text:
The House of the Seven Gables
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For other uses, see The House of the Seven Gables (disambiguation).
The House of the Seven Gables
First edition title page.
Author
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Gothic fiction
Publisher
Ticknor and Fields
Publication date
March 1851
Media type
Print (Hardback)
Pages
344
OCLC
1374153
Dewey Decimal
813.3
The House of the Seven Gables is a Gothic novel written beginning in mid-1850 by American author Nathaniel Hawthorne and published in April 1851 by Ticknor and Fields of Boston. The novel follows a New England family and their ancestral home. In the book, Hawthorne explores themes of guilt, retribution, and atonement and colors the tale with suggestions of the supernatural and witchcraft. The setting for the book was inspired by a gabled house in Salem belonging to Hawthorne's cousin Susanna Ingersoll and by ancestors of Hawthorne who had played a part in the Salem Witch Trials of 1692. The book was well received upon publication and later had a strong influence on the work of H. P. Lovecraft. The House of the Seven Gables has been adapted several times to film and television.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Background
4 Publication history and response
5 Influence
6 Adaptations
7 References
8 External links
8.1 Online editions
8.2 Study Guides
8.3 Essays
8.4 Other
Plot[edit]
The novel is set in the mid-19th century, but flashbacks to the history of the house, which was built in the late 17th century, are set in other periods. The house of the title is a gloomy New England mansion, haunted since its construction by fraudulent dealings, accusations of witchcraft, and sudden death. The current resident, the dignified but desperately poor Hepzibah Pyncheon, opens a shop in a side room to support her brother Clifford, who has completed a thirty-year sentence for murder. She refuses all assistance from her wealthy but unpleasant cousin, Judge Jaffrey Pyncheon. A distant relative, the lively and pretty young Phoebe, arrives and quickly becomes invaluable, charming customers and rousing Clifford from depression. A delicate romance grows between Phoebe and the mysterious attic lodger Holgrave, who is writing a history of the Pyncheon family.
The house was built on ground wrongfully seized from its rightful owner, Matthew Maule, by Colonel Pyncheon, the founder of the Massachusetts branch of the family. Maule was accused of practicing witchcraft and was executed. According to legend, at his death Maule laid a curse upon the Pyncheon family. During the housewarming festivities, Colonel Pyncheon was found dead in his armchair; whether he actually died from the curse or from a congenital disease is unclear. His portrait remains in the house as a symbol of its dark past and the weight of the curse upon the spirit of its inhabitants.
Phoebe arranges to visit her country home, but plans to return soon. Clifford, depressed by his isolation from humanity and his lost youth spent in prison, stands at a large arched window above the stairs and has a sudden urge to jump. The departure of Phoebe, the focus of his attention, leaves him bed-ridden.
Judge Pyncheon arrives to find information about land in Maine, rumored to belong to the family. He threatens Clifford with an insanity hearing unless he reveals details about the land or the location of the missing deed. Clifford is unable to comply. Before Clifford can be brought before the Judge (which would destroy Clifford's fragile psyche), the Judge mysteriously dies while sitting in Colonel Pyncheon's chair. Hepzibah and Clifford flee by train. The next day, Phoebe returns and finds that Holgrave has discovered the Judge's body. The townsfolk begin to gossip about Hepzibah and Clifford's sudden disappearance. Phoebe is relieved when Hepzibah and Clifford return, having recovered their wits.
New evidence in the crime that sent Clifford to prison proves his innocence. He was framed for the death of his uncle by Jaffrey, who was even then looking for the missing deed. Holgrave is revealed as Maule's descendant, but he bears no ill will toward the remaining Pyncheons. The missing deed is discovered behind the old Colonel's portrait, but the paper is worthless: the land is already settled by others. The characters abandon the old house and start a new life in the countryside, free from the burdens of the past.
Characters[edit]
1875 illustration of Clifford Pyncheon, John Dalziel
Hepzibah Pyncheon – Hepzibah is an unmarried older woman. Though a member of the upper class, she is destitute. At the beginning of the novel, she opens a shop in the first floor of the house to support herself and her brother.
Holgrave – A daguerreotypist who boards at the house. He is secretly a descendant of Matthew Maule, who had been hanged as a wizard. He falls in love with Phoebe.
Phoebe Pyncheon – She is from the country and not a member of the Salem aristocracy. She moves in with her cousin Hepzibah and takes over the shop. Her cheerfulness and beauty make the shop a success, and charm the reclusive Clifford, to whom she serves as a kind of caretaker. Phoebe shows a willingness to work that is absent in Hepzibah and Clifford. She falls in love with Holgrave.
Alice Pyncheon – Alice was a haughty beauty whose ghost haunts the House of the Seven Gables. Holgrave writes a story about Alice, which he reads to Phoebe. In Holgrave's story, Matthew Maule, grandson of the accused witch, is recruited by Alice's greedy father to assist in finding documents that will make him rich. Maule hypnotizes Alice, supposedly to help locate the documents. In reality, Maule intends revenge on the Pyncheons by making Alice permanently susceptible to his commands. He uses this to force her to publicly embarrass herself and her family. Alice dies when her humiliation becomes too great. Maule is mortified that he has caused the death of a beautiful and refined young woman.
Colonel Pyncheon- The founder of the Pyncheon family, the colonel was cursed by Matthew Maule. He died on the day that the House was completed, built on the site where Maule’s house had been.
Judge Jaffrey Pyncheon – A jurist and political aspirant who lives on a comfortable estate out of town. In appearance and character he so strongly resembles Colonel Pyncheon that some people mistake portraits of the ancestor for the descendant. He is just as ruthless as his ancestor in his hunt for a lost land deed, the intended source of new wealth for the dissolute Pyncheon clan.
Matthew Maule- Original owner of the land where the House of Seven Gables is built. Colonel Pyncheon had him hung as a wizard so that Pyncheon could seize his property.
Clifford Pyncheon – Clifford is Hepzibah's elderly, unwell brother who lives in the house after serving a sentence for the murder of his uncle; he was framed by his cousin, Jaffrey.
Uncle Venner – A jovial old man (older than Hepzibah) who is the only neighbor still friendly with the Pyncheons.
Ned Higgins – A precocious boy who visits Hepzibah's shop periodically to deplete her supply of gingerbread cookies.
Background[edit]
House of the Seven Gables in Salem, Massachusetts c. 1915
The novel begins:
Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The street is Pyncheon Street; the house is the old Pyncheon House; and an elm-tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon Elm.
The Pyncheon family actually existed and were ancestors of American novelist Thomas Pynchon.[1] Hawthorne, however, did not base the story on a real family and was surprised that several "Pynchon jackasses" claimed a connection. He considered changing the fictional family's name or adding a disclaimer in the preface, though no such edits were made.[2]
The House of the Seven Gables in Salem, Massachusetts — today a museum accompanying a settlement house — was at one time owned by Hawthorne's cousin, Susanna Ingersoll, and she entertained him there often. Its seven-gabled state was known to Hawthorne only through childhood stories from his cousin; at the time of his visits, he would have seen just three gables due to architectural renovations. Reportedly, Ingersoll inspired Hawthorne to write the novel, though Hawthorne also stated that the book was a work of complete fiction, based on no particular house.[1]
Publication history and response[edit]
Hawthorne, c. 1848
The House of the Seven Gables was Hawthorne's follow-up to his highly successful novel The Scarlet Letter. He began writing it while living in Lenox, Massachusetts in August 1850. By October, he had chosen the title and it was advertised as forthcoming, though the author complained of his slow progress a month later: "I write diligently, but not so rapidly as I hoped... I find the book requires more care and thought than the 'Scarlet Letter'".[3] He hoped the book would be complete by November but would not push himself to commit to a deadline. As he forewarned, "I must not pull up my cabbage by the roots, by way of hastening its growth."[4] By mid-January 1851, he wrote to his publisher James Thomas Fields that the book was nearly finished, "only I am hammering away a little on the roof, and doing a few odd jobs that were left incomplete."[5] He sent the finished manuscript to Fields by the end of the month.[6] His wife Sophia Hawthorne reported to her mother on January 27 that he had read her the ending the night before: "There is unspeakable grace and beauty in the conclusion, throwing back upon the sterner tragedy of the commencement an ethereal light, and a dear home-loveliness and satisfaction."[7]
The House of the Seven Gables was released in the second week of April 1851.[8] Two printings were issued in the first month, a third in May, and a fourth in September 1851, totaling 6,710 copies in its first year (slightly more than The Scarlet Letter in its first year). Hawthorne earned 15% in royalties from the $1.00 cover price.[9] After its publication, Hawthorne said, "It sold finely and seems to have pleased a good many people".[10]
Hawthorne's friend Henry Wadsworth Longfellow called it "a weird, wild book, like all he writes."[8] Fanny Kemble reported that the book caused a sensation in England equal to Jane Eyre.[11] English critic Henry Chorley also noted that, with The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables, "few will dispute [Hawthorne's] claim to rank amongst the most original and complete novelists that have appeared in modern times."[12] Some did not agree. "The book is an affliction", claimed fellow author Catharine Maria Sedgwick. "It affects one like a passage through the wards of an insane asylum."[13] A review in the Christian Examiner complained the book was "more complex, the characterization more exaggerated, and the artistic execution less perfect" than the author's previous novel.[2] Even so, Boston critic Edwin Percy Whipple simply called it his "greatest work".[12] Hawthorne's friend Herman Melville praised the book for its dark themes in a letter to the author:
There is a certain tragic phase of humanity which, in our opinion, was never more powerfuly embodied than by Hawthorne. We mean the tragicalness of human thought in its own unbiased, native, and profounder workings. We think that into no recorded mind has the intense feeling of the visible truth ever entered more deeply than into this man's.[2]
Influence[edit]
The novel was an inspiration for horror fiction writer H. P. Lovecraft, who called it "New England's greatest contribution to weird literature" in his essay "Supernatural Horror in Literature". Seven Gables likely influenced Lovecraft's short stories "The Picture in the House", "The Shunned House" and novella The Case of Charles Dexter Ward.[14]
Adaptations[edit]
The novel was adapted for the screen in 1940 with Margaret Lindsay as Hepzibah, George Sanders as Jaffrey, Vincent Price as Clifford, Dick Foran as Holgrave, and Nan Grey as Phoebe. In this adaptation, Hepzibah and Clifford were made lovers rather than brother and sister, and the film ends with a double wedding. Also, Clifford was well aware of Holgrave's true identity, and the two are working together to settle the score with Jaffrey. It was directed by Joe May with a screenplay by Lester Cole.[15]
There was also a silent short in 1910 and a remake in 1967.
It was also loosely adapted as one of the three stories in the 1963 film Twice-Told Tales, along with "Rappaccini's Daughter" and "Dr. Heidegger's Experiment". All three sections featured Vincent Price.
The novel was adapted to a 60-minute television production in 1960 for The Shirley Temple Show with Shirley Temple as Phoebe, Robert Culp as Holgrave, Agnes Moorehead as Hepzibah, and Martin Landau as Clifford.[16]
An opera based on the novel, by Scott Eyerly, premiered at the Manhattan School of Music in 2000.[17]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Joseph A. Conforti, Imagining New England: Explorations of Regional Identity from the Pilgrims to the Mid-Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 248–62.
^ Jump up to: a b c Mellow, James R. Nathaniel Hawthorne in His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980: 368. ISBN 0-395-27602-0
Jump up ^ Mellow, James R. Nathaniel Hawthorne in His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980: 351. ISBN 0-395-27602-0
Jump up ^ Miller, Edwin Haviland. Salem Is My Dwelling Place: A Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991: 320. ISBN 0-87745-332-2
Jump up ^ Mellow, James R. Nathaniel Hawthorne in His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980: 353. ISBN 0-395-27602-0
Jump up ^ Wineapple, Brenda. Hawthorne: A Life. New York: Random House, 2004: 257. ISBN 0-8129-7291-0
Jump up ^ Mellow, James R. Nathaniel Hawthorne in His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980: 355. ISBN 0-395-27602-0
^ Jump up to: a b Wineapple, Brenda. Hawthorne: A Life. New York: Random House, 2004: 238. ISBN 0-8129-7291-0
Jump up ^ Mellow, James R. Nathaniel Hawthorne in His Times. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980: 367. ISBN 0-395-27602-0
Jump up ^ McFarland, Philip. Hawthorne in Concord. New York: Grove Press, 2004: 137. ISBN 0-8021-1776-7
Jump up ^ Wineapple, Brenda. Hawthorne: A Life. New York: Random House, 2004: 239. ISBN 0-8129-7291-0
^ Jump up to: a b Miller, Edwin Haviland. Salem Is My Dwelling Place: A Life of Nathaniel Hawthorne. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991: 337. ISBN 0-87745-332-2
Jump up ^ Wineapple, Brenda. Hawthorne: A Life. New York: Random House, 2004: 232. ISBN 0-8129-7291-0
Jump up ^ S.T. Joshi and David E. Schultz, An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia, p. 107.
Jump up ^ The House of the Seven Gables at IMDB
Jump up ^ IMDb
Jump up ^ "A Harrowing Night in the 'Seven Gables'". The New York Times. 13 December 2000. Retrieved 26 March 2016.
External links[edit]
Online editions[edit]
The House of the Seven Gables, available at Internet Archive (scanned color illustrated books, multiple editions and formats)
The House of the Seven Gables at Project Gutenberg (plain text)
The House of the Seven Gables, available at Ria Press (PDF optimized for printing)
The House of the Seven Gables public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Study Guides[edit]
MonkeyNotes study guide
Sparknotes study guide
Classicnote study guide
Essays[edit]
Cairns, William B. (1920). "House of the Seven Gables". Encyclopedia Americana.
Idol, John L., Jr., Illustrations of The House of the Seven Gables: A Help or a Hindrance? .
Other[edit]
The House of the Seven Gables Map
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Nathaniel Hawthorne
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Fanshawe (1828)
The Scarlet Letter (1850)
The House of the Seven Gables (1851)
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Rose Hawthorne, Mother Mary Alphonsa (daughter)
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GND: 4427465-8
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text:
The Band Played On
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see And the Band Played On (disambiguation).
"The Band Played On", also known (by its refrain) as "Casey Would Waltz with a Strawberry Blonde", was a popular song written in 1895 with lyrics by John F. Palmer and music by Charles B. Ward (1865–1917).[1]
Sheet music cover
Unusually, as originally published the verses are in 2/4 time, while the chorus is in 3/4 (waltz) time. The chorus is much better known than the verses to later generations.
The lyrics of the refrain:
Casey would waltz with a strawberry blonde
And the band played on.
He'd glide 'cross the floor with the girl he adored
And the band played on.
But his brain was so loaded it nearly exploded;
The poor girl would shake with alarm.
He'd ne'er leave the girl with the strawberry curls
And the band played on.
The song has become a pop standard with many recordings made. One of the first was made by Dan W. Quinn for Berliner Gramophone the same year the number was first published.[2]
The song was later featured in many films, including Raoul Walsh's The Strawberry Blonde (1941), the title of which was inspired by the lyrics, and Alfred Hitchcock's Strangers on a Train (1951).
Cover versions[edit]
One of the most famous recordings, by Guy Lombardo's orchestra (vocal by Kenny Gardner and the Leonardo Trio), was made on February 26, 1941 and issued by Decca Records as catalog number 3675 (reissued as number 25341). It first reached the Billboard magazine Best Seller chart on May 9, 1941 and lasted 4 weeks on the chart, peaking at #6. [3] The Guy Lombardo version included only the famous chorus, omitting the 2/4-time verses.
The numerous other recordings of the number include: Frank D'Rone - a single release as "The Strawberry Blonde" (this reached the UK charts in 1960, peaking at No. 24);[4] Connie Francis - for her album Sing Along with Connie Francis (1961);[5] Alvin and the Chipmunks in the 1962 album The Chipmunk Songbook; Bing Crosby who included the song in a medley on his album On the Sentimental Side (1962); Alice Faye - for the album Alice Faye Sings Her Greatest Movie Hits (1962);[6] and Mandy Patinkin - for his album Mandy Patinkin (1989).[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ William Emmett Studwell (1997). The Americana song reader (illustrated ed.). Haworth Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7890-0150-4.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (1986). Joel Whitburn's Pop Memories 1890-1954. Wisconsin, USA: Record Research Inc. p. 360. ISBN 0-89820-083-0.
Jump up ^ Whitburn, Joel (1973). Top Pop Records 1940–1955. Record Research.
Jump up ^ British Hit Singles & Albums. London: Guinness World Records. 2005. p. 161. ISBN 1-90499400-8.
Jump up ^ "Discogs.com". Discogs.com. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Discogs.com". Discogs.com. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
Jump up ^ "allmusic.com". allmusic.com. Retrieved January 14, 2018.
External links[edit]
The song's appearances in film, on IMDb
Lyrics of the song on (Public Domain) pdmusic.org
This pop standards-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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University of Paris
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This article is about the history of the University of Paris. For the university, see Sorbonne University.
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Historical coat of arms of the University of Paris
The University of Paris (French: Université de Paris), or since 2018 Sorbonne University, metonymically known as the Sorbonne (French: [sɔʁbɔn], one of its buildings), has been a university in Paris, France, from around 1150 to 1793, from 1806 to 1970 and since 2018.
Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris, it was considered the second-oldest university in Europe.[1] Officially chartered in 1200 by King Philip II (Philippe-Auguste) of France and recognised in 1215 by Pope Innocent III, it was later often nicknamed after its theological College of Sorbonne founded by Robert de Sorbon and chartered by French King Saint Louis around 1257.[citation needed]
Internationally highly reputed for its academic performance in the humanities ever since the Middle Ages – notably in theology and philosophy – it introduced several academic standards and traditions that have endured ever since and spread internationally, such as doctoral degrees and student nations. Vast numbers of popes, scientists, intellectuals and royalty were educated at the University of Paris.
In 1793, during the French Revolution period, the University was closed and by Item-27 of the Revolutionary Convention, the college endowments and buildings were sold[2]. A new University of France replaced it in 1806 with four independent faculties: the Faculty of Humanities ("Faculté des Lettres"), the Faculty of Law (later including Economics), the Faculty of Science, the Faculty of Medicine and the Faculty of Theology (closed in 1885).
In 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Three of the new universities took over three of the faculties and the majority of their professors: humanities by Paris-Sorbonne University, law and economics by Panthéon-Assas University, natural sciences by Pierre and Marie Curie University.[3] The University of Sorbonne Nouvelle also inherited part of the faculty of humanities[4]. The faculty of medicine had no direct successor because teaching was organized in relation with different hospitals, which were separated between Paris Descartes University, which kept the historical buildings of the Paris Medicine Faculty, Pierre and Marie Curie University, and Paris Diderot University. Some of the other inheritors, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, Paris Descartes University and Paris Diderot University chose to be multidisciplinary[5][6]
In 2010, the direct successors of the faculties of the University of Paris created the Sorbonne University group.
In 2018, the University of Paris will be re-established under the name Sorbonne University.[7][8][9][10]
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
2 12th Century: Organization
3 13th-14th century: Expansion
3.1 Rector
3.2 Four "nations"
3.3 Faculties
3.4 Colleges
4 15th-18th century: Influence in France and Europe
5 1793: Abolition by the French Revolution
6 1806-1968 : Re-establishement
7 May 1968-1970: Shutdown
8 1970: Dissolution
9 2018 : Re-establishment
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
Origins
In 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The earliest historical reference to it is found in Matthew of Paris' reference to the studies of his own teacher (an abbot of St. Albans) and his acceptance into "the fellowship of the elect Masters" there in about 1170,[11] and it is known that Pope Innocent III completed his studies there in 1182 at the age of 21.
The corporation was formally recognised as a "Universitas" in an edict by king Philippe-Auguste in 1200: in it, amongst other accommodations granted to future students, he allowed the corporation to operate under ecclesiastic law which would be governed by the elders of the Notre-Dame Cathedral school, and assured all those completing courses there that they would be granted a diploma.[12]
The university had four faculties: Arts, Medicine, Law, and Theology. The Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin: France, Normandy, Picardy, and England. The last came to be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation included students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.
The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of the University of Bologna) became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, to signify they were under the protection of the church. Students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the king's laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, and its official had to appeal to Church courts for justice. Students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years.
12th Century: Organization
Three schools were especially famous in Paris: the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Geneviève Abbey. The decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries. The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning. The first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the eleventh century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres; Drogo of Paris; Manegold of Germany; and Anselm of Laon. These two schools attracted scholars from every country and produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus of Szczepanów, Bishop of Kraków; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Cîteaux; Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, and Peter Lombard.
Humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy (trivium and quadrivium). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Patristic Fathers. It was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève. It was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor. Its most famous professors are Hugh of St. Victor and Richard of St. Victor.
The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris, as it did elsewhere. A Bolognese compendium of canon law called the Decretum Gratiani brought about a division of the theology department. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from so-called theology; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was taught. In France, first Orléans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law. Before the end of the twelfth century, the Decretals of Gerard La Pucelle, Mathieu d'Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, were added to the Decretum Gratiani. However, civil law was not included at Paris. In the twelfth century, medicine began to be publicly taught at Paris: the first professor of medicine in Paris records is Hugo, physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit.
Professors were required to have measurable knowledge and be appointed by the university. Applicants had to be assessed by examination; if successful, the examiner, who was the head of the school, and known as scholasticus, capiscol, and chancellor, appointed an individual to teach. This was called the licence or faculty to teach. The licence had to be granted freely. No one could teach without it; on the other hand, the examiner could not refuse to award it when the applicant deserved it.
The school of Saint-Victor, under the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Geneviève on the abbey or chapter. The diocese and the abbey or chapter, through their chancellor, gave professorial investiture in their respective territories where they had jurisdiction. Besides Notre-Dame, Ste-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school." Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" (Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris, I, 272).
The number of students in the school of the capital grew constantly, so that lodgings were insufficient. French students included princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and ranking gentry. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II, Adrian IV and Innocent III studied at Paris, and Alexander III sent his nephews there. Noted German and English students included Otto of Freisingen, Cardinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz, St. Thomas of Canterbury, and John of Salisbury; while Ste-Geneviève became practically the seminary for Denmark. The chroniclers of the time called Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities: "At that time, there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the world." ("Les gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets extolled the university in their verses, comparing it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world.
The Sorbonne covered by snow.
As the university developed, it became more institutionalized. First, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris, John of Celles, twenty-first Abbot of St Albans, England, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps of Paris after he had followed the courses (Vita Joannis I, XXI, abbat. S. Alban). The masters, as well as the students, were divided according to national origin,. Alban wrote that Henry II, King of England, in his difficulties with St. Thomas of Canterbury, wanted to submit his cause to a tribunal composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various provinces (Hist. major, Henry II, to end of 1169). This was likely the start of the division according to "nations," which was later to play an important part in the university. Celestine III ruled that both professors and students had the privilege of being subject only to the ecclesiastical courts, not to civil courts.
The three schools: Notre-Dame, Sainte-Geneviève, and Saint-Victor, may be regarded as the triple cradle of the Universitas scholarium, which included masters and students; hence the name University. Henry Denifle and some others hold that this honour is exclusive to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do not seem convincing. He excludes Saint-Victor because, at the request of the abbot and the religious of Saint-Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to resume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the university was largely founded about 1208, as is shown by a Bull of Innocent III. Consequently, the schools of Saint-Victor might well have contributed to its formation. Secondly, Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Geneviève because there had been no interruption in the teaching of the liberal arts. This is debatable and through the period, theology was taught. The chancellor of Ste-Geneviève continued to give degrees in arts, something he would have ceased if his abbey had no part in the university organization.
13th-14th century: Expansion
Meeting of doctors at the University of Paris. From a 16th-century miniature.
In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris," which affirmed that students were subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless to transfer him to ecclesiastical authority. The king's officers could not intervene with any member unless having a mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. His action followed a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub.
In 1215, the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon, issued new rules governing who could become a professor. To teach the arts, a candidate had to be at least twenty-one, to have studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair in theology, the candidate had to be thirty years of age, with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools under the direction of a master. In Paris, one was regarded as a scholar only by studies with particular masters. Lastly, purity of morals was as important as reading. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent.
Main article: University of Paris strike of 1229
In 1229, a denial of justice by the queen led to suspension of the courses. The pope intervened with a Bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university, but by the end of 1230 they had accomplished nothing. Gregory IX then addressed a Bull of 1231 to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not only did he settle the dispute, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope granted the university the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction.
The pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to collect a moderate fee for the conferring of the license of professorship. Also, for the first time, the scholars had to pay tuition fees for their education: two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.
Rector
The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector. The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion, legate of the Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations.
Four "nations"
Map showing the territories covered by the four nations of the University of Paris during the Middle Ages.
Main article: Nation (university)
The "nations" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century. They were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222. Later, they formed a distinct body. By 1249, the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries: the nations were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War, the English nation was replaced by the Germanic. The four nations constituted the faculty of arts or letters.
The territories covered by the four nations were:
French nation: all the Romance-speaking parts of Europe except those included within the Norman and Picard nations
English nation (renamed 'German nation' after the Hundred Years' War): the British Isles, the Germanic-speaking parts of continental Europe (except those included within the Picard nation), and the Slavic-speaking parts of Europe. The majority of students within that nation came from Germany and Scotland, and when it was renamed 'German nation' it was also sometimes called natio Germanorum et Scotorum ("nation of the Germans and Scots").[13][14]
Norman nation: the ecclesiastical province of Rouen, which corresponded approximately to the Duchy of Normandy. This was a Romance-speaking territory, but it was not included within the French nation.
Picard nation: the Romance-speaking bishoprics of Beauvais, Noyon, Amiens, Laon, and Arras; the bilingual (Romance and Germanic-speaking) bishoprics of Thérouanne, Cambrai, and Tournai; a large part of the bilingual bishopric of Liège; and the southernmost part of the Germanic-speaking bishopric of Utrecht (the part of that bishopric located south of the Meuse River; the rest of the bishopric north of the Meuse River belonged to the English nation). It was estimated that about half of the students in the Picard nation were Romance-speakers (Picard and Walloon), and the other half were Germanic-speakers (West Flemish, East Flemish, Brabantian and Limburgish dialects).[15]
Faculties
To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris gradually divided into faculties. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But the four faculties were already formally established by 1254, when the university described in a letter "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties—e.g., they were the first to adopt an official seal.
The faculties of theology, canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of "Dean" as designating the head of a faculty, came into use by 1268 in the faculties of law and medicine, and by 1296 in the faculty of theology. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, law and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties included only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the faculty of arts. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate and the DEA became intermediate degrees.
Colleges
Rue Saint-Jacques and the Sorbonne in Paris
The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while the students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); meaning not centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special goal, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. Often, masters lived in each college and oversaw its activities.
Four colleges appeared in the 12th century; they became more numerous in the 13th, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Men who had studied at Paris became an increasing presence in the high ranks of the Church hierarchy; eventually, students at the University of Paris saw it as a right that they would be eligible to benefices. Church officials such as St. Louis and Clement IV lavishly praised the university.
Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: the oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13th and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala, Skara and Linköping.
The Collège de Navarre was founded in 1305, originally aimed at students from Navarre, but due to its size, wealth, and the links between the crowns of France and Navarre, it quickly accepted students from other nations. The establishment of the College of Navarre was a turning point in the University's history: Navarra was the first college to offer teaching to its students, which at the time set it apart from all previous colleges, founded as charitable institutions that provided lodging, but no tuition. Navarre's model combining lodging and tuition would be reproduced by other colleges, both in Paris and other universities [16].
The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scots college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville. The Collège de Montaigu was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck, when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Ignatius of Loyola) and those who subsequently became Protestants (John Calvin and John Knox).
At this time, the university also went the controversy of the condemnations of 1210–1277.
15th-18th century: Influence in France and Europe
The Old Sorbonne on fire in 1670.
The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th-century engraving
In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville, a cardinal and Apostolic legate, reformed the university, correcting its perceived abuses and introducing various modifications. This reform was less an innovation than a recall to observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government with regard to the three higher faculties. Nonetheless, and as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust. The prohibition from teaching civil law was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV officially authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals. The "faculty of law" hence replaced the "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying the injury.
Besides its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part in several disputes: in the Church, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and divisions; in the State, during national crises. Under the domination of England it played a role in the trial of Joan of Arc.
Proud of its rights and privileges, the University of Paris fought energetically to maintain them, hence the long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made extensive use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in the case of the Flagellants.
Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle, 132-34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique).
1793: Abolition by the French Revolution
The Sorbonne as seen from rue des Écoles.
The ancient university disappeared with the ancien régime in the French Revolution. On 15 September 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools,
"there should be established in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men".
Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, no more than those of the provinces.
1806-1968 : Re-establishement
The University was re-established by Napoléon on 1 May 1806. All the faculties were replaced by a single centre, the University of France. The decree of 17 March 1808 created five distinct faculties: Law, Medicine, Letters/Humanities, Sciences, and Theology; traditionally, Letters and Sciences had been grouped together into one faculty, that of "Arts". After a century, people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study. The defeat of 1870 at the hands of Prussia was partially blamed on the growth of the superiority of the German university system of the 19th century, and led to another serious reform of the French university. In the 1880s, the "licence" (bachelor) degree is divided into, for the Faculty of Letters: Letters, Philosophy, History, Modern Languages, with French, Latin and Greek being requirements for all of them; and for the Faculty of Science, into: Mathematics, Physical Sciences and Natural Sciences; the Faculty of Theology is abolished by the Republic. At this time, the building of the Sorbonne was fully renovated.[17]
May 1968-1970: Shutdown
In 1966, after a student revolt in Paris, Christian Fouchet, minister of education, had proposed "the reorganisation of university studies into separate two- and four-year degrees, alongside the introduction of selective admission criteria" as a response to overcrowding in lecture halls.[18] Dissatisfied with these educational reforms, students began protesting in November 1967, at the campus of the University of Paris in Nanterre;[19] indeed, according to James Marshall, these reforms were seen "as the manifestations of the technocratic-capitalist state by some, and by others as attempts to destroy the liberal university".[20] After student activists protested the Vietnam War, the campus was closed by authorities on March 22 and again on May 2, 1968.[21] Agitation spread to the Sorbonne the next day, and many students were arrested in the following week.[22] Barricades were erected throughout the Latin Quarter, and a massive demonstration took place on May 13, gathering students and workers on strike.[23] The number of workers on strike reached about nine million by May 22.[19] As explained by Bill Readings:
[President Charles de Gaulle] responded on May 24 by calling for a referendum, and [...] the revolutionaries, led by informal action committees, attacked and burned the Paris Stock Exchange in response. The Gaullist government then held talks with union leaders, who agreed to a package of wage-rises and increases in union rights. The strikers, however, simply refused the plan. With the French state tottering, de Gaulle fled France on May 29 for a French military base in Germany. He later returned and, with the assurance of military support, announced [general] elections [within] forty days. [...] Over the next two months, the strikes were broken (or broke up) while the election was won by the Gaullists with an increased majority.[24]
1970: Dissolution
Following the disruption, de Gaulle appointed Edgar Faure as minister of education; Faure was assigned to draft reforms about the French university system, with the help of academics.[25] Their proposal was adopted on November 12;[26] in accordance with the new law, the faculties of the University of Paris were to reorganize themselves.[27]
Three of the new universities took over three of the faculties and the majority of their professors: humanities by Paris-Sorbonne University, law and economics by Panthéon-Assas University, natural sciences by Pierre and Marie Curie University.[28]. The University of Sorbonne Nouvelle also inherited part of the faculty of humanities [29]. The faculty of medicine had no direct successor because teaching was organized in relation with different hospitals, which were separated between Paris Descartes University, which kept the historical buildings of the Paris Medicine Faculty, Pierre and Marie Curie University, and Paris Diderot University. Some of the other inheritors, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, Paris Descartes University and Paris Diderot University chose to be multidisciplinary[30][31][32].
The thirteen successor universities to the University of Paris split over the three academies of the Île-de-France region.
University of Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne University Academy of Paris Humanities, Social sciences, Economics
University of Paris II Panthéon-Assas University Academy of Paris Law, Economics
University of Paris III Sorbonne Nouvelle University Academy of Paris Humanities
University of Paris IV Paris-Sorbonne University Academy of Paris Humanities
University of Paris V René Descartes University Academy of Paris Medicine, Social sciences, Humanities
University of Paris VI Pierre-and-Marie-Curie University Academy of Paris Science, Medicine
University of Paris VII Denis Diderot University Academy of Paris Science, Medicine, Humanities
University of Paris VIII University of Vincennes in Saint-Denis Academy of Créteil Social sciences
University of Paris IX Paris Dauphine University Academy of Paris Economics
University of Paris X University of Paris Ouest Academy of Versailles Social sciences
University of Paris XI University of Paris Sud Academy of Versailles Science
University of Paris XII University of Paris Est Academy of Créteil Medicine, Science
University of Paris XIII University of Paris Nord Academy of Créteil Science, Social sciences, Medicine
Most of these successor universities have the joined the six groups of universities and (higher education) institutions in the Paris region, created in the 2010s.
2018 : Re-establishment
New logo of the Sorbonne University
The successors of the faculties of the University of Paris formed the Sorbonne University group in association with other academic institutions and are merging into the Sorbonne University which will open 1 January 2018, as a re-creation of the University of Paris.[33][34][35][36]
However, its teachings in law and economics will be delivered (in dual degrees) by Panthéon-Assas University, the successor of the historical Paris Law and Economics Faculty and the University of Law and Economics in the Sorbonne University group, which is not part of the merger yet, but is expected to be. Until Panthéon-Assas merge into Sorbonne University, or another solution is found, Sorbonne University won't have its own Law faculty or Economics faculty.
Moreover, the new "Sorbonne University" has lost many historical buildings compared to the historical University of Paris. The old "Sorbonne" building is not fully property of the re-established-university. The historical buildings of the Paris Law Faculty (Place du Panthéon and rue d'Assas buildings) will still belong to Panthéon-Assas University. The historical buildings of the Paris Medicine Faculty (Rue de l’École de Médecine and Rue des Saints-Pères buildings) belong to René Descartes University that won't be part of the merger since another successor of the Paris Medicine Faculty, Pierre et Marie Curie University, is already part of the merger. The Ministry of Research's building that used to be a college of the historical University won't be part of the buildings of Sorbonne University either.
See also
Paris portal
University portal
Catholicism portal
List of University of Paris people
List of public universities in France by academy
List of medieval universities
Société des Amis des Universités de Paris
References
Notes
Jump up ^ Haskins, C. H.: The Rise of Universities, page 292. Henry Holt and Company, 1923.
Jump up ^ Palmer, R.R. (1975). "27, The National Convention orders the sale of all college endowments". The School of The French Revolution : A Documentary History of the College of Louis-le-Grand and its Director, Jean-François Champagne, 1762-1814. Princeton: Princeton Legacy Library. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-69-161796-1.
Jump up ^ University World News, Merger of elite Paris universities gets the go-ahead
Jump up ^ http://www.univ-paris3.fr/les-origines-de-la-sorbonne-nouvelle-404160.kjsp?RH=1474965786507
Jump up ^ https://www.sorbonne.fr/la-sorbonne/histoire-de-la-sorbonne/
Jump up ^ https://www.univ-paris1.fr/universite/presentation/
Jump up ^ THE - France’s most iconic university, the Sorbonne, is reborn
Jump up ^ Le Figaro, Le retour de la grande université de Paris
Jump up ^ Study International, Consolidation of two elite Paris universities confirmed for 2018
Jump up ^ Université: la Sorbonne devient une seule et unique faculté
Jump up ^ §1. "The University of Paris. X.", in English Scholars of Paris and Franciscans of Oxford. Vol. 1. From the Beginnings to the Cycles of Romance. The Cambridge History of English and...
Jump up ^ "Sorbonne University - the University of Paris". Retrieved 2016-06-18.
Jump up ^ Miscellanea Scotica.: A Collection of Tracts Relating to the History
Jump up ^ Historical Tales of the Wars of Scotland, and of the Border Raids
Jump up ^ « Picard » et « Picardie », espace linguistique et structures sociopolitiques, by Serge Lusignan and Diane Gervais, August 2008
Jump up ^ Tim Geelhaar (8 August 2011). Jörg Feuchter; Friedhelm Hoffmann; Bee Yun, eds. Did the West Receive a "Complete Model"?. Cultural Transfers in Dispute: Representations in Asia, Europe and the Arab World since the Middle Ages. Campus Verlag. p. 76.
Jump up ^ Jean-Robert Pitte (ed), La Sorbonne au service des Humanités: 750 ans de création et de transmission du savoir, Presses universitaries de Paris-Sorbonne, 2007
Jump up ^ Marshall, ed., p. xviii; Readings, p. 136.
^ Jump up to: a b Readings, p. 136.
Jump up ^ Marshall, p. xviii.
Jump up ^ Readings, p. 136; Rotman, pp. 10–11; Pudal, p. 190.
Jump up ^ Pudal, p. 190; Giles & Snyder, ed., p. 86.
Jump up ^ Pudal, p. 191; Mathieu, p. 197; Giles & Snyder, ed., p. 86.
Jump up ^ Readings, pp. 136–137.
Jump up ^ Berstein, p. 229.
Jump up ^ Berstein, p. 229; loi no 68-978 du 12 novembre 1968.
Jump up ^ Conac, p. 177.
Jump up ^ University World News, Merger of elite Paris universities gets the go-ahead
Jump up ^ http://www.univ-paris3.fr/les-origines-de-la-sorbonne-nouvelle-404160.kjsp?RH=1474965786507
Jump up ^ https://www.sorbonne.fr/la-sorbonne/histoire-de-la-sorbonne/
Jump up ^ https://www.univ-paris1.fr/universite/presentation/
Jump up ^ http://www.univ-paris3.fr/l-universite-sorbonne-nouvelle-paris-3-165136.kjsp?RH=1508852133322
Jump up ^ THE - France’s most iconic university, the Sorbonne, is reborn
Jump up ^ Le Figaro, Le retour de la grande université de Paris
Jump up ^ Study International, Consolidation of two elite Paris universities confirmed for 2018
Jump up ^ Sorbonne University, About us
Sources
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "University of Paris". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
Further reading
Leutrat, Jean-Louis: De l'Université aux Universités (From the University to the Universities), Paris: Association des Universités de Paris, 1997
Rive, Phillipe: La Sorbonne et sa reconstruction (The Sorbonne and its Reconstruction), Lyon: La Manufacture, 1987
Tuilier, André: Histoire de l'Université de Paris et de la Sorbonne (History of the University of Paris and of the Sorbonne), in 2 volumes (From the Origins to Richelieu, From Louis XIV to the Crisis of 1968), Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France, 1997
Verger, Jacques: Histoire des Universités en France (History of French Universities), Toulouse: Editions Privat, 1986
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Université de Paris.
Chancellerie des Universités de Paris (official homepage)
Projet Studium Parisiense: database of members of the University of Paris from the 11th to 16th centuries
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 138100231
LCCN: n79129805
ISNI: 0000 0001 2308 5973
GND: 2025059-9
SUDOC: 034526110
BNF: cb12163414c (data)
NLA: 36536475
NKC: ko2003183514
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Paris&oldid=818908177"
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