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List of La Liga top scorers
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Lionel Messi is La Liga's all-time top scorer.
Since the 1929 formation of La Liga, Spain's top division of association football, a total of 56 players have finished as the competition's top goalscorer. As no official recognition exists in Spain for the league top scorer, the following data is based on official match reports provided by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional and may differ from independent research and the unofficial Pichichi Trophy awarded by the newspaper Marca.
La Liga's all-time top goalscorer is Barcelona's Lionel Messi, who also holds the record for most goals scored in a season with 50 goals in 2011-12. Athletic Bilbao's Telmo Zarra, who was the competition's all-time top scorer until 2014, was top scorer in six seasons between 1945 and 1953. Three other players—Real Madrid's Alfredo Di Stéfano, Quini of Sporting de Gijón and Barcelona, and Hugo Sánchez of Atlético Madrid and Real Madrid—each finished as top scorer in five seasons.
Contents
[hide]
1 Top scorers by season
1.1 Top 30 goalscorers, all-time
1.2 Top 5 goalscorers, still active (Primera División only)
1.3 Most hat-tricks in the League (at least 10)
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Top scorers by season[edit]
Key
Player won the European Golden Shoe
Season
Player
Club
Goals
Games
Ratio
1930–31 Bata Athletic Bilbao 27 17 1.59
1931–32 Bata (2) Athletic Bilbao 13[1] 18 0.72
1932–33 Olivares, ManuelManuel Olivares Real Madrid 16 14 1.14
1933–34 Lángara, IsidroIsidro Lángara Real Oviedo 26 18 1.44
1934–35 Lángara, IsidroIsidro Lángara (2) Real Oviedo 27 22 1.23
1935–36 Lángara, IsidroIsidro Lángara (3) Real Oviedo 28 21 1.33
1939–40 Unamuno, VíctorVíctor Unamuno Athletic Bilbao 20 22 0.91
1940–41 Pruden, Pruden Atlético Madrid 33 22 1.5
1941–42 Mundo Valencia 27 25 1.08
1942–43 Martín, MarianoMariano Martín Barcelona 30 23 1.3
1943–44 Mundo (2) Valencia 28 26 1.08
1944–45 Zarra, TelmoTelmo Zarra Athletic Bilbao 20 26 0.77
1945–46 Zarra, TelmoTelmo Zarra (2) Athletic Bilbao 24 18 1.33
1946–47 Zarra, TelmoTelmo Zarra (3) Athletic Bilbao 33 24 1.38
1947–48 Pahiño, Pahiño Celta de Vigo 20 22 0.91
1948–49 César Barcelona 27 24 1.13
1949–50 Zarra, TelmoTelmo Zarra (4) Athletic Bilbao 24 26 0.92
1950–51 Zarra, TelmoTelmo Zarra (5) Athletic Bilbao 38 30 1.27
1951–52 Pahiño, Pahiño (2) Real Madrid 28 27 1.04
1952–53 Zarra, TelmoTelmo Zarra (6) Athletic Bilbao 24 29 0.83
1953–54 di Stéfano, AlfredoAlfredo di Stéfano Real Madrid 27 28 0.96
1954–55 Arza, JuanJuan Arza Sevilla 28 29 0.97
1955–56 di Stéfano, AlfredoAlfredo di Stéfano (2) Real Madrid 24 30 0.8
1956–57 di Stéfano, AlfredoAlfredo di Stéfano (3) Real Madrid 31 30 1.03
1957–58 Badenes, ManuelManuel Badenes Real Valladolid 19 29 0.66
di Stéfano, AlfredoAlfredo di Stéfano (4) Real Madrid 19 30 0.63
Alós, RicardoRicardo Alós Valencia 19 29 0.66
1958–59 di Stéfano, AlfredoAlfredo di Stéfano (5) Real Madrid 23 28 0.82
1959–60 Puskás, FerencFerenc Puskás Real Madrid 25 24 1.04
1960–61 Puskás, FerencFerenc Puskás (2) Real Madrid 28 28 1
1961–62 Seminario, JuanJuan Seminario Real Zaragoza 25 30 0.83
1962–63 Puskás, FerencFerenc Puskás (3) Real Madrid 26 30 0.87
1963–64 Puskás, FerencFerenc Puskás (4) Real Madrid 21 25 0.84
1964–65 Ré, CayetanoCayetano Ré Barcelona 26 30 0.87
1965–66 Luis Aragonés Atlético Madrid 18[2] 28 0.64
1966–67 Waldo Valencia 24 30 0.8
1967–68 Uriarte, FidelFidel Uriarte Athletic Bilbao 22 24 0.92
1968–69 Amancio Real Madrid 14 29 0.48
José Eulogio Gárate Atlético Madrid 14 30 0.47
1969–70 Amancio (2) Real Madrid 16 29 0.55
Aragonés, LuisLuis Aragonés (2) Atlético Madrid 16 30 0.53
Gárate, José EulogioJosé Eulogio Gárate (2) Atlético Madrid 16 30 0.53
1970–71 Gárate, José EulogioJosé Eulogio Gárate (3) Atlético Madrid 17 28 0.61
Rexach, CarlesCarles Rexach Barcelona 17 28 0.61
1971–72 Porta, EnriqueEnrique Porta Granada 20 31 0.65
1972–73 Marianín Real Oviedo 19 32 0.59
1973–74 Quini Sporting de Gijón 20 34 0.59
1974–75 Carlos Athletic Bilbao 19 32 0.59
1975–76 Quini (2) Sporting de Gijón 21 34 0.62
1976–77 Kempes, MarioMario Kempes Valencia 24 34 0.71
1977–78 Kempes, MarioMario Kempes (2) Valencia 28 34 0.82
1978–79 Krankl, HansHans Krankl Barcelona 29 30 0.97
1979–80 Quini (3) Sporting de Gijón 24 34 0.71
1980–81 Quini (4) Barcelona 20 30 0.67
1981–82 Quini (5) Barcelona 27 32 0.84
1982–83 Rincón, PoliPoli Rincón Real Betis 20 30 0.67
1983–84 Jorge da Silva Real Valladolid 17 30 0.57
Juanito Real Madrid 17 31 0.55
1984–85 Sánchez, HugoHugo Sánchez Atlético Madrid 19 33 0.58
1985–86 Sánchez, HugoHugo Sánchez (2) Real Madrid 22 33 0.67
1986–87 Sánchez, HugoHugo Sánchez (3) Real Madrid 34 41 0.83
1987–88 Sánchez, HugoHugo Sánchez (4) Real Madrid 29 36 0.81
1988–89 Baltazar Atlético Madrid 35 36 0.97
1989–90 Sánchez, HugoHugo Sánchez (5) Real Madrid 38 35 1.09
1990–91 Butragueño, EmilioEmilio Butragueño Real Madrid 19 35 0.54
1991–92 Manolo Atlético Madrid 27 36 0.75
1992–93 Bebeto Deportivo 29 37 0.78
1993–94 Romário Barcelona 30 33 0.91
1994–95 Zamorano, IvánIván Zamorano Real Madrid 28 38 0.74
1995–96 Pizzi, Juan AntonioJuan Antonio Pizzi Tenerife 31 41 0.76
1996–97 Ronaldo Barcelona 34 37 0.92
1997–98 Vieri, ChristianChristian Vieri Atlético Madrid 24 24 1
1998–99 Raúl Real Madrid 25 37 0.68
1999–2000 Ballesta, SalvaSalva Ballesta Racing Santander 27 36 0.75
2000–01 Raúl (2) Real Madrid 24 36 0.67
2001–02 Tristán, DiegoDiego Tristán Deportivo 20 35 0.57
2002–03 Makaay, RoyRoy Makaay Deportivo 29 38 0.76
2003–04 Ronaldo (2) Real Madrid 24 32 0.75
2004–05 Forlán, DiegoDiego Forlán Villarreal 25 38 0.66
Eto'o, SamuelSamuel Eto'o Barcelona 25[3] 37 0.68
2005–06 Eto'o, SamuelSamuel Eto'o (2) Barcelona 26 34 0.76
2006–07 van Nistelrooy, RuudRuud van Nistelrooy Real Madrid 25 37 0.68
2007–08 Güiza, DanielDaniel Güiza Mallorca 27 37 0.73
2008–09 Forlán, DiegoDiego Forlán (2) Atlético Madrid 32 33 0.97
2009–10 Messi, LionelLionel Messi Barcelona 34 35 0.97
2010–11 Ronaldo, CristianoCristiano Ronaldo Real Madrid 40 34 1.18
2011–12 Messi, LionelLionel Messi (2) Barcelona 50 37 1.35
2012–13 Messi, LionelLionel Messi (3) Barcelona 46 32 1.44
2013–14 Ronaldo, CristianoCristiano Ronaldo (2) Real Madrid 31 30 1.03
2014–15 Ronaldo, CristianoCristiano Ronaldo (3) Real Madrid 48 35 1.37
2015–16 Suárez, LuisLuis Suárez Barcelona 40 35 1.11
2016–17 Messi, LionelLionel Messi (4) Barcelona 37 34 1.09
Top 30 goalscorers, all-time[edit]
As of matches played 7 April 2018[4]
Players in Bold are still active.
[hide]Rank
Nat
Name
Years
Goals
Apps
Ratio
1 Lionel Messi 2004– 378 410 0.91
2 Cristiano Ronaldo 2009– 309 290 1.06
3 Telmo Zarra 1940–1955 251 278 0.9
4 Hugo Sánchez 1981–1994 234 347 0.67
5 Raúl 1994–2010 228 550 0.41
6 Alfredo Di Stéfano 1953–1966 227 329 0.69
7 César Rodríguez 1939–1955 223 353 0.63
8 Quini 1970–1987 219 448 0.49
9 Pahiño 1943–1956 210 278 0.76
10 Edmundo Suárez 1939–1950 195 231 0.84
11 Santillana 1970–1988 186 461 0.4
12 David Villa 2003–2014 185 352 0.53
13 Juan Arza 1943–1959 182 349 0.52
14 Guillermo Gorostiza 1929–1945 178 256 0.7
15 Samuel Eto'o 1998–2009 162 280 0.58
16 Luis Aragonés 1960–1974 160 360 0.44
17 Ferenc Puskás 1958–1966 156 180 0.87
18 Aritz Aduriz 2002– 154 399 0.39
19 Julio Salinas 1982–2000 152 417 0.36
20 Adrián Escudero 1945–1958 150 287 0.52
21 Daniel Ruiz 1974–1986 147 303 0.49
22 Raúl Tamudo 1997–2013 146 407 0.36
23 Silvestre Igoa 1941–1956 141 284 0.5
24 Manuel Badenes 1946–1959 139 201 0.69
Juan Araújo 1945–1956 207 0.67
José Mari Bakero 1980–1997 483 0.29
27 László Kubala 1951–1965 138 215 0.64
28 José Luis Panizo 1939–1955 136 325 0.42
29 Jesús María Satrústegui 1973–1986 133 297 0.45
30 Joaquín Murillo 1952–1964 132 227 0.58
Top 5 goalscorers, still active (Primera División only)[edit]
As of matches played 7 April 2018[4]
Rank
Nat
Name
Years
Current club
Goals
Apps
Ratio
1 Lionel Messi 2004– Barcelona 378 410 0.91
2 Cristiano Ronaldo 2009– Real Madrid 309 290 1.07
3 Aritz Aduriz 2002– Athletic Bilbao 154 399 0.38
4 Karim Benzema 2009– Real Madrid 126 264 0.48
5 Antoine Griezmann 2010– Atlético Madrid 115 275 0.42
Most hat-tricks in the League (at least 10)[edit]
Three or more goals in a single match. For the complete list of hat-tricks see List of La Liga hat-tricks.
As of matches played 7 April 2018[5][6]
Players in bold are still active
Players with at least 10 hat-tricks are shown in this table.
Rank
Player
Hat-tricks
Last hat-trick
1
Cristiano Ronaldo
34 18 March 2018
2
Lionel Messi
29 7 April 2018
3
Telmo Zarra
23 15 March 1953
4
Alfredo di Stéfano
22 15 March 1964
5
Mundo
19 4 March 1951
6
César Rodríguez
15 19 October 1952
7
Isidro Lángara
13 15 December 1946
8
Ferenc Puskás
12 15 December 1963
9
László Kubala
11 19 March 1961
Pahiño
11 11 September 1955
Manuel Badenes
11 29 March 1958
12
Quini
10 7 October 1981
Source: BDFútbol
Notes
See also[edit]
Pichichi Trophy
References[edit]
Notes
Jump up ^ Marca awarded the Pichichi to Guillermo Gorostiza, whom they credited with 12 goals.
Jump up ^ Marca awarded the Pichichi to Vavá, whom they credited with 19 goals.
Jump up ^ Marca did not award the Pichichi to Eto'o, whom they credited with 24 goals.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ranking Goals First Division". BDFutbol. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
Jump up ^ "Ranking Hat Tricks First Division". Bdfutbol.com. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
Jump up ^ "Hat-tricks in La Liga history". sportsgoogly.com. Retrieved 1 October 2017.
Citations
Liga de Fútbol Profesional historical archive
Bravo, Luis Javier; Sillipp, Bernhard; Torre, Raúl; Di Maggio, Roberto (25 June 2015). "List of all Pichichi winners". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2016.
Martínez Calatrava, Vicente (2002). Historia y estadística del fúbol español. De la Olimpiada de Amberes a la Guerra Civil (1920-1939). ISBN 84-607-5767-6
Martínez Calatrava, Vicente (2002). Historia y estadística del fútbol español. De la Guerra Civil al Mundial de Brasil (1939-1950). ISBN 978-84-607-8817-1
Martínez Calatrava, Vicente (2002). Historia y estadística del fútbol español. Del gol de Zarra al gol de Marcelino (1950-1964). ISBN 978-84-609-2967-3
Martínez Calatrava, Vicente (2002). Historia y estadística del fútbol español. Del Campeonato de Europa al Mundial de España (1964-1982). ISBN 978-84-611-0295-2
Martínez Calatrava, Vicente (2002). Historia y estadística del fútbol español. Del Mundial 82 a la final española de París (1982-2001) ISBN 978-84-612-2007-6
External links[edit]
LFP - Historical squads for every season of the league including official goal scoring stats
Top 10 La Liga Golden Boot Winners
[show]
v
t
e
La Liga top scorers
1929: Bienzobas
1930: Gorostiza
1931: Bata
1932: Bata
1933: Olivares
1934: Lángara
1935: Lángara
1936: Lángara
1940: Unamuno
1941: Pruden
1942: E. Suárez
1943: Martín
1944: E. Suárez
1945: Zarra
1946: Zarra
1947: Zarra
1948: Pahiño
1949: César
1950: Zarra
1951: Zarra
1952: Pahiño
1953: Zarra
1954: Di Stéfano
1955: Arza
1956: Di Stéfano
1957: Di Stéfano
1958: Badenes, Di Stéfano & Ricardo
1959: Di Stéfano
1960: Puskás
1961: Puskás
1962: Seminario
1963: Puskás
1964: Puskás
1965: Ré
1966: Aragonés
1967: Waldo
1968: Uriarte
1969: Amancio & Gárate
1970: Amancio, Aragonés & Gárate
1971: Gárate & Rexach
1972: Porta
1973: Marianín
1974: Quini
1975: Carlos
1976: Quini
1977: Kempes
1978: Kempes
1979: Krankl
1980: Quini
1981: Quini
1982: Quini
1983: Rincón
1984: Da Silva & Juanito
1985: Sánchez
1986: Sánchez
1987: Sánchez
1988: Sánchez
1989: Baltazar
1990: Sánchez
1991: Butragueño
1992: Manolo
1993: Bebeto
1994: Romário
1995: Zamorano
1996: Pizzi
1997: Ronaldo
1998: Vieri
1999: Raúl
2000: Salva
2001: Raúl
2002: Tristán
2003: Makaay
2004: Ronaldo
2005: Forlán & Eto'o
2006: Eto'o
2007: Van Nistelrooy
2008: Güiza
2009: Forlán
2010: Messi
2011: C. Ronaldo
2012: Messi
2013: Messi
2014: C. Ronaldo
2015: C. Ronaldo
2016: L. Suárez
2017: Messi
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Kudzu in the United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Kudzu smothering trees in Atlanta, Georgia.
Kudzu is an invasive plant species in the United States. It has been spreading in the southern U.S. at the rate of 150,000 acres (61,000 ha) annually, "easily outpacing the use of herbicide spraying and mowing, as well increasing the costs of these controls by $6 million annually".[1] This claim, however, has recently been disputed, the United States Forest Service estimating an increase of only 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) per year.[2] Its introduction has produced devastating environmental consequences.[3] This has earned it the nickname, "The vine that ate the South".
Contents
[hide]
1 History and underlying biology
1.1 Description
1.2 Origin in Asia
1.3 History of US introduction
1.4 Uses and cultivation
2 Ecology in and effect on new communities
2.1 New communities
2.2 Ecological relationships
2.3 Economic and cultural impact
3 Control and removal methods
3.1 Mechanical
3.2 Chemical
3.3 Biological
3.4 Animals
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
History and underlying biology[edit]
Description[edit]
Kudzu is a perennial vine native to Asia, primarily subtropical and temperate regions of China, Japan, and Korea,[4][5] with trifoliate leaves composed of three leaflets.[6][7] Five species in the genus Pueraria (P. montana, P. lobata, P. edulis, P. phaseoloides and P. thomsoni) are closely related and kudzu populations in the United States seem to have ancestry from more than one of the species.[8][9] Each leaflet is large and ovate with two to three lobes each and hair on the underside.[6][10] The leaves have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which can supply up to 95% of leaf nitrogen to the plant in poor soils.[6] Along the vines are nodes, points at which stems or tendrils can propagate to increase support and attach to structures.[6] As a twining vine, kudzu uses stems or tendrils that can extend from any node on the vine to attach to and climb most surfaces.[4][6][11] In addition, the nodes of the kudzu vine have the ability to root when exposed to soil, further anchoring the vine to the ground.[4][6] The roots are tuberous and are high in starch and water content, and the twining of the plant allows for less carbon concentration in the construction of woody stems and greater concentration in roots, which aids root growth.[6] The roots can account for up to 40% of total plant biomass.[4]
Kudzu's primary method of reproduction is asexual vegetative spread (cloning) which is aided by the ability to root wherever a stem is exposed to soil.[6] For sexual reproduction, kudzu is entirely dependent on pollinators.[6]
Although kudzu prefers forest regrowth and edge habitats with high Sun exposure, the plant can survive in full sun or partial shade.[4][6] These attributes of kudzu made it attractive as an ornamental plant for shading porches in the southeastern United States, but they facilitated the growth of kudzu as it became a "structural parasite" of the South,[6] enveloping entire structures when untreated[10] and often referred to as "the vine that ate the South".[12]
The word "kudzu" comes from the Japanese word for the plant, 葛, or kuzu.
Origin in Asia[edit]
Kudzu is believed to have originated in Japan, where the ecosystem (primarily the tendency of kudzu to experience above-ground die back over winter) kept the vine from becoming a nuisance,[13] and it is thought to have been introduced to China[10] and likely Korea.
In Japan, kudzu thrives in mountainous regions, ranging from the 44th parallel north (the island of Hokkaido) to the 30th parallel north (the island of Kuchinoshima) and many of the lowlands and the islands.[10] In Korea, kudzu grows in areas where the temperature can drop to -30° Celsius.[10]
History of US introduction[edit]
The kudzu plant was introduced to the United States from Japan in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia.[6][7][13] Kudzu was introduced to the Southeast in 1883 at the New Orleans Exposition. The vine was widely marketed in the Southeast as an ornamental plant to be used to shade porches,[6][14] and in the first half of the 20th century, kudzu was distributed as a high-protein content cattle fodder and as a cover plant to prevent soil erosion. It was cultivated by Civilian Conservation Corps workers as a solution for the erosion during the Dust Bowl.[15] The Soil Erosion Service recommended the use of kudzu to help control erosion of slopes which led to the government-aided distribution of 85 million seedlings and government-funded plantings of kudzu which paid $19.75 per hectare.[6] By 1946, it was estimated that 1,200,000 hectares (3,000,000 acres) of kudzu had been planted.[6] When boll weevil infestations and the failure of cotton crops caused farmers to abandon their farms, kudzu plantings were left unattended.[6] The climate and environment of the Southeastern United States allowed the kudzu to grow virtually unchecked. In 1953 the United States Department of Agriculture removed kudzu from a list of suggested cover plants and listed it as a weed in 1970. By 1997, the vine was placed on the "Federal Noxious Weed List".[4][6] Today, kudzu is estimated to cover 3,000,000 hectares (7,400,000 acres) of land in the southeastern United States, mostly in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina and Mississippi.[6][10] It has been recorded in Nova Scotia, Canada, in Columbus, Ohio, and in all five boroughs of New York City.[10]
Recent U.S. Forest Service information indicates that kudzu is much less of a problem than previously thought. It shows kudzu to cover 227,000 acres (92,000 ha), with "an increase of no more than 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) a year".[16] This can be compared to invasive Asian privet in the United States, which covers 3,200,000 acres (1,300,000 ha).[16]
Uses and cultivation[edit]
In the United States, kudzu has been used as livestock feed, in fertilizer, and in erosion control, and the vines have been used for folk art.[6][13] In Korea, kudzu root is harvested for its starch, which is used in various foods including naengmyon, as well as a health food and herbal medicine. In China, kudzu root is used in herbal remedies, teas, and the treatment of alcohol-related problems.[13] The efficacy of the treatment of alcohol-related problems is currently under question, but experiments show promising results.[10][13] In Japan, the kudzu root starch (or kuzu root starch) extracted from kudzu roots is used in cooking and natural medicines, and it is used to make hay that sick animals will eat.[10] The starch is used in Japanese cuisine, and is widely consumed as such in that country.[10] Kudzu is also used as a food crop in Java, Sumatra, and Malaya, and can be found in Puerto Rico and South America.[10]
Other uses may include: paper products, food products, insect repellents (the smoke from burning leaves), honey, and methane production.[10]
Kudzu also has potential as a source for biofuel.[17]
Ecology in and effect on new communities[edit]
Infestation of Kudzu in the United States.
New communities[edit]
Kudzu was intentionally introduced to North America by the Soil Erosion Service and Civilian Conservation Corp in 1876 for the purpose of controlling soil erosion in Pennsylvania.[6] When kudzu was first introduced in the southeast, it was initially used as an ornamental vine to shade homes. By the early 20th century, southerners began to use kudzu for purposes other than ornamentation and so kudzu began to come closer in contact with the land which, in turn, encouraged its spread throughout the southeast.[18] In the 135 years since its introduction, kudzu has spread over three million hectares (ha) of the southern United States, and continues to 'consume' the south at an estimated rate of 50,000 hectares (120,000 acres) per year, destroying power lines, buildings, and native vegetation in its path.[19] In the United States, kudzu is extensively reported in Alabama, Arkansas, Washington, D.C., Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Mississippi, North Carolina, North Dakota, New Jersey, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Of these states, three in the southeast have the heaviest infestations: Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi.[18]
Ecological relationships[edit]
Kudzu kills or damages other plants by smothering them under a blanket of leaves, encompassing tree trunks, breaking branches, or even uprooting entire trees. Kudzu's ability to grow quickly, survive in areas of low nitrogen availability, and acquire resources quickly allows it to out-compete native species. Of the plants that can successfully compete with kudzu, many are other invasive species such as the Chinese privet and the Japanese honeysuckle.[18] In the southeast, the spread of kudzu is especially troublesome because of the high level of biodiversity in this region that is not found in other regions of the United States. Kudzu and other invasive weeds pose a significant threat to the biodiversity in the southeast. They reduce the environment to impoverished "vine barrens".[18] The fast growth and high competitive ability is achieved through several key features of kudzu that are detailed below.
Kudzu is a very stress-tolerant plant. Kudzu is drought tolerant and only the above ground portions of the plant are damaged by frost. Kudzu also forms symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonium which can be used by surrounding plants. Now the dominant nitrogen-fixing plant in the eastern United States, kudzu fixes an estimated 235 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year, which is an order of magnitude higher than the rates of native species.[5] This ability allows it to flourish in nitrogen-poor sites where other plants are unable to grow. In the absence of other plants, nitrogen then builds up in the soil, allowing the maintenance of large leaf areas and high photosynthetic rates.[6]
While little research has been conducted on the impacts of plant invasion on atmospheric conditions, a study conducted at Stony Brook University in New York shows that kudzu has increased the concentration of atmospheric NOx in the eastern United States, which causes a 2 ppb increase in tropospheric ozone during high temperature events in addition to soil acidification, aluminum mobilization, and leaching of NO3- into aquatic ecosystems.[5]
Once established in a habitat, kudzu is able to grow very quickly. Kudzu can grow up to 60 feet per season, or about one foot per day. Kudzu is also able to allocate large portions of carbon to root growth, allowing it to acquire sufficient nutrients for rapid growth and to spread clonally. Primary kudzu roots can weigh over 180 kg, grow to 18 cm in diameter, and penetrate soil at a rate of 3 cm in depth per day. Kudzu can also root wherever stems make contact with soil, allowing vines to grow in all directions. Once rooted, most stems lose connection with each other within one year, allowing each stem to become a physiologically independent individual, and requiring that all stems be treated or removed in order to eliminate a population.[6]
In addition to its abilities to obtain nutrients and spread quickly, kudzu leaves have paraheliotropic movements, meaning that they move in response to the movement of the sun in order to maximize photosynthetic productivity.[6] Kudzu is also a "structural parasite", meaning that, rather than supporting itself, it grows on top of other plants and buildings to reach light. Its ability to reproduce and spread quickly allows it to quickly cover shrubs, trees, and forests, where it blocks the Sun's rays from the plants below it, decreasing or completely eliminating their photosynthetic productivity.[6]
Economic and cultural impact[edit]
The economic impact of kudzu in the United States is estimated at $100 million to $500 million lost per year in forest productivity.[6] In addition, it takes about $5,000 per hectare (2.5 acres) per year to control kudzu.[6] Power companies must spend about $1.5 million per year to repair damage to power lines.[6]
Kudzu management is of great concern in the management of national parks in the southeast such as Vicksburg National Military Park, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, and Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In Vicksburg, kudzu has invaded 190 of the 2,000 total acres of the park and threatens to diminish the historical value of the park.[18]
Control and removal methods[edit]
There are several methods for controlling kudzu growth that are used in the Southeastern United States. These include mechanical, chemical, and biological methods.
Mechanical[edit]
Most mechanical means of kudzu removal practiced in the southeastern United States involve mowing the vine or cutting it back. These methods, though more effective than herbicides, are more time consuming.[12] Vines must be mowed down just above ground level every month or two during the growing season in order to prevent them from growing back. When using this method of kudzu control, all of the plant material must be removed and/or destroyed (burned) to prevent the vines from taking root and re-growing.[12] Another method of mechanical removal is to remove the crown of the plant. This part must also be destroyed to prevent re-implantation.[7]
Chemical[edit]
A different, and sometimes less time consuming option for the control of kudzu is chemical treatment with herbicides. Some common herbicides used are Tordon and Triclopyr and the most effective are Picloram and Tebuthiuron.[4] However, chemical treatments are expensive, and killing off the plant completely requires large amounts of herbicides (40-80 gallons per acre).[7] Herbicides are found to be most effective when they are used during the typical growing season, June–October, and when used for successive years. One case study saw a significant decrease in the growth of kudzu after just two years, whereas another study required the use of the herbicide for up to ten years.[6][20]
Another form of chemical removal other than herbicides is soil solarization. Soil solarization is a thermal (heat) method that utilizes solar-enhanced heating of the soil to kill the root system of the plant, thereby avoiding the use of pesticides and other more dangerous (fire-based) means to control the plant.[21] Soil solarization affects the micronutrients and macronutrients in the soil. The most prominent effect of this method of control is the increase in potassium. The higher level of potassium in all soils undergoing solarization demonstrates the successful release of K from decomposing kudzu plant tissues. Such a rise in potassium levels by solarization is important for soils in the Southeastern United States that tend to be highly weathered and generally have low potassium contents.[21]
Biological[edit]
As chemical treatments are often ineffective for long term control and mechanical removal is likewise difficult and costly for long-term control, kudzu makes a good candidate for biological pest control.[14] There are several biological means that are already in place and more that may be implemented to control the growth of kudzu. Bacterial blights, insect herbivory, and insect seed predation occur in high levels in field populations of kudzu.[6] Seed predation is quite prevalent, with up to 81% of seeds incurring damage in populations studied in North Carolina. A different survey found twenty-five different species of insect feeding on the kudzu.[6] From this survey, several leaf-feeding beetles and sawflies that have no other known hosts were identified.[6] A separate study also found two weevils that attacked the stems of kudzu and eight beetles that complete larval development in the kudzu roots.[6] When evaluations of potential control agents are made, the range of the control agents must be taken into account. Organisms that feed on kudzu will often feed on similar non-target species that are important in agriculture, such as soybeans and hog-peanuts. Potential control agents have to be rejected if they are shown in laboratory and field tests to feed on these non-target plants.[14]
Of the diseases that have been identified as potential biological control agents, the fungal pathogen Myrothecium verrucaria has been shown to be very promising. Disease development is very high at around 30°C to 40°C, which matches field conditions. In addition, the fungus does not spread outside of areas where it is applied. However, one major drawback of this biological control agent is that it is highly toxic to mammals, so extreme care would have to be taken in handling this organism.[6] Other pathogens have been tested as potential biological control agents, but have proven to be ineffective.[6]
Animals[edit]
Another way to control kudzu is goats and sheep. A small herd can reduce an acre (0.4 ha) of kudzu every day.[citation needed] It has also been suggested that humans can help control the invasive vine by eating it as well.[22]
See also[edit]
Environmental issues in the United States
Invasive species in the United States
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Controlling Kudzu With Naturally Occurring Fungus". Science Daily. July 20, 2009. Retrieved 2009-07-20.
Jump up ^ Bill Finch, "Legend of the Green Monster," Smithsonian Magazine, vol. 46, no 5, September, 2015, p. 19
Jump up ^ Richard J. Blaustein (2001). "Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved August 20, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Harrington, Timothy B., Laura T. Rader-Dixon, and John W. Taylor. "Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Community Responses to Herbicides, Burning, and High-density Loblolly Pine." Weed Science,965-974, 2003.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hickman, Jonathan E., Shiliang Wu, Loretta J. Mickey, and Manuel T. Lerdau. "Kudzu (Pueraria Montana) Invasion Doubles Emissions of Nitric Oxide and Increases Ozone Pollution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 107.22, 10115-10119, 2010.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Forseth. Jr., I.N. and Innis, Anne F."Kudzu (Pueraria montana): History, Physiology, and Ecology Combine to Make a Major Ecosystem Threat" Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, Vol. 23, 401-413, 2004.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Conservation Commission of Missouri. "Kudzu." Archived 2011-05-26 at the Wayback Machine. Missouri Department of Conservation,2011.
Jump up ^ D. K. Jewett; C. J. Jiang; K. O. Britton; J. H. Sun; J. Tang (1 September 2003). "Characterizing Specimens of Kudzu and Related Taxa with RAPD's". Castanea. 68 (3): 254–260. ISSN 0008-7475. JSTOR 4034173.
Jump up ^ Sun, J H; Li, Z-C; Jewett, D K; Britton, K O; Ye, W H; Ge, X-J (2005). "Genetic diversity of Pueraria lobata (kudzu) and closely related taxa as revealed by inter-simple sequence repeat analysis". Weed Research. 45: 255. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3180.2005.00462.x.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l Mitich, L.W. "Kudzu (Pueraria lobata Ohwi)" Weed Technology, Vol. 14, 231-235, 2000.
Jump up ^ Black, R.J. and Meerow, A.W. "Landscaping to Conserve Energy" Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society, Vol. 102, 142-144. 1989.
^ Jump up to: a b c McGroarty, Michael J. "Kudzu, the Vine That Ate the South." How To Control Kudzu, 2010
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Keung, W.M. and Vallee, B.L. "Kudzu Root: An Ancient Chinese Source of Modern Antidipsotrophic Agents." Phytochemistry, Vol. 47, 499-506, 1998.
^ Jump up to: a b c Frye, Matthew J., Judith Hough-Goldstein, and Jiang-Hua Sun. "Biology and Preliminary Host Range Assessment of Two Potential Kudzu Biological Control Agents." Environmental Entomology, Vol. 36, 1430-1440, 2007.
Jump up ^ Cogdell, Christina (2011). "Tearing Down the Grid". Design and Culture. 3 (1).
^ Jump up to: a b Bill Finch, "The True Story of Kudzu, the Vine That Never Truly Ate the South", Smithsonian Magazine, September 2015 [1]
Jump up ^ Marshall, Jessica "Kudzu Gets Kudos as a Potential Biofuel"Kudzu Gets Kudos as a Potential Biofuel, 2008 Archived November 19, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Blaustein, R.J. (2001). "Kudzu's invasion into Southern United States life and culture". In McNeely, J. A. The Great Reshuffling: Human Dimensions of Invasive Alien Species (PDF). IUCN. pp. 55–62. ISBN 2-8317-0602-5.
Jump up ^ Webster, C.R.; Jenkins, M. A. & Jose, S. "Woody Invaders and the Challenges They Pose to Forest Ecosystems in the Eastern United States" Journal of Forestry, Vol. 104, 366-274. 2006.
Jump up ^ Miller, James H., and Ronald E. True."Herbicide Tests for Kudzu Eradication." Georgia Forestry Commission, Vol. 65, 1986.
^ Jump up to: a b Adams, Nicole E., et al. "Effects of Kudzu (Pueraria Montanta) Solarization on the Chemistry of an Upper Piedmont South Carolina Soil" Soil Science, Vol. 175, 61-71. 2010.
Jump up ^ "Kudzu Quickie - Eat The Weeds and other things, too". 31 August 2011.
External links[edit]
Kudzu at the USDA National Invasive Species Information Center
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The Joy Luck Club (novel)
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The Joy Luck Club
First edition
Author
Amy Tan
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Fiction
Publisher
G. P. Putnam's Sons
Publication date
1989
Pages
288
ISBN
0-399-13420-4
OCLC
18464018
Dewey Decimal
813/.54 19
LC Class
PS3570.A48 J6 1989
The Joy Luck Club is a 1989 novel written by Amy Tan. It focuses on four Chinese American immigrant families in San Francisco who start a club known as The Joy Luck Club, playing the Chinese game of mahjong for money while feasting on a variety of foods. The book is structured somewhat like a mahjong game, with four parts divided into four sections to create sixteen chapters. The three mothers and four daughters (one mother, Suyuan Woo, dies before the novel opens) share stories about their lives in the form of vignettes. Each part is preceded by a parable relating to the game.
In 1993, the novel was adapted into a feature film directed by Wayne Wang and starring Ming-Na, Lauren Tom, Tamlyn Tomita, France Nguyen, Rosalind Chao, Kieu Chinh, Tsai Chin, Lisa Lu, and Vivian Wu. The screenplay was written by the author Amy Tan along with Ronald Bass. The novel was also adapted into a play, by Susan Kim, which premiered at Pan Asian Repertory Theatre in New York.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
1.1 Feathers from a Thousand Li Away
1.2 Twenty-Six Malignant Gates
1.3 American Translation
1.4 Queen Mother of the Western Skies
2 Characters
2.1 Mothers
2.2 Daughters
3 Reception
4 References
5 External links
Plot[edit]
First Chinese Baptist Church at 15 Waverly Pl, San Francisco
The Joy Luck Club consists of sixteen interlocking stories about the lives of four Chinese immigrant mothers and their four American-born daughters.[1] In 1949, the four mothers meet at the First Chinese Baptist Church in San Francisco and agree to continue to meet to play mah jong. They call their mah jong group the Joy Luck Club. The stories told in this novel revolve around the Joy Luck Club women and their daughters. Structurally, the novel is divided into four major sections, with two sections focusing on the stories of the mothers and two sections on the stories of the daughters.
Feathers from a Thousand Li Away[edit]
The first section, Feathers from a Thousand Li Away, introduces the Joy Luck Club through daughter Jing-Mei Woo, whose late mother Suyuan Woo founded the Joy Luck Club, and focuses on the four mothers. Jing-Mei relates the story of how her mother Suyuan was the wife of an officer in the Kuomintang during World War II and how she was forced to flee from her home in Kweilin and abandon her twin daughters. Suyuan later found out her first husband died, remarried to Canning Woo, and immigrated to the United States where Jing-Mei was born. Suyuan and Canning attempted to find Suyuan's daughters, and Canning assumed that Suyuan had given up hope. Jing-Mei, who has been asked to take her mother's place in the Joy Luck Club, learns from the other mothers that her half-sisters are alive. They ask that Jing-Mei go to China and meet her sisters, and tell them about Suyuan's death.
The other three mothers relate the stories of their childhood. An-Mei Hsu's story relates how her mother left her family to become the fourth concubine of Wu Tsing, a rich merchant, while An-Mei was raised by her maternal grandmother. Her mother returns only to cut off a piece of her flesh to cook a soup in hopes of healing An-Mei's grandmother, though An-Mei's grandmother still dies. Lindo Jong explains how in childhood she was forced into a loveless marriage and was pressured by her mother-in-law's desire for Lindo to produce grandchildren. Through her own ingenuity, Lindo fabricates a convincing story to annul her marriage and immigrate to the United States. The final story of the first section follows Ying-Ying St. Clair, who tells the story of how she fell into a lake during the Zhongqiujie festival when she was only four. After being rescued by a group of fishermen, she realizes that she is lost. This experience emotionally traumatizes her, and she is dropped at the shore, and wanders into an outdoor performance featuring the Moon Lady, said to grant wishes. But when Ying-Ying approaches the Moon Lady after the play to wish to be returned to her family, she discovers the Moon Lady is played by a man.
Twenty-Six Malignant Gates[edit]
The second section traces the childhoods of the Joy Luck children. In the first story, Waverly Jong talks about how she started playing chess, first with her brothers and then with old men in the playground near her school. At the age of nine, she becomes a national chess champion. She is embarrassed when her mother, Lindo introduces her to everyone she meets, showing her off like a trophy and seeming to take the credit for her daughter's brilliance. This leads to an angry confrontation between the two of them. Lena relates the stories her mother told her when she was younger (her great grandfather sentenced a beggar to die in the worst possible manner). Lena’s family moves to North Hill from Oakland. Her mother, who seems restless, delivers an anencephalic child who dies at birth. In Lena’s eyes, her mother becomes a ‘living ghost’. The story of their neighbors and the relationship between the mother and the daughter of the neighboring household is also mentioned. Rose Hsu Jordan wishes to tell her mother that she plans to divorce her husband Ted. She reflects on their relationship. She then goes on to relate an incident in which her family (her parents and six siblings) go to the beach. Her youngest brother, Bing, drowns. She returns along with her mother An Mei to search for Bing, but in vain. The last story is that of Jing Mei Woo and the pressure that her mother puts on her to perform exceedingly well in some field (to be a child prodigy). She begins to learn to play the piano but doesn't perform well in a concert and stops playing. This disappoints her mother because she wanted her to be a great pianist and Jing-Mei shows no interest in being anything else but herself. Around her 30th birthday, Suyuan presents her an old piano which she used to play as a child. Although Jing-Mei admits she had forgotten how to play the piano, Suyuan encourages her to try again. She admits to Jing-Mei that she still has the talent to be a great pianist, but self-doubt holds her back.
American Translation[edit]
The third section follows the Joy Luck children as adult women, all facing various conflicts. In Lena's story, she narrates her troubling marital problems and how she fears being inferior to her husband, but does not realize he has taken advantage of her both at home and at work, where he is also her boss and earns much more than her. Ying-Ying is very much aware of this and encourages Lena to stop being passive and stand up to her husband or nothing will change. Waverly Jong worries about her mother's opinion of her white fiance, Rich, and recalls quitting chess after becoming angry at her mother in the marketplace (believing that her mother still has absolute power over her and will object to her forthcoming marriage to Rich). After a disastrous attempt at a dinner party to tell her mother of their wedding, Waverly confronts her mother the morning afterwards and realizes that her mother has known all along about her relationship with Rich and has accepted him. Rose Hsu Jordan learns that Ted intends to marry someone else after divorcing her, she realizes through her mother's advice that she needs to fight for her rights and refuses to sign the conditions set forth by his divorce papers. She hires a good lawyer and wins possession of the house, forcing Ted to take her more seriously. In Jing-Mei's story, Jing-Mei has an argument with Waverly at a Chinese New Year's dinner the year before the story begins. Realizing that Jing-Mei has been humiliated, Suyuan gives her a special jade pendant called "life's importance," which Jing-Mei rues that she never learned the meaning of the pendant's name. She also confronts Suyuan with the belief that she had always been disappointed in Jing-Mei and admitted she could never live up to her high expectations. Jing-Mei believes that because she has never finished college, doesn't have a good career and remains unmarried are reasons that she is seen as a failure in her mother's eyes. Suyuan eventually reveals her true meaning; that while Waverly has style, she lacks the kind and generous heart that Jing-Mei has. She also tells Jing-Mei that she understands the frustrations of never being good enough in her eyes and admits she is proud of Jing-Mei.
Queen Mother of the Western Skies[edit]
The final section of the novel returns to the viewpoints of the mothers as adults dealing with difficult choices. An-Mei reveals what happened after her grandmother died; she accompanied her mother back to where she lived as the abused fourth concubine of Wu Tsing, whose second concubine manipulates and controls the household and has taken An-Mei's half-brother as her son. An-Mei learns how her mother was forced into accepting her position after Wu Tsing's second wife arranged for An-Mei's mother to be raped and shamed. When she came to her family for help, they cruelly turned their backs on her mother and telling her to leave. An-Mei finds her mother has poisoned herself two days before Chinese New Year, knowing that Wu Tsing's superstitious beliefs will ensure An-Mei will grow in favorable conditions. During the funeral, she takes her younger half-brother and forces Wu Tsing to honor both them and their deceased mother out of fear of him being haunted by the mother's ghost. When the Second Wife attempts to discredit her, An-Mei quickly makes an example of her by destroying the fake pearl necklace that she originally gave to her, which exposes her cruelty and manipulation. This causes the Second Wife to realize that she has lost control of the household and brought trouble on herself that she backs down. Fearing bad karma on the way, Wu Tsing honors both An-Mei and her brother as his children and their mother as his favorite 1st wife. Ying-Ying St. Clair reveals how her first husband, a womanizer, abandoned her and how she married an American man she did not love after relinquishing her sense of control in her life. She later took back her sense of control when she finally had a talk to Lena and convinced her to leave Harold. Lindo Jong relates how she arrived in San Francisco and met An-Mei Hsu when they both worked at a fortune-cookie factory, which eventually gave her the means to plant the idea of marriage in her boyfriend's head.
The novel's final episode returns to Jing-Mei and her mother's desire to find her lost twin daughters. Jing-Mei and her father fly to China, where Jing-Mei meets her half-sisters and embraces her Chinese heritage. In doing so, she was finally able to make peace with Suyuan.
Characters[edit]
Mothers[edit]
Suyuan Woo
During the Second World War, Suyuan lives in the Republic of China while her husband at the time served as an officer in Chungking (Chongqing). She starts the original Joy Luck Club with her three friends to cope with the War. There is little to eat, but they pretend it is a feast, and talk about their hopes for the future. On the day of the Japanese invasion, Suyuan leaves her house with nothing but a bag of clothes, a bag of food, and her twin baby daughters.
During the long journey, Suyuan contracts such severe dysentery that she feels certain she will die. Fearing that a dead mother would doom her babies' chances of rescue, she reluctantly and emotionally leaves her daughters under a barren tree, together with all her belongings, along with a note asking anyone who might find the babies to care for them and contact the father. Suyuan then departs, expecting to die. However, she is rescued by a truck and finds out her husband has died. She later remarries, goes to America, and forms a new Joy Luck Club with three other Chinese female immigrants she met at church. She gives birth to another daughter, but her abandonment of her twin girls haunts her for the rest of her life. After many years, Suyuan learns that the twins were adopted, but dies of a brain aneurysm before she can meet them. It is her American-born daughter Jing-mei who fulfills her long-cherished wish of reuniting with them.
As Suyuan dies before the novel begins, her history is told by Jing-mei, based on her knowledge of her mother's stories, anecdotes from her father, and what the other members of the Joy Luck Club tell her.
An-Mei Hsu
An-Mei is raised by her grandparents and other relatives during her early years in Ningbo after her widowed mother shocks the family by becoming a concubine to a middle-aged wealthy man after her first husband's death. This becomes a source of conflict for the young An-Mei, as her aunts and uncles deeply resent her mother for such a dishonorable act. They try to convince An-Mei that it is not fitting for her to live with her disgraced mother, who is now forbidden to enter the family home. An-Mei's mother, however, still wishes to be part of her daughter's life. After An-Mei's grandmother dies, An-mei moves out to live with her mother in the home of her mother's new husband, Wu-Tsing, much to the argument of her relatives who insists she remains at home with them.
An-Mei learns that her mother was coerced into being Wu-Tsing's concubine through the manipulations of his Second Wife, the favourite. This woman arranged for An-Mei's mother, still in mourning for her original husband, to be raped by Wu-Tsing. When her mother came to her family for their assistance, they cruelly refused and disowned her. The stigma left An-Mei's mother with no choice but to marry Wu-Tsing and become his new but lowly Fourth Wife. She later lost her baby son to Second Wife, who claimed the boy as her own child to ensure her place in the household. Second Wife also tried to win over An-mei upon her arrival in Wu-Tsing's mansion, giving her a necklace made of "pearls" that her mother later revealed were actually glass beads by crushing one with her teacup. An-Mei's mother re-knots the necklace to hide the missing bead, but now An-Mei knows the truth about Second Wife's seeming generosity.
Wu-Tsing is a highly superstitious man, and Second Wife takes advantage of this weakness by making false suicide attempts and threatening to haunt him as a ghost if he does not let her have her way. According to Chinese tradition, a person's soul comes back after three days to settle scores with the living. Wu-Tsing, therefore, is known to be afraid to face the ghost of an angry or scorned wife. After Second Wife fakes a suicide attempt to prevent An-Mei and her mother from getting their own small house, An-Mei's mother successfully commits suicide herself, eating tangyuan laced with lethal amounts of opium. Also taking advantage of Wu Tsing's beliefs, she times her death so that her soul is due to return on the first day of the Lunar New Year, a day when all debts must be settled lest the debtor suffer great misfortune. An-Mei takes her younger brother's arm and demanded that Wu Tsing honors them and her mother or face great consequences. When Second Wife attempts to dispute this at the funeral rites, An-Mei quickly makes an example of her and show her awareness of all Second Wife's deception by crushing the fake pearl necklace under her feet. This symbolizes her new power over the woman who made her mother's life miserable by abusing her and taking her brother away. Now fearing An-Mei, Second Wife realizes the bad karma she has brought upon herself and backs down having lost control of the house. With this in mind, Wu-Tsing promises to treat his Fourth Wife's children, including An-Mei, as if they were his very own flesh and blood and their mother as his honored First Wife.
An-Mei later immigrates to America, marries, and gives birth to seven children (four sons, three daughters). The youngest, a son named Bing, drowns at age four.
Lindo Jong
Lindo is a strong-willed woman, a trait that her daughter Waverly attributes to her having been born in the year of the Horse. When Lindo was only twelve, she was forced to move in with a neighbour's young son, Huang Tyan Yu, through the machinations of the village matchmaker. After some training for household duties through her in-laws, she and Tyan-yu married when she turned sixteen. She soon realized that her husband was a mere boy at heart and had no sexual interest in her. Its loosely implied that he might have been gay. Lindo began to care for her husband as a brother, but her cruel mother-in-law expected Lindo to produce a grandson. She restricted most of Lindo's daily activities, eventually ordering her to remain on bed rest until she could conceive and deliver a child.
Determined to escape this unfortunate situation, Lindo carefully observed the other people in the household and eventually formed a clever plan to escape her marriage without dishonouring herself, her family and her in-laws. She managed to convince her in-laws that Huang Tyan Yu was actually fated to marry another girl who was already pregnant with his "spiritual child", and that her own marriage to him would only bring bad luck to the family. The girl she described as his destined wife was in fact a mere servant in the household, indeed pregnant but abandoned by her lover. Seeing this as an opportunity for her to be married and living comfortably, the servant girl cheerfully agreed with Lindo.
Freed from her first marriage, Lindo decided to emigrate to America. She married a Chinese American man named Tin Jong and has three children: sons Winston and Vincent, and daughter Waverly.
Lindo experiences regret over losing some of her Chinese identity by living so long in America (she is treated like a tourist on a visit to China); however, she expresses concern that Waverly's American upbringing has formed a barrier between them.
Ying-Ying "Betty" St. Clair
From a young age, Ying-Ying is told by her wealthy and conservative family that Chinese girls should be meek and gentle. This is especially difficult for her, as she feels it out of step with her character as a Tiger. She begins to develop a passive personality and represses her feelings as she grows up in Wuxi. Ying-Ying marries a charismatic man named Lin Xiao not out of love, but because she believed it was her fate. Her husband is revealed to be abusive and openly has extramarital affairs with other women. When Ying-Ying discovers she is pregnant, she has an abortion and decides to live with her relatives in a smaller city in China.
After ten years, she moves to Shanghai and works in a clothing store, where she meets an American man named Clifford St. Clair. He falls in love with her, but Ying-Ying cannot express any strong emotion after her first marriage. He courts her for four years, and she agrees to marry him after learning that Lin Xiao had died, which she takes as the proper sign to move on. She allows Clifford to control most aspects of her life; he mistranslates her words and actions, and even changes her name to "Betty". Ying-Ying gives birth to her daughter, Lena, after moving to San Francisco with St. Clair. When Lena is around ten years old, Ying-Ying becomes pregnant a third time, but the baby boy is anencephalic and soon dies.
Ying-Ying is horrified when she realises that Lena, a Tiger like herself, has inherited or emulated her passive behaviors and trapped herself in a loveless marriage with a controlling husband. She finally resolves to call upon the more assertive qualities of her Tiger nature, to appeal to those qualities in Lena. She will tell Lena her story in the hope that she will be able to break free from the same passivity that ruined most of her young life back in China.
Daughters[edit]
Jing-Mei "June" Woo
Jing-Mei has never fully understood her mother and seems directionless in life. During Jing's childhood, her mother used to tell her that she could be anything she wants; however, she particularly wanted her daughter to be gifted, a child star who amazes the world, like Ginny Tiu (seen briefly on television) or June's rival Waverly. At the beginning of the novel, June is chosen to replace her mother's seat in the Joy Luck Club after her mother's death. At the end of the novel, June is still trying to deal with her mother's death, and she visits China to see the twin half-sisters (Wang Chwun Yu and Wang Chwun Hwa) whom her mother had been forced to abandon when the Japanese attacked China. Only when she visits China to meet her half-sisters and tell them about their mother, Jing-Mei finally accepts her Chinese heritage and makes her peace with her mother.
One critic[who?] has suggested[2] that the reason for the communication gap between Jing-Mei and her mother, and between the other daughters and their mothers—a major theme of the novel—occurs because the mothers come from a high context culture and the Americanized daughters from a low context culture. The mothers believe that the daughters will intuitively understand their cryptic utterances, but the daughters don't understand them at all.
Rose Hsu Jordan
Rose is somewhat passive and is a bit of a perfectionist. She had an unsettling childhood experience when her youngest brother, Bing, drowned while she was supposed to be watching him, and his body was never recovered. Rose marries a doctor, Ted Jordan, who loves her but also wants to spite his snooty, racist mother. After a malpractice suit, Ted has a mid-life crisis and decides to leave Rose. Rose confides in her mother and An-mei tells her the story of her own childhood. When Ted comes for the divorce papers, Rose finds her voice and tells him that he can't just throw her out of his life, comparing herself to his garden, once so beloved, now unkempt and full of weeds. An-Mei tells her that Ted has been cheating on her, which Rose thinks is absurd, but she later discovers this to be true. She hires a good lawyer and fight for possession of the house, which she eventually wins. This forces Ted to take Rose more seriously and not continue taking her for granted. It's unknown if they ever reconciled.
Waverly Jong is named for (and grew up on) Waverly Place in San Francisco's Chinatown
Waverly Jong
Waverly is an independent-minded and intelligent woman, but is annoyed by her mother's constant criticism. Well into her adult life, she finds herself restrained by her subconscious fear of letting her mother down. During their childhood, June and Waverly become childhood rivals; their mothers constantly compared their daughter's development and accomplishments. Waverly was once a gifted chess champion, but quit after feeling that her mother was using her daughter's talent to show off, taking credit for Waverly's wins. She has a daughter, Shoshana, from her first marriage with Marvin Chen, and she is engaged to her boyfriend Rich Schields. When Waverly believes that Lindo will object to her engagement to Rich after a failed dinner party, she discovers her mother had already accepted it.
Lena St. Clair
Throughout Lena's childhood, she gradually becomes her mother's voice and interprets her mother's Chinese words for others. Like her father Clifford, she translates Ying-ying's words to sound more pleasant than what Ying-ying actually says. Ying-ying has taught Lena to beware of consequences, to the extent that Lena visualizes disaster in the taking of any risk. Lena's husband, Harold, is also her boss. He takes the credit for Lena's business and design ideas. He demands financial "equality" in their marriage. Lena is an associate while Harold is a partner, so he has a larger salary than she does. However, he insists that all household expenses be divided equally between them. Harold believes that by making everything equal, they can make their love equal as well. Lena feels frustrated and powerless. She is like her mother, like a ghost, and her mother wants to help her regain her spirit and stand up for herself. When Ying-Ying breaks a leg from a table belonging to Harold, Lena finally admitted she's unhappy in her marriage including how frustrated she is with him for taking credit for her business and design ideas. Ying-Ying encourages her to leave Harold and not come back until he treats her with more respect.
Reception[edit]
The Joy Luck Club has received criticism for perpetuating racist stereotypes about Asian Americans.[3] Literary figures such as Chinese American author Frank Chin have noted that the novel contains fabricated Chinese folk tales that depict "Confucian culture as seen through the interchangeable Chinese/Japanese/Korean/Vietnamese mix (depending on which is the yellow enemy of the moment) of Hollywood."[4][5] Novelist Nancy Willard, in a somewhat positive critique, said that "Amy Tan's special accomplishment in this novel is not her ability to show us how mothers and daughters hurt each other, but how they love and ultimately forgive each other."[6]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Joy Luck Club Summary". SparkNotes. Archived from the original on 3 March 2017. Retrieved 2 March 2017. (in English)
Jump up ^ CUNY Brooklyn article
Jump up ^ Chin, Frank (2005). "Chapter 8: Come All Ye Asian American Writers of the Real and the Fake". In Kent A. Ono. A companion to Asian American studies. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 134–135.
Jump up ^ Come All Ye Asian American Writers of the Real and the Fake
Jump up ^ Review: The Joy Luck Club
Jump up ^ Willard, Nancy (July 1989). "Tiger Spirits". The Women's Review of Books. 6 (10): 12. doi:10.2307/4020553.
External links[edit]
Amy Tan discusses The Joy Luck Club on the BBC World Book Club
Teacher's Guide at Random House
The Joy Luck Club study guide, themes, quotes, teaching guide
[hide]
v
t
e
Works by Amy Tan
Novels
The Joy Luck Club (1989)
"Two Kinds" (short story)
The Kitchen God's Wife (1991)
The Hundred Secret Senses (1995)
The Bonesetter's Daughter (2001)
Saving Fish from Drowning (2005)
The Valley of Amazement (2013)
Novellas
Rules for Virgins (2013)
Non-fiction
The Opposite of Fate: A Book of Musings (2003)
Children's books
Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat (1994)
Film
The Joy Luck Club (1993)
Television
Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat (2001–2002)
See also
Rock Bottom Remainders
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1989 American novels
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