, p. 117
Jump up ^ "Character of Nehruvian Secularism". Bharatvani.org. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Tamil Nadu / Madurai News : Vijaykanth slams Dravidian parties". The Hindu. 8 January 2009. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ "A Thomson Reuters Foundation Service". AlertNet. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ "Defence Budget 2011–12 – Misplaced Euphoria – India Defence – Security Trends South Asia – Security-Risks.com Caring for your Safety, Life & Security". Security-risks.com. 2 March 2011. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ Business Standard (11 March 2008). "Ajai Shukla: How much is the defence budget?". Business-standard.com. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ Greenlees, Donald (19 September 2007). "China and India leading Asian missile buildup – The New York Times". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ Gavin Rabinowitz, Associated Press (18 June 2008). "India's army seeks military space program". Sfgate.com. Retrieved 2011-11-17.
Jump up ^ India successfully tests missile interceptor
Jump up ^ TNN, 27 February 2008, 12:34 am IST (27 February 2008). "India test fires submarine-launched ballistic missile – India – The Times of India". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. Retrieved 2011-11-17. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Bibliography
Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (1998), Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy, New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-16952-6
Croitt, Raymond D; Mjøset, Lars (2001), When Histories Collide, Oxford, UK: AltaMira, ISBN 0-7591-0158-2
Desai, A.R. (2005), Social Background Of Indian Nationalism (6Th-Edn), Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7154-667-1
Mitra, Subrata K. (2006), The Puzzle of India's Governance: Culture, Context and Comparative Theory, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-27493-2
Mukherjee, Bratindra Nath (2001), Nationhood and Statehood in India: A historical survey, Regency Publications, ISBN 978-81-87498-26-1
Yadav, B.D (1992), M.P.T. Acharya, Reminiscences of an Indian Revolutionary, New Delhi: Anmol Publications Pvt ltd, ISBN 81-7041-470-9
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Note: Forms of nationalism based primarily on ethnic groups are listed above. This does not imply that all nationalists with a given ethnicity subscribe to that form of ethnic nationalism.
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Bhakti movement
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The Child Saint Sambandar, Chola dynasty, Tamil Nadu. from Freer Gallery of Art, Washington DC, He is one of the most prominent of the sixty-three Nayanars of the Saiva bhakti movement.
The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[1] and later revolutionised in Sikhism.[2] It originated in the eighth-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[1] It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[3]
The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[4][5][6] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[7][8]
The movement has traditionally been considered as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and provided an individual-focussed alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's caste of birth or gender.[3] Postmodern scholars question this traditional view and whether the Bhakti movement ever was a reform or rebellion of any kind.[9] They suggest Bhakti movement was a revival, reworking and recontextualisation of ancient Vedic traditions.[10]
Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.[11][12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Textual roots
2.1 Shvetashvatara Upanishad
2.2 Bhagavad Gita
2.3 Sutras
3 History
3.1 Poets, writers and musicians
4 Philosophy: Nirguna and Saguna Brahman
5 Social impact
5.1 Seva, daana and community kitchens
6 Sikhism, Shakti and the Bhakti movement
7 Buddhism, Jainism and Bhakti movement
8 Christianity
9 Controversy and doubts in postmodern scholarship
10 See also
11 Notes
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links
Terminology[edit]
The Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means "divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to".[13][14] The word also means "attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, religious principle or means of salvation".[15][16]
The meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous but different than Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love. Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection.[17] Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, but as committed engagement.[17] Bhakti movement in Hinduism refers to ideas and engagement that emerged in the medieval era on love and devotion to religious concepts built around one or more gods and goddesses. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta.[18]
Textual roots[edit]
Ancient Indian texts, dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE, such as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita mention Bhakti.[19]
Shvetashvatara Upanishad[edit]
A copper alloy sculpture of a Shiva Bhakti practitioner from Tamil Nadu (11th Century or later).
The last of three epilogue verses of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad, 6.23, uses the word Bhakti as follows,
यस्य देवे परा भक्तिः यथा देवे तथा गुरौ ।
तस्यैते कथिता ह्यर्थाः प्रकाशन्ते महात्मनः ॥ २३ ॥[20]
He who has highest Bhakti (love, devotion)[21] of Deva (God),
just like his Deva, so for his Guru (teacher),
To him who is high-minded,
these teachings will be illuminating.
—  Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23[22][23]
This verse is notable for the use of the word Bhakti, and has been widely cited as among the earliest mentions of "the love of God".[21][24] Scholars[25][26] have debated whether this phrase is authentic or later insertion into the Upanishad, and whether the terms "Bhakti" and "God" meant the same in this ancient text as they do in the medieval and modern era Bhakti traditions found in India. Max Muller states that the word Bhakti appears only in one last verse of the epilogue, could have been a later insertion and may not be theistic as the word was later used in much later Sandilya Sutras.[27] Grierson as well as Carus note that the first epilogue verse 6.21 is also notable for its use of the word Deva Prasada (देवप्रसाद, grace or gift of God), but add that Deva in the epilogue of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad refers to "pantheistic Brahman" and the closing credit to sage Shvetashvatara in verse 6.21 can mean "gift or grace of his Soul".[21]
Doris Srinivasan[28] states that the Upanishad is a treatise on theism, but it creatively embeds a variety of divine images, an inclusive language that allows "three Vedic definitions for personal deity". The Upanishad includes verses wherein God can be identified with the Supreme (Brahman-Atman, Self, Soul) in Vedanta monistic theosophy, verses that support dualistic view of Samkhya doctrines, as well as the synthetic novelty of triple Brahman where a triune exists as the divine soul (Deva, theistic God), individual soul (self) and nature (Prakrti, matter).[28][29] Tsuchida writes that the Upanishad syncretically combines monistic ideas in Upanishad and self-development ideas in Yoga with personification of Shiva-Rudra deity.[30] Hiriyanna interprets the text to be introducing "personal theism" in the form of Shiva Bhakti, with a shift to monotheism but in henotheistic context where the individual is encouraged to discover his own definition and sense of God.[31]
Bhagavad Gita[edit]
The Bhagavad Gita, a post-Vedic scripture composed in 5th to 2nd century BCE,[32] introduces bhakti marga (the path of faith/devotion) as one of three ways to spiritual freedom and release, the other two being karma marga (the path of works) and jnana marga (the path of knowledge).[33][34] In verses 6.31 through 6.47 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna as an avatar of deity Vishnu, describes bhakti yoga and loving devotion, as one of the several paths to the highest spiritual attainments.[35][36]
Sutras[edit]
Shandilya and Narada are credited with two Bhakti texts, the Shandilya Bhakti Sutra and Narada Bhakti Sutra.[37][38][39]
History[edit]
Meerabai is considered as one of the most significant sants in the Vaishnava bhakti movement. She was from a 16th-century aristocratic family in Rajasthan.[40]
The Bhakti movement originated in South India during the seventh century CE, spread northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra, and gained wide acceptance in fifteenth-century Bengal and northern India.[1]
The movement started with the Saiva Nayanars[41] and the Vaisnava Alvars, who lived between 5th and 9th century AD. Their efforts ultimately helped spread bhakti poetry and ideas throughout India by the 12th–18th century CE.[41][42]
The Alvars, which literally means "those immersed in God", were Vaishnava poet-saints who sang praises of Vishnu as they travelled from one place to another.[43] They established temple sites such as Srirangam, and spread ideas about Vaishnavism. Their poems, compiled as Alwar Arulicheyalgal or Divya Prabhandham, developed into an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas. The Bhagavata Purana's references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on bhakti, have led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though some scholars question whether this evidence excludes the possibility that bhakti movement had parallel developments in other parts of India.[44][45]
Like the Alvars, the Saiva Nayanar poets were influential. The Tirumurai, a compilation of hymns on Shiva by sixty-three Nayanar poet-saints, developed into an influential scripture in Shaivism. The poets' itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread spiritual ideas built around Shiva.[43] Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets influenced Hindu texts that came to be revered all over India.[46]
Some scholars state that the Bhakti movement's rapid spread in India in the 2nd millennium, was in part a response to the arrival of Islam[47] and subsequent Islamic rule in India and Hindu-Muslim conflicts.[48][49][50] This view is contested by some scholars,[50] with Rekha Pande stating that singing ecstatic bhakti hymns in local language was a tradition in south India before Muhammad was born.[51] According to Pande, the psychological impact of Muslim conquest may have initially contributed to community-style bhakti by Hindus.[51] Yet other scholars state that Muslim invasions, their conquering of Hindu Bhakti temples in south India and seizure/melting of musical instruments such as cymbals from local people, was in part responsible for the later relocation or demise of singing Bhakti traditions in the 18th century.[52]
According to Wendy Doniger, the nature of Bhakti movement may have been affected by the "surrender to God" daily practices of Islam when it arrived in India.[48] In turn it influenced devotional practices in Islam such as Sufism,[53] and other religions in India from 15th century onwards, such as Sikhism, Christianity,[54] and Jainism.[55]
Klaus Witz, in contrast, traces the history and nature of Bhakti movement to the Upanishadic and the Vedanta foundations of Hinduism. He writes, that in virtually every Bhakti movement poet, "the Upanishadic teachings form an all-pervasive substratum, if not a basis. We have here a state of affairs that has no parallel in the West. Supreme Wisdom, which can be taken as basically non-theistic and as an independent wisdom tradition (not dependent on the Vedas), appears fused with highest level of bhakti and with highest level of God realization."[56]
Poets, writers and musicians[edit]
An example of Hindu bhakti song
Devotional singing set to music (8 minutes 17 seconds)
Problems playing this file? See media help.
The Bhakti movement witnessed a surge in Hindu literature in regional languages, particularly in the form of devotional poems and music.[12][57][58] This literature includes the writings of the Alvars and Nayanars, poems of Andal,[59] Basava,[60] Bhagat Pipa,[61] Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi, Kabir, Nanak (founder of Sikhism),[60] Tulsidas, Gusainji, Ghananand,[59] Ramananda (founder of Ramanandi Sampradaya), Sripadaraja, Vyasatirtha, Purandara Dasa, Kanakadasa, Vijaya Dasa, Six goswamis of Vrindavan ,[62]Raskhan,[63] Ravidas,[60] Jayadeva Goswami,[59] Namdev,[60] Eknath, Tukaram, Mirabai,[40] Ramprasad Sen,[64] Sankardev,[65] Vallabha Acharya,[60] Narsinh Mehta,[66] Gangasati[67] and the teachings of saints like Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.[68]
The earliest writers from the 7th to 10th century CE known to have influenced the poet-saints driven movements include, Sambandar, Tirunavukkarasar, Sundarar, Nammalvar, Adi Shankara, Manikkavacakar and Nathamuni.[69] Several 11th and 12th century writers developed different philosophies within the Vedanta school of Hinduism, which were influential to the Bhakti tradition in medieval India. These include Ramanuja, Madhva, Vallabha and Nimbarka.[59][69] These writers championed a spectrum of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism, qualified nondualism and absolute monism.[7][8]
Philosophy: Nirguna and Saguna Brahman[edit]
The Bhakti movement of Hinduism saw two ways of imaging the nature of the divine (Brahman) – Nirguna and Saguna.[70] Nirguna Brahman was the concept of the Ultimate Reality as formless, without attributes or quality.[71] Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned and developed as with form, attributes and quality.[71] The two had parallels in the ancient pantheistic unmanifest and theistic manifest traditions, respectively, and traceable to Arjuna-Krishna dialogue in the Bhagavad Gita.[70][72] It is the same Brahman, but viewed from two perspectives, one from Nirguni knowledge-focus and other from Saguni love-focus, united as Krishna in the Gita.[72] Nirguna bhakta's poetry were Jnana-shrayi, or had roots in knowledge.[70] Saguna bhakta's poetry were Prema-shrayi, or with roots in love.[70] In Bhakti, the emphasis is reciprocal love and devotion, where the devotee loves God, and God loves the devotee.[72]
Jeaneane Fowler states that the concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, at the root of Bhakti movement theosophy, underwent more profound development with the ideas of Vedanta school of Hinduism, particularly those of Adi Shankara's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.[71] Two 12th-century influential treatises on bhakti were Sandilya Bhakti Sutra – a treatise resonating with Nirguna-bhakti, and Narada Bhakti Sutra – a treatise that leans towards Saguna-bhakti.[73]
Nirguna and Saguna Brahman concepts of the Bhakti movement has been a baffling one to scholars, particularly the Nirguni tradition because it offers, states David Lorenzen, "heart-felt devotion to a God without attributes, without even any definable personality".[74] Yet given the "mountains of Nirguni bhakti literature", adds Lorenzen, bhakti for Nirguna Brahman has been a part of the reality of the Hindu tradition along with the bhakti for Saguna Brahman.[74] These were two alternate ways of imagining God during the bhakti movement.[70]
Social impact[edit]
The Bhakti movement was a devotional transformation of medieval Hindu society, wherein Vedic rituals or alternatively ascetic monk-like lifestyle for moksha gave way to individualistic loving relationship with a personally defined god.[3] Salvation which was previously considered attainable only by men of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya castes, became available to everyone.[3] Most scholars state that Bhakti movement provided women and members of the Shudra and untouchable communities an inclusive path to spiritual salvation.[75] Some scholars disagree that the Bhakti movement was premised on such social inequalities.[76][77]
Poet-saints grew in popularity, and literature on devotional songs in regional languages became profuse.[3] These poet-saints championed a wide range of philosophical positions within their society, ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[7] Kabir, a poet-saint for example, wrote in Upanishadic style, the state of knowing truth:[78]
There's no creation or creator there,
no gross or fine, no wind or fire,
no sun, moon, earth or water,
no radiant form, no time there,
no word, no flesh, no faith,
no cause and effect, nor any thought of the Veda,
no Hari or Brahma, no Shiva or Shakti,
no pilgrimage and no rituals,
no mother, father or guru there...
—  Kabir, Shabda 43, Translated by K Schomer and WH McLeod[78]
The early 15th-century Bhakti poet-sant Pipa stated,[79]
Within the body is the god, within the body the temple,
within the body all the Jangamas[80]
within the body the incense, the lamps and the food-offerings,
within the body the puja-leaves.
After searching so many lands,
I found the nine treasures within my body,
Now there will be no further going and coming,
I swear by Rama.
—  Pīpā, Gu dhanasari, Translated by Vaudeville[81]
The impact of the Bhakti movement in India was similar to that of the Protestant Reformation of Christianity in Europe.[7] It evoked shared religiosity, direct emotional and intellection of the divine, and the pursuit of spiritual ideas without the overhead of institutional superstructures.[82] Practices emerged bringing new forms of spiritual leadership and social cohesion among the medieval Hindus, such as community singing, chanting together of deity names, festivals, pilgrimages, rituals relating to Saivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[41][83] Many of these regional practices have survived into the modern era.[3]
Seva, daana and community kitchens[edit]
The Bhakti movement introduced new forms of voluntary social giving such as Seva (service, for example to a temple or guru school or community construction), Dāna (charity), and community kitchens with free shared food.[84] Of community kitchen concepts, the vegetarian Guru ka Langar introduced by Nanak became a well established institution over time, starting with northwest India, and expanding to everywhere Sikh communities are found.[85] Other saints such as Dadu Dayal championed similar social movement, a community that believed in Ahimsa (non-violence) towards all living beings, social equality, and vegetarian kitchen, as well as mutual social service concepts.[86] Bhakti temples and matha (Hindu monasteries) of India adopted social functions such as relief to victims after natural disaster, helping the poor and marginal farmers, providing community labor, feeding houses for the poor, free hostels for poor children and promoting folk culture.[87]
Sikhism, Shakti and the Bhakti movement[edit]
Some scholars call Sikhism a Bhakti sect of Indian traditions.[88][89] In Sikhism, "nirguni Bhakti" is emphasised – devotion to a divine without Gunas (qualities or form),[89][90][91] but it accepts both nirguni and saguni forms of the divine.[92]
The Guru Granth Sahib, the scripture of the Sikhs, contains the hymns of the Sikh gurus, thirteen Hindu bhagats, and two Muslim bhagats.[93] Some of the Bhagats whose hymns were included in the Guru Granth Sahib, were bhakti poets who taught their ideas before the birth of Guru Nanak – the first of Sikh Guru. The thirteen Hindu bhagats whose hymns were entered into the text, were poet saints of the Bhakti movement, and included Ramananda, Namdev, Pipa, Ravidas, Beni, Bhikhan, Dhanna, Jayadeva, Parmanand, Sadhana, Sain, Surdas, Trilochan, while the two Muslim bhagats were Kabir and Sufi saint Farid.[94][95][96] Most of the 5,894 hymns in the Sikh scripture came from the Sikh gurus, and rest from the Bhagats. The three highest contributions in the Sikh scripture of non-Sikh bhagats were from Bhagat Kabir (292 hymns), Bhagat Farid (134 hymns), and Bhagat Namdev (60 hymns).[97]
While Sikhism was influenced by Bhakti movement,[98][99][100] and incorporated hymns from the Bhakti poet saints, it was not simply an extension of the Bhakti movement.[101] Sikhism, for instance, disagreed with some of the views of Bhakti saints Kabir and Ravidas.[note 1][101]
Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru and the founder of Sikhism, was a Bhakti saint.[102] He taught, states Jon Mayled, that the most important form of worship is Bhakti.[103] Nam-simran – the realisation of God – is an important Bhakti practice in Sikhism.[104][105][106] Guru Arjan, in his Sukhmani Sahib, recommended the true religion is one of loving devotion to God.[107][108] The Sikh scripture Guru Granth Sahib includes suggestions for a Sikh to perform constant Bhakti.[103][109][note 2] The Bhakti themes in Sikhism also incorporate Shakti (power) ideas.[111]
Some Sikh sects outside the Punjab-region of India, such as those found in Maharashtra and Bihar, practice Aarti with lamps in a Gurdwara.[112][113] Arti and devotional prayer ceremonies are also found in Ravidassia religion, previously part of Sikhism.[114][115]
Buddhism, Jainism and Bhakti movement[edit]
Bhakti has been a prevalent practice in various Jaina sects, wherein learned Tirthankara (Jina) and human gurus are considered superior beings and venerated with offerings, songs and Āratī prayers.[116] John Cort suggests that the bhakti movement in later Hinduism and Jainism may share roots in vandan and pujan concepts of the Jaina tradition.[116]
Medieval-era bhakti traditions among non-theistic Indian traditions such as Buddhism and Jainism have been reported by scholars, wherein the devotion and prayer ceremonies were dedicated to an enlightened guru, primarily Buddha and Jina Mahavira respectively, as well as others.[117] Karel Werner notes that Bhatti (Bhakti in Pali) has been a significant practice in Theravada Buddhism, and states, "there can be no doubt that deep devotion or bhakti / bhatti does exist in Buddhism and that it had its beginnings in the earliest days".[118]
Christianity[edit]
Bhakti, according to William Dyrness, has been a "point of convergence" between Christian gospel tradition and the Hindu devotional tradition. It has helped Indian Christians devote themselves to God as distinct from his creation, and as a personal being to love, to expect grace from, through self-giving devotion.[119][better source needed] Songs were composed by poets such as A.J. Appasamy, Sadhu Sundar Singh and other early converts in the early twentieth century that were rich in lyrics and brought out the mysticism, legends and meaning of Christianity.[119] According to Kugler, some of the pioneers of bhakti in Christian sects in India include Murari David.[120]
Controversy and doubts in postmodern scholarship[edit]
Postmodern scholars question whether the 19th- and early 20th-century theories about Bhakti movement in India, its origin, nature and history is accurate. Pechilis in her book on Bhakti movement, for example, states[121]
Scholars writing on bhakti in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were agreed that bhakti in India was preeminently a monotheistic reform movement. For these scholars, the inextricable connection between monotheism and reform has both theological and social significance in terms of the development of Indian culture. The orientalist images of bhakti were formulated in a context of discovery: a time of organised cultural contact, in which many agencies, including administrative, scholarly and missionary – sometimes embodied in a single person – sought knowledge of India. Through the Indo-European language connection, early orientalists believed that they were, in a sense, seeing their own ancestry in the antique texts and "antiquated" customs of Indian peoples. In this respect, certain scholars could identify with the monotheism of bhakti. Seen as a reform movement, bhakti presented a parallel to the orientalist agenda of intervention in the service of the empire.
—  Karen Pechilis, The Embodiment of Bhakti[121]
Madeleine Biardeau states, as does Jeanine Miller, that Bhakti movement was neither a reform nor a sudden innovation, but the continuation and expression of ideas to be found in Vedas, Bhakti marga teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the Katha Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[19][122]
John Stratton Hawley describes recent scholarship which questions the old theory of Bhakti movement origin and "story of south-moves-north", then states that the movement had multiple origins, mentioning Brindavan in north India as another center.[123] Hawley describes the controversy and disagreements between Indian scholars, quotes Hegde's concern that "Bhakti movement was a reform" theory has been supported by "cherry-picking particular songs from a large corpus of Bhakti literature" and that if the entirety of the literature by any single author such as Basava is considered along with its historical context, there is neither reform nor a need for reform.[77]
Sheldon Pollock writes that the Bhakti movement was neither a rebellion against Brahmins and the upper castes nor a rebellion against the Sanskrit language, because many of the prominent thinkers and earliest champions of the Bhakti movement were Brahmins and from upper castes, and because much of the early and later Bhakti poetry and literature was in Sanskrit.[124] Further, states Pollock, evidence of Bhakti trends in ancient southeast Asian Hinduism in the 1st millennium CE, such as those in Cambodia and Indonesia where Vedic era is unknown, and where upper caste Tamil Hindu nobility and merchants introduced Bhakti ideas of Hinduism, suggest the roots and the nature of Bhakti movement to be primarily spiritual and political quest instead of rebellion of some form.[125][126]
John Guy states that the evidence of Hindu temples and Chinese inscriptions from 8th century CE about Tamil merchants, presents Bhakti motifs in Chinese trading towns, particularly the Kaiyuan Temple (Quanzhou).[127] These show Saivite, Vaishnavite and Hindu Brahmin monasteries revered Bhakti themes in China.[127]
Scholars increasingly are dropping, states Karen Pechilis, the old premises and the language of "radical otherness, monotheism and reform of orthodoxy" for Bhakti movement.[10] Many scholars are now characterising the emergence of Bhakti in medieval India as a revival, reworking and recontextualisation of the central themes of the Vedic traditions.[10]
See also[edit]
Achintya Bheda Abheda
Buddhist devotion
Bhatti Puja in Theravada Buddhism
Devotional movements
Ekasarana Dharma
Nama sankeerthanam
Puja (Buddhism)
Puja (Hinduism)
Shaiva Siddhanta
Virashaivism
Yidam
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ These views include Sikhs believing in achieving blissful mukhti while alive, Sikhs placing emphasis on the path of the householder, Sikhs disbelief in Ahinsa, and the Sikhs afterlife aspect of merging with God rather than a physical heaven.
Jump up ^ The Sikh scripture includes many verses on devotional worship. For example,[110]
They remain in ecstasy forever, day and night; O servant Nanak, they sing the Glorious Praises of the Lord, night and day. One who calls himself a Sikh of the Guru, the True Guru, shall rise in the early morning hours and meditate on the Lord's Name. Upon arising early in the morning, he is to bathe, and cleanse himself in the pool of nectar. Following the Instructions of the Guru, he is to chant the Name of the Lord, Har, Har. All sins, misdeeds and negativity shall be erased. (...)
– Sri Guru Granth Sahib, 305(16)-306(2)[110]
References[edit]
Citations
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Jump up ^ Note: The earliest arrival dates are contested by scholars. They range from 7th to 9th century, with Muslim traders settling in coastal regions of Indian peninsula, to Muslims seeking asylum in Tamil Nadu, to raids in northwest India by Muhammad bin Qasim. See: Annemarie Schimmel (1997), Islam in the Indian subcontinent, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004061170, pages 3-7; Andre Wink (2004), Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09249-8
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^ Jump up to: a b John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 39-61
^ Jump up to: a b Rekha Pande (2014), Divine Sounds from the Heart—Singing Unfettered in their Own Voices, Cambridge UK, ISBN 978-1443825252, page 25
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^ Jump up to: a b c d Richard Kieckhefer and George Bond (1990), Sainthood: Its Manifestations in World Religions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520071896, pages 116-122
^ Jump up to: a b c d e John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 304-310
Jump up ^ David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256, pages 182-199
Jump up ^ Peasants and Monks in British India, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520200616, pages 2–3, 53-81
Jump up ^ Rupert Snell (1991), The Hindi Classical Tradition: A Braj Bhāṣā Reader, Routledge, ISBN 978-0728601758, pages 39-40
Jump up ^ Rachel McDermott (2001), Singing to the Goddess: Poems to Kālī and Umā from Bengal, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195134346, pages 8-9
Jump up ^ Maheswar Neog (1995), Early History of the Vaiṣṇava Faith and Movement in Assam: Śaṅkaradeva and his times, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800076, pages 1-4
Jump up ^ Learning History Civis Standard Seven. Jeevandeep Prakashan Pvt Ltd. p. 30. GGKEY:CYCRSZJDF4J.
Jump up ^ Rekha Pande (13 September 2010). Divine Sounds from the Heart—Singing Unfettered in their Own Voices: The Bhakti Movement and its Women Saints (12th to 17th Century). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 162–163. ISBN 978-1-4438-2525-2.
Jump up ^ Schomer & McLeod (1987).
^ Jump up to: a b Axel Michaels (2003), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0691089539, pages 62-65
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, page 21
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxvii-xxxiv
^ Jump up to: a b c Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 207-211
Jump up ^ Jessica Frazier and Gavin Flood (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, Bloomsbury Academic, ISBN 978-0826499660, pages 113-115
^ Jump up to: a b David Lorenzen (1996), Praises to a Formless God: Nirguni Texts from North India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791428054, page 2
Jump up ^ Iwao (1988), pp. 184-185
Jump up ^ Peter van der Veer (1987), [Taming the Ascetic: Devotionalism in a Hindu Monastic Order], Man, New Series, Vol. 22, No. 4, pages 680-695
^ Jump up to: a b John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 338-339
^ Jump up to: a b Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 154-155.
Jump up ^ Nirmal Dass (2000), Songs of the Saints from the Adi Granth, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791446836, pages 181-184
Jump up ^ A term in Shaiva Hindu religiosity, referring to an individual who is always on the go, seeking, learning; See: Winnand Callewaert (2000), The Hagiographies of Anantadas: The Bhakti Poets of North India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
Jump up ^ Winnand Callewaert (2000), The Hagiographies of Anantadas: The Bhakti Poets of North India, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700713318, page 292
Jump up ^ John Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, pages 1-4 and Introduction chapter
Jump up ^ Karen Pechelis (2011), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 22-23, 107-118
Jump up ^ Jill Mourdaunt et al, Thoughtful Fundraising: Concepts, Issues and Perspectives, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415394284, pages 20-21
Jump up ^ Gene Thursby (1992), The Sikhs, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004095540, page 12
Jump up ^ Schomer & McLeod (1987), pp. 181-189, 300.
Jump up ^ Helmut Anheier and Stefan Toepler (2009), International Encyclopedia of Civil Society, Springer, ISBN 978-0387939940, page 1169
Jump up ^ W. Owen Cole and Piara Singh Sambhi (1997), A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700710485, page 22
^ Jump up to: a b David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256, pages 1-3
Jump up ^ Hardip Syan (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 178
Jump up ^ A Mandair (2011), Time and religion-making in modern Sikhism, in Time, History and the Religious Imaginary in South Asia (Editor: Anne Murphy), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415595971, page 188-190
Jump up ^ Mahinder Gulati (2008), Comparative Religious And Philosophies : Anthropomorphism And Divinity, Atlantic, ISBN 978-8126909025, page 305
Jump up ^ E Nesbitt (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, pages 360-369
Jump up ^ Shapiro, Michael (2002). Songs of the Saints from the Adi Granth. Journal of the American Oriental Society. pp. 924, 925.
Jump up ^ Mahinder Gulati (2008), Comparative Religious And Philosophies : Anthropomorphism And Divinity, Atlantic, ISBN 978-8126909025, page 302;
HS Singha (2009), The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Hemkunt Press, ISBN 978-8170103011, page 8
Jump up ^ Mann, Gurinder Singh (2001). The Making of Sikh Scripture. United States: Oxford University Press. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-19-513024-9.
Jump up ^ Patro, Santanu (2015). A Guide to Religious Thought and Practices (Fortress Press ed.). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-4514-9963-6.
Jump up ^ David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256, pages 1-2, Quote: "Historically, Sikh religion derives from this nirguni current of bhakti religion"
Jump up ^ Louis Fenech (2014), in The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies (Editors: Pashaura Singh, Louis E. Fenech), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0199699308, page 35, Quote: "Technically this would place the Sikh community's origins at a much further remove than 1469, perhaps to the dawning of the Sant movement, which possesses clear affinities to Guru Nanak's thought sometime in the tenth century. The predominant ideology of the Sant parampara in turn corresponds in many respects to the much wider devotional Bhakti tradition in northern India."
Jump up ^ Sikhism, Encyclopædia Britannica (2014), Quote: "In its earliest stage Sikhism was clearly a movement within the Hindu tradition; Nanak was raised a Hindu and eventually belonged to the Sant tradition of northern India,"
^ Jump up to: a b Pruthi, R K (2004). Sikhism and Indian Civilization. New Delhi: Discovery Publishing House. pp. 202–203. ISBN 9788171418794.
Jump up ^ HL Richard (2007), Religious Movements in Hindu Social Contexts: A Study of Paradigms for Contextual “Church” Development International Journal of Frontier Missiology, Vol. 24, Issue 3, page 144
^ Jump up to: a b Jon Mayled (2002). Sikhism. Heinemann. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-435-33627-1.
Jump up ^ Dalbir Singh Dhillon (1988). Sikhism, Origin and Development. Atlantic Publishers. p. 229.
Jump up ^ Cave, David; Norris, Rebecca (2012). Religion and the Body: Modern Science and the Construction of Religious Meaning. BRILL Academic. p. 239. ISBN 978-9004221116.
Jump up ^ Anna S. King; J. L. Brockington (2005). The Intimate Other: Love Divine in Indic Religions. Orient Blackswan. pp. 322–323. ISBN 978-81-250-2801-7.
Jump up ^ Surinder S. Kohli (1993). The Sikh and Sikhism. Atlantic Publishers. pp. 74–76. ISBN 81-7156-336-8.
Jump up ^ Singh, Nirmal (2008). Searches In Sikhism (First ed.). New Delhi: Hemkunt Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-81-7010-367-7.
Jump up ^ Jagbir Jhutti-Johal (2011). Sikhism Today. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 92. ISBN 978-1-4411-8140-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Sant Singh Khalsa (Translator) (2006). Sri Guru Granth Sahib. srigranth.org. pp. 305–306 (Ang).
Jump up ^ "Sikh Cultural Center". The Sikh Review. 33 (373-384): 86. 1985.
Jump up ^ Karen Pechilis; Selva J. Raj (2012). South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today. Routledge. p. 243. ISBN 978-1-136-16323-4.
Jump up ^ Pashaura Singh; Michael Hawley (2012). Re-imagining South Asian Religions. BRILL Academic. pp. 42–43. ISBN 90-04-24236-8.
Jump up ^ Ronki Ram (2015). Knut A. Jacobsen, ed. Routledge Handbook of Contemporary India. Routledge. pp. 379–380. ISBN 978-1-317-40358-6.
Jump up ^ Opinderjit Kaur Takhar (2005). Sikh Identity: An Exploration of Groups Among Sikhs. Ashgate. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-7546-5202-1.
^ Jump up to: a b John Cort, Jains in the World : Religious Values and Ideology in India, Oxford University Press, ISBN , pages 64-68, 86-90, 100-112
Jump up ^ Karen Pechelis (2011), The Bloomsbury Companion to Hindu Studies (Editor: Jessica Frazier), Bloomsbury, ISBN 978-1472511515, pages 109-112
Jump up ^ Karel Werner (1995), Love Divine: Studies in Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism, Routledge, ISBN 978-0700702350, pages 45-46
^ Jump up to: a b William A. Dyrness, Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen (Edited), Global Dictionary of Theology: A Resource for the Worldwide Church, Inter Varsity Press, Nottingham, 2008, p.422
Jump up ^ Anna Sarah Kugler, Guntur Mission Hospital, Guntur, India, Women's Missionary Society, The United Lutheran Church in America, 1928, p.39
^ Jump up to: a b Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903, pages 13-14
Jump up ^ J Miller (1996), Does Bhakti appear in the Rgveda?: An enquiry into the background of the hymns, ISBN 978-8172760656; see also J Miller (1995), in Love Divine: Studies in 'Bhakti and Devotional Mysticism (Editor: Karel Werner), Routledge, ISBN 978-0700702350, pages 5, 8-9, 11-32
Jump up ^ John Stratton Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467, page 10
Jump up ^ Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 423-431
Jump up ^ Sheldon Pollock (2009), The Language of the Gods in the World of Men, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520260030, pages 529-534
Jump up ^ Keat Gin Ooi (2004), Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, ISBN 978-1576077702, page 587
^ Jump up to: a b John Guy (2001), The Emporium of the World: Maritime Quanzhou, 1000-1400 (Editor: Angela Schottenhammer), Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004117730, pages 283-299
Bibliography
Karen Pechelis (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195351903
David Lorenzen (1995), Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791420256
John Hawley (2015), A Storm of Songs: India and the Idea of the Bhakti Movement, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0674187467
Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W. H., eds. (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120802773
Further reading[edit]
Madhu Kishwar, Women Bhakta Poets : Manushi (Manushi Publications, 1989). ASIN B001RPVZVU.′
External links[edit]
Bhakti bibliography, Harvard University Archive (2001)
Definition of Bhakti, Swami Vivekananda, Wikisource
The Sacred Geography of the Tamil Shaivite Hymns, George Spencer (1970), Numen, Vol. 17, Fasc. 3, pages 232-244
Shrines, Shamanism, and Love Poetry: Elements in the Emergence of Popular Tamil Bhakti, Glenn Yocum (1973), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 41, No. 1, pages 3–17
Mīrābāī and Her Contributions to the Bhakti Movement, SM Pandey (1965), History of Religions, Vol. 5, No. 1, pages 54–73
Bhakti and the British Empire, Vijay Pinch (May 2003), Past & Present, No. 179, pages 159-196
The Music in Faith and Morality, John Hawley (1984), Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 52, No. 2, pages 243-262
Author and Authority in the Bhakti Poetry of North India, John Hawley (1988), The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 47, No. 2, pages 269-290
Female Gurus and Ascetics, Karen Pechilis (2015), Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Edited by: Knut Jacobsen et al., (Requires subscription)
Iwao, Shima (June–September 1988), "The Vithoba Faith of Maharashtra: The Vithoba Temple of Pandharpur and Its Mythological Structure" (PDF), Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture, 15 (2–3): 183–197, ISSN 0304-1042, archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-26
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