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Omar Khayyam
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"Omar the Tentmaker" and "Khayyam" redirect here. For the 1922 film, see Omar the Tentmaker (film). For other uses, see Khayyam (disambiguation).
Omar Khayyam
عمر خیام
Bust by Abolhassan Sadighi (c. 1960) in Nishapur, Iran
Born
18 May[1] 1048[2]
Nishapur, Khorasan, Iran
Died
4 December[1] 1131 (aged 83)[2]
Nishapur, Khorasan, Iran
Nationality
Persian
School
Mathematics, Persian poetry, Persian philosophy
Main interests
Mathematics, Astronomy, Avicennism, Poetry
Influences[show]
Avicenna, al-Khwārizmī, Euclid, Apollonius of Perge
Influenced[show]
Tusi, Al-Khazini, Nizami Aruzi of Samarcand, John Wallis, Saccheri, Edward FitzGerald
Omar Khayyam (Persian pronunciation: [xæjˈjɑːm]; عمر خیّام (Persian); 18 May 1048 – 4 December 1131) was a Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet.[3][4]:7
As a mathematician, he is most notable for his work on the classification and solution of cubic equations, where he provided geometric solutions by the intersection of conics.[5][6] As an astronomer, he composed a calendar which proved to be a more accurate computation of time than that proposed five centuries later by Pope Gregory XIII.[7]:659[8]
Omar was born in Nishapur, in northeastern Iran. He spent most of his life near the court of the Karakhanid and Seljuq rulers in the period which witnessed the First Crusade. There is a tradition of attributing poetry to Omar Khayyam, written in the form of quatrains (rubāʿiyāt رباعیات). This poetry became widely known to the English-reading world due to the translation by Edward FitzGerald (Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, 1859), which enjoyed great success in the Orientalism of the fin de siècle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Life
2 Mathematics
2.1 Theory of parallels
2.1.1 The real number concept
2.2 Geometric algebra
2.2.1 The solution of cubic equations
2.3 Binomial theorem and extraction of roots
3 Astronomy
4 Other works
5 Poetry
6 Philosophy
6.1 Religious views
7 Reception
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
Life[edit]
Omar Khayyam was born in Nishapur, a leading metropolis in Khorasan during medieval times that reached its climax of prosperity in the eleventh century under the Seljuq dynasty.[9]:15[10][11] Nishapur was then religiously a major center of Zoroastrians. It is likely that Khayyam's father was a Zoroastrian who had converted to Islam.[4]:68 He was born into a family of tent-makers (Khayyam). His full name, as it appears in the Arabic sources, was Abu’l Fath Omar ibn Ibrāhīm al-Khayyām.[4]:18[a] In medieval Persian texts he is usually simply called Omar Khayyām.[7]:658[b] The historian Bayhaqi, who was personally acquainted with Omar, provides the full details of his horoscope: "he was Gemini, the sun and Mercury being in the ascendant[...]".[12]:471 This was used by modern scholars to establish his date of birth as 18 May 1048.[7]:658
His boyhood was passed in Nishapur.[7]:659 His gifts were recognized by his early tutors who sent him to study under Imam Muwaffaq Nīshābūrī, the greatest teacher of the Khorasan region who tutored the children of the highest nobility.[4]:20 In 1073, at the age of twenty-six, he entered the service of Sultan Malik-Shah I as an adviser. In 1076 Khayyam was invited to Isfahan by the vizier and political figure Nizam al-Mulk to take advantage of the libraries and centers in learning there. His years in Isfahan were productive. It was at this time that he began to study the work of Greek mathematicians Euclid and Apollonius much more closely. But after the death of Malik-Shah and his vizier (presumably by the Assassins' sect), Omar had fallen from favour at court, and as a result, he soon set out on his pilgrimage to Mecca. A possible ulterior motive for his pilgrimage reported by Al-Qifti, is that he was attacked by the clergy for his apparent skepticism. So he decided to perform his pilgrimage as a way of demonstrating his faith and freeing himself from all suspicion of unorthodoxy.[4]:29 He was then invited by the new Sultan Sanjar to Marv, possibly to work as a court astrologer.[1] He was later allowed to return to Nishapur owing to his declining health. Upon his return, he seemed to have lived the life of a recluse.[13]:99 Khayyam died in 1131, and is buried in the Khayyam Garden.
Mathematics[edit]
"Cubic equation and intersection of conic sections" the first page of two-chaptered manuscript kept in Tehran University.
Khayyam was famous during his life as a mathematician. His surviving mathematical works include: A commentary on the difficulties concerning the postulates of Euclid's Elements (Risāla fī šarḥ mā aškala min muṣādarāt kitāb Uqlīdis, completed in December 1077[3]), On the division of a quadrant of a circle (Risālah fī qismah rub‘ al-dā’irah, undated but completed prior to the treatise on algebra[3]), and On proofs for problems concerning Algebra (Maqāla fi l-jabr wa l-muqābala, most likely completed in 1079[5]:281). He furthermore wrote a treatise on extracting the nth root of natural numbers, which has been lost.[4]:197
Theory of parallels[edit]
See also: History of non-Euclidean geometry and Parallel postulate
A part of Khayyam's commentary on Euclid's Elements deals with the parallel axiom.[5]:282 The treatise of Khayyam can be considered the first treatment of the axiom not based on petitio principii, but on a more intuitive postulate. Khayyam refutes the previous attempts by other mathematicians to prove the proposition, mainly on grounds that each of them had postulated something that was by no means easier to admit than the Fifth Postulate itself.[3] Drawing upon Aristotle's views, he rejects the usage of movement in geometry and therefore dismisses the different attempt by Al-Haytham.[14][15] Unsatisfied with the failure of mathematicians to prove Euclid's statement from his other postulates, Omar tried to connect the axiom with the Fourth Postulate, which states that all right angles are equal to one another.[5]:282
Khayyam was the first to consider the three cases of acute, obtuse, and right angle for the summit angles of a Khayyam-Saccheri quadrilateral, three cases which are exhaustive and pairwise mutually exclusive.[5]:283 After proving a number of theorems about them, he proved that the Postulate V is a consequence of the right angle hypothesis, and refuted the obtuse and acute cases as self-contradictory.[3] Khayyam's elaborate attempt to prove the parallel postulate was significant for the further development of geometry, as it clearly shows the possibility of non-Euclidean geometries. The hypothesis of the acute, obtuse, and that of the right angle are now known to lead respectively to the non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry of Gauss-Bolyai-Lobachevsky, to that of Riemannian geometry, and to Euclidean geometry.[16]
Tusi's commentaries on Khayyam's treatment of parallels made its way to Europe. John Wallis, the professor of geometry at Oxford, translated Tusi's commentary into Latin. Jesuit geometrician Girolamo Saccheri, whose work (euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus, 1733) is generally considered as the first step in the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry, was familiar with the work of Wallis. The American historian of mathematics, David Eugene Smith mentions that Saccheri "used the same lemma as the one of Tusi, even lettering the figure in precisely the same way and using the lemma for the same purpose". He further says that "Tusi distinctly states that it is due to Omar Khayyam, and from the text, it seems clear that the latter was his inspirer."[13]:104[17][4]:195
The real number concept[edit]
This treatise on Euclid contains another contribution dealing with the theory of proportions and with the compounding of ratios. Khayyam discusses the relationship between the concept of ratio and the concept of number and explicitly raises various theoretical difficulties. In particular, he contributes to the theoretical study of the concept of irrational number.[3] Displeased with Euclid's definition of equal ratios, he redefined the concept of a number by the use of a continuous fraction as the means of expressing a ratio. Rosenfeld and Youschkevitch (1973) argue that "by placing irrational quantities and numbers on the same operational scale, [Khayyam] began a true revolution in the doctrine of number." Likewise, it was noted by D. J. Struik that Omar was "on the road to that extension of the number concept which leads to the notion of the real number."[5]:284
Geometric algebra[edit]
Omar Khayyam's construction of a solution to the cubic x3 + 2x = 2x2 + 2. The intersection point produced by the circle and the hyperbola determine the desired segment.
Rashed and Vahabzadeh (2000) have argued that because of his thoroughgoing geometrical approach to algebraic equations, Khayyam can be considered the precursor of Descartes in the invention of analytic geometry.[18]:248 In The Treatise on the Division of a Quadrant of a Circle Khayyam applied algebra to geometry. In this work, he devoted himself mainly to investigating whether it is possible to divide a circular quadrant into two parts such that the line segments projected from the dividing point to the perpendicular diameters of the circle form a specific ratio. His solution, in turn, employed several curve constructions that led to equations containing cubic and quadratic terms.[18]:248
The solution of cubic equations[edit]
Khayyam was the first to geometrically solve every type of cubic equation, so far as positive roots are concerned.[19] The treatise on algebra contains his work on cubic equations.[20] It is divided into three parts: (i) equations which can be solved with compass and straight edge, (ii) equations which can be solved by means of conic sections, and (iii) equations which involve the inverse of the unknown.[21]
Khayyam produced an exhaustive list of all possible equations involving lines, squares, and cubes.[22]:43 He considered three binomial equations, nine trinomial equations, and seven tetranomial equations.[5]:281 For the first and second degree polynomials, he provided numerical solutions by geometric construction. He concluded that there are fourteen different types of cubics that cannot be reduced to an equation of a lesser degree.[3] For these he could not accomplish the construction of his unknown segment with compass and straight edge. He proceeded to present geometric solutions to all types of cubic equations using the properties of conic sections.[23]:157[5]:281 The prerequisite lemmas for Khayyam’s geometrical proof include Euclid VI, Prop 13, and Apollonius II, Prop 12.[23]:155 The positive root of a cubic equation was determined as the abscissa of a point of intersection of two conics, for instance, the intersection of two parabolas, or the intersection of a parabola and a circle, etc.[8]:141 However, he acknowledged that the arithmetic problem of these cubics was still unsolved, adding that "possibly someone else will come to know it after us".[23]:158 This task remained open until the sixteenth century, where algebraic solution of the cubic equation was found in its generality by Cardano, Del Ferro, and Tartaglia in Renaissance Italy.[5]:282[3]
Whoever thinks algebra is a trick in obtaining unknowns has thought it in vain. No attention should be paid to the fact that algebra and geometry are different in appearance. Algebras are geometric facts which are proved by propositions five and six of Book two of Elements.
Omar Khayyam[24]
In effect, Khayyam's work is an effort to unify algebra and geometry.[25]:241 This particular geometric solution of cubic equations has been further investigated by M. Hachtroudi and extended to solving fourth-degree equations.[26] Although similar methods had appeared sporadically since Menaechmus, Khayyam's work can be considered the first systematic study and the first exact method of solving cubic equations.[27] The mathematician Woepcke (1851) who offered translations of Khayyam's algebra into French praised him for his "power of generalization and his rigorously systematic procedure."[28]:10
Binomial theorem and extraction of roots[edit]
See also: History of binomial theorem
From the Indians one has methods for obtaining square and cube roots, methods based on knowledge of individual cases—namely the knowledge of the squares of the nine digits 12, 22, 32 (etc.) and their respective products, i.e. 2 × 3 etc. We have written a treatise on the proof of the validity of those methods and that they satisfy the conditions. In addition we have increased their types, namely in the form of the determination of the fourth, fifth, sixth roots up to any desired degree. No one preceded us in this and those proofs are purely arithmetic, founded on the arithmetic of The Elements.
Omar Khayyam Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra[29]
In his algebraic treatise, Khayyam alludes to a book he had written on the extraction of the n {\displaystyle n} th root of the numbers using a law which he had discovered which did not depend on geometric figures.[8] This book was most likely titled The difficulties of arithmetic (Moškelāt al-hesāb),[3] and is not extant. Based on the context, some historians of mathematics such as D. J. Struik, believe that Omar must have known the formula for the expansion of the binomial ( a + b ) n {\displaystyle (a+b)^{n}} , where n is a positive integer.[5]:282 The case of power 2 is explicitly stated in Euclid's elements and the case of at most power 3 had been established by Indian mathematicians. Khayyam was the mathematician who noticed the importance of a general binomial theorem. The argument supporting the claim that Khayyam had a general binomial theorem is based on his ability to extract roots.[30] The arrangement of numbers known as Pascal's triangle enables one to write down the coefficients in a binomial expansion. This triangular array sometimes is known as Omar Khayyam's triangle.[8]
Astronomy[edit]
Main article: Jalali calendar
The Jalali calendar was introduced by Omar Khayyam alongside other mathematicians and astronomers in Nishapur. Today it is one of the oldest calendars in the world as well as the most accurate solar calendar in use today. Since the calendar uses astronomical calculation for determining the vernal equinox, it has no intrinsic error, but this makes it an observation-based calendar.[31][32][33][34]
In 1074, Omar Khayyam was commissioned by Sultan Malik-Shah to build an observatory at Isfahan and reform the Persian calendar. There was a panel of eight scholars working under the direction of Khayyam to make large-scale astronomical observations and revise the astronomical tables.[8]:141 Recalibrating the calendar fixed the first day of the year at the exact moment of the passing of the Sun's center across vernal equinox. This marks the beginning of spring or Nowrūz, a day in which the Sun enters the first degree of Aries before noon.[35][36] The resulted calendar was named in Malik-Shah's honor as the Jalālī calendar, and was inaugurated on Friday, March 15, 1079.[37] The observatory itself was disused after the death of Malik-Shah in 1092.[7]:659
The Jalālī calendar was a true solar calendar where the duration of each month is equal to the time of the passage of the Sun across the corresponding sign of the Zodiac. The calendar reform introduced a unique 33-year intercalation cycle. As indicated by the works of Khazini, Khayyam's group implemented an intercalation system based on quadrennial and quinquennial leap years. Therefore, the calendar consisted of 25 ordinary years that included 365 days, and 8 leap years that included 366 days.[38] The calendar remained in use across Greater Iran from the 11th to the 20th centuries. In 1911 the Jalali calendar became the official national calendar of Qajar Iran. In 1925 this calendar was simplified and the names of the months were modernized, resulting in the modern Iranian calendar. The Jalali calendar is more accurate than the Gregorian calendar of 1582,[7]:659 with an error of one day accumulating over 5,000 years, compared to one day every 3,330 years in the Gregorian calendar.[4]:200 Moritz Cantor considered it the most perfect calendar ever devised.[13]:101
One of his pupils Nizami Aruzi of Samarcand relates that Khayyam apparently did not have a belief in astrology and divination: "I did not observe that he (scil. Omar Khayyam) had any great belief in astrological predictions, nor have I seen or heard of any of the great [scientists] who had such belief."[28]:11 While working for Sultan Sanjar as an astrologer he was asked to predict the weather - a job that he apparently did not do well.[4]:30 George Saliba (2002) explains that the term ilm al nujūm, used in various sources in which references to Omar's life and work could be found, has sometimes been incorrectly translated to mean astrology. He adds: "from at least the middle of the tenth century, according to Farabi's enumeration of the sciences, that this science, ilm al nujūm, was already split into two parts, one dealing with astrology and the other with theoretical mathematical astronomy."[39]:224
A popular claim to the effect that Khayyam believed in heliocentrism is based on Edward FitzGerald's popular but anachronistic rendering of Khayyam's poetry, in which the first lines are mistranslated with a heliocentric image of the Sun flinging "the Stone that puts the Stars to Flight".[40]
Other works[edit]
See also: specific gravity
He has a short treatise devoted to Archimedes' principle (in full title, On the Deception of Knowing the Two Quantities of Gold and Silver in a Compound Made of the Two). For a compound of gold adulterated with silver, he describes a method to measure more exactly the weight per capacity of each element. It involves weighing the compound both in air and in water, since weights are easier to measure exactly than volumes. By repeating the same with both gold and silver one finds exactly how much heavier than water gold, silver and the compound were. This treatise was extensively examined by Eilhard Wiedemann who believed that Khayyam's solution was more accurate and sophisticated than that of Khazini and Al-Nayrizi who also dealt with the subject elsewhere.[4]:198
Another short treatise is concerned with music theory in which he discusses the connection between music and arithmetic. Khayyam's contribution was in providing a systematic classification of musical scales, and discussing the mathematical relationship among notes, minor, major and tetrachords.[4]:198
Poetry[edit]
Rendition of a ruba'i from the Bodleian ms, rendered in Shekasteh calligraphy.
The earliest allusion to Omar Khayyam's poetry is from the historian Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, a younger contemporary of Khayyam, who explicitly identifies him as both a poet and a scientist (Kharidat al-qasr, 1174).[4]:49[41]:35 One of the earliest specimens of Omar Khayyam's Rubiyat is from Fakhr al-Din Razi. In his work Al-tanbih ‘ala ba‘d asrar al-maw‘dat fi’l-Qur’an (ca. 1160), he quotes one of his poems (corresponding to quatrain LXII of FitzGerald's first edition). Daya in his writings (Mirsad al-‘Ibad, ca. 1230) quotes two quatrains, one of which is the same as the one already reported by Razi. An additional quatrain is quoted by the historian Juvayni (Tarikh-i Jahangushay, ca. 1226-1283).[41]:36–37[4]:92 In 1340 Jajarmi includes thirteen quatrains of Khayyam in his work containing an anthology of the works of famous Persian poets (Munis al-ahrār), two of which have hitherto been known from the older sources.[42] A comparatively late manuscript is the Bodleian MS. Ouseley 140, written in Shiraz in 1460, which contains 158 quatrains on 47 folia. The manuscript belonged to William Ouseley (1767-1842) and was purchased by the Bodleian Library in 1844.
There are occasional quotes of verses attributed to Omar in texts attributed to authors of the 13th and 14th centuries, but these are also of doubtful authenticity, so that skeptic scholars point out that the entire tradition may be pseudepigraphic.[41]:11 Hans Heinrich Schaeder in 1934 commented that the name of Omar Khayyam "is to be struck out from the history of Persian literature" due to the lack of any material that could confidently be attributed to him. De Blois (2004) presents a bibliography of the manuscript tradition, concluding pessimistically that the situation has not changed significantly since Schaeder's time.[43] Five of the quatrains later attributed to Omar are found as early as 30 years after his death, quoted in Sindbad-Nameh. While this establishes that these specific verses were in circulation in Omar's time or shortly later, it doesn't imply that the verses must be his. De Blois concludes that at the least the process of attributing poetry to Omar Khayyam appears to have begun already in the 13th century.[44] Edward Granville Browne (1906) notes the difficulty to disentangle the authentic from the spurious quatrains: "while it is certain that Khayyam wrote many quatrains, it is hardly possible, save in a few exceptional cases, to assert positively that he wrote any of those ascribed to him".[7]:663
In addition to the Persian quatrains, there are twenty-five Arabic poems attributed to Khayyam which are attested by historians such as al-Isfahani, Shahrazuri (Nuzhat al-Arwah, ca. 1201-1211), Qifti (Tārikh al-hukamā, 1255), and Hamdallah Mustawfi (Tarikh-i guzida, 1339).[4]:39
Richard N. Frye (1975) emphasizes that there are a number of other Persian scholars who occasionally wrote quatrains, including Avicenna, Ghazzali, and Tusi. He concludes that it is also possible that poetry with Khayyam was the amusement of his leisure hours: "these brief poems seem often to have been the work of scholars and scientists who composed them, perhaps, in moments of relaxation to edify or amuse the inner circle of their disciples".[7]:662
The poetry attributed to Omar Khayyam has contributed greatly to his popular fame in the modern period as a direct result of the extreme popularity of the translation of such verses into English by Edward FitzGerald (1859). FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam contains loose translations of quatrains from The Bodleian manuscript. It enjoyed such success in the fin de siècle period that a bibliography compiled in 1929 listed more than 300 separate editions,[45] and many more have been published since.[46]
Philosophy[edit]
Khayyam considered himself intellectually to be a student of Avicenna.[47] According to Al-Bayhaqi, he was reading the metaphysics in Avicenna's the Book of Healing before he died.[7]:661 There are six philosophical papers believed to have been written by Khayyam. One of them, On existence (Fi’l-wujūd), is written in Persian and deals with the subject of existence and its relationship to universals. Another paper, titled The necessity of contradiction in the world, determinism and subsistence (Darurat al-tadād fi’l-‘ālam wa’l-jabr wa’l-baqā’), is written in Arabic and deals with free will and determinism.[47]:475 The titles of his other works are On being and necessity (Risālah fī’l-kawn wa’l-taklīf), The Treatise on Transcendence in Existence (Al-Risālah al-ulā fi’l-wujūd), On the knowledge of the universal principles of existence (Risālah dar ‘ilm kulliyāt-i wujūd), and Abridgement concerning natural phenomena (Mukhtasar fi’l-Tabi‘iyyāt).
Religious views[edit]
Ottoman Era inscription of a poem written by Omar Khayyam at Morića Han in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Statue of Omar Khayyam in Bucharest
A literal reading of Khayyam's quatrains leads to the interpretation of his philosophic attitude toward life as a combination of pessimism, nihilism, Epicureanism, fatalism, and agnosticism.[4]:6[48] This view is taken by Iranologists such as Arthur Christensen, H. Schaeder, Richard N. Frye, E. D. Ross,[49]:365 E.H. Whinfield[28]:40 and George Sarton.[9]:18 Conversely, the Khayyamic quatrains have also been described as mystical Sufi poetry. However, this is the view of a minority of scholars.[50] In addition to his Persian quatrains, J. C. E. Bowen (1973) mentions that Khayyam's Arabic poems also "express a pessimistic viewpoint which is entirely consonant with the outlook of the deeply thoughtful rationalist philosopher that Khayyam is known historically to have been."[51]:69 Edward FitzGerald emphasized the religious skepticism he found in Khayyam.[52] In his preface to the Rubáiyát he claimed that he "was hated and dreaded by the Sufis",[53] and denied any pretense at divine allegory: "his Wine is the veritable Juice of the Grape: his Tavern, where it was to be had: his Saki, the Flesh and Blood that poured it out for him."[54]:62 Sadegh Hedayat is one of the most notable proponents of Khayyam's philosophy as agnostic skepticism, and according to Jan Rypka (1934), he even considered Khayyam an atheist.[55] Hedayat (1923) states that "while Khayyam believes in the transmutation and transformation of the human body, he does not believe in a separate soul; if we are lucky, our bodily particles would be used in the making of a jug of wine."[56] In a later study (1934–35) he further contends that Khayyam's usage of Sufic terminology such as "wine" is literal and that he turned to the pleasures of the moment as an antidote to his existential sorrow: "Khayyam took refuge in wine to ward off bitterness and to blunt the cutting edge of his thoughts."[57] In this tradition, Omar Khayyam's poetry has been cited in the context of New Atheism, e.g. in The Portable Atheist by Christopher Hitchens.[58]
Al-Qifti (ca. 1172–1248) appears to confirm this view of Omar's philosophy.[7]:663 In his work The History of Learned Men he reports that Omar's poems were only outwardly in the Sufi style, but were written with an anti-religious agenda.[49]:365 He also mentions that he was at one point indicted for impiety, but went on a pilgrimage to prove he was pious.[4]:29 The report has it that upon returning to his native city he concealed his deepest convictions and practised a strictly religious life, going morning and evening to the place of worship.[49]:355
In the context of a piece entitled On the Knowledge Of the Principals of Existence, Khayyam endorses the Sufi path.[4]:8 Csillik (1960) suggests the possibility that Omar Khayyam could see in Sufism an ally against orthodox religiosity.[59]:75 Other commentators do not accept that Omar's poetry has an anti-religious agenda and interpret his references to wine and drunkenness in the conventional metaphorical sense common in Sufism. The French translator J. B. Nicolas held that Omar's constant exhortations to drink wine should not be taken literally, but should be seen in Sufi terms as representing an enlightened state.[60] The view of Omar Khayyam as a Sufi was defended by Bjerregaard (1915),[61] Idries Shah (1999),[62] and Dougan (1991) who attributes the reputation of hedonism to the failings of FitzGerald's translation, arguing that Omar's poetry is to be understood as "deeply esoteric".[63] On the other hand, Iranian experts such as Mohammad Ali Foroughi and Mojtaba Minovi unanimously rejected the hypothesis that Omar Khayyam was a Sufi.[51]:72 Foroughi stated that Khayyam's ideas may have been consistent with that of Sufis at times but there is no evidence that he was formally a Sufi. Aminrazavi (2007) states that "Sufi interpretation of Khayyam is possible only by reading into his Rubāʿīyyāt extensively and by stretching the content to fit the classical Sufi doctrine."[4]:128 Furthermore, Frye (1975) emphasizes that Khayyam was intensely disliked by a number of celebrated Sufi mystics who belonged to the same century. This includes Shams Tabrizi (spiritual guide of Rumi),[4]:58 Najm al-Din Daya who described Omar Khayyam as "an unhappy philosopher, atheist, and materialist",[51]:71 and Attar who regarded him not as a fellow-mystic but a free-thinking scientist who awaited punishments hereafter.[7]:663
Seyyed Hossein Nasr argues that it is "reductive" to use a literal interpretation of his verses (many of which are of uncertain authenticity to begin with) to establish Omar Khayyam's philosophy. Instead, he adduces Khayyam's interpretive translation of Avicenna's treatise Discourse on Unity (Al-Khutbat al-Tawhīd), where he expresses orthodox views on Divine Unity in agreement with the author.[64] The prose works believed to be Omar's are written in the Peripatetic style and are explicitly theistic, dealing with subjects such as the existence of God and theodicy.[4]:160 As noted by Bowen these works indicate his involvement in the problems of metaphysics rather than in the subtleties of Sufism.[51]:71 As evidence of Khayyam's faith and/or conformity to Islamic customs, Aminrazavi mentions that in his treatises he offers salutations and prayers, praising God and Muhammad. In most biographical extracts, he is referred to with religious honorifics such as Imām, The Patron of Faith (Ghīyāth al-Dīn), and The Evidence of Truth (Hujjat al-Haqq).[4] He also notes that biographers who praise his religiosity generally avoid making reference to his poetry, while the ones who mention them often do not praise his religious character.[4]:48 For instance Al-Bayhaqi's account which antedates by some years other biographical notices, speaks of Omar as a very pious man who professed orthodox views down to his last hour.[65]:174
On the basis of all the existing textual and biographical evidence, the question remains somewhat open,[4]:11 and as a result Khayyam has received sharply conflicting appreciations and criticisms.[49]:350
Reception[edit]
"A Ruby kindles in the vine", illustration for FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam by Adelaide Hanscom Leeson (c. 1905).
"At the Tomb of Omar Khayyam" by Jay Hambidge (1911).
Omar Khayyam was held in very high esteem by his contemporaries and the immediately succeeding generations who pay unstinted tribute to his scientific work. On the other hand, according to Richard Nelson Frye Khayyam's status as a poet of the first rank is a comparatively late development.[7]:663 It was not unusual for him to be given flowery epithets such as "Proof of Truth", "Philosopher of the World", "Lord of the Wise Men of East and West". Shahrazuri (d. 1300) calls him "Successor to Avicenna", and Al-Qifti (d. 1248) even though disagreeing with his views concedes he was "unrivalled in his knowledge of natural philosophy and astronomy". Al-Zamakhshari (d. 1143/4) calls him "Sage of the World" or "Philosopher of the Universe".[66]
Thomas Hyde was the first European to call attention to Omar and to translate one of his quatrains into Latin (Historia religionis veterum Persarum eorumque magorum, 1700).[67]:525 Western interest in Persia grew with the Orientalism movement in the 19th century. Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774-1856) translated some of Khayyam's poems into German in 1818, and Gore Ouseley (1770-1844) into English in 1846, but Khayyam remained relatively unknown in the West until after the publication of Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam in 1859. FitzGerald's work at first was unsuccessful but was popularised by Whitley Stokes from 1861 onward, and the work came to be greatly admired by the Pre-Raphaelites. In 1872 FitzGerald had a third edition printed which increased interest in the work in America. By the 1880s, the book was extremely well known throughout the English-speaking world, to the extent of the formation of numerous "Omar Khayyam Clubs" and a "fin de siècle cult of the Rubaiyat"[68] Khayyam's poems have been translated into many languages, many of the more recent ones are more literal than that of FitzGerald.[69]
FitzGerald's translation was a factor in rekindling interest in Khayyam as a poet even in his native Iran.[70] Sadegh Hedayat in his Songs of Khayyam (Taranehha-ye Khayyam, 1934) reintroduced Omar's poetic legacy to modern Iran. Under the Pahlavi dynasty, a new monument of white marble, designed by the architect Houshang Seyhoun, was erected over his tomb. A statue by Abolhassan Sadighi was erected in Laleh Park, Tehran in the 1960s, and a bust by the same sculptor was placed near Khayyam's mausoleum in Nishapur. In 2009, the state of Iran donated a pavilion to the United Nations Office in Vienna, inaugurated at Vienna International Center.[71] In 2016, three statues of Khayyam were unveiled: one at the University of Oklahoma, one in Nishapur and one in Florence, Italy.[72] Over 150 composers have used the Rubaiyat as their source of inspiration. The earliest such composer was Liza Lehmann.[3]
FitzGerald rendered Omar's name as "Tentmaker", and the anglicized name of "Omar the Tentmaker" resonated in English-speaking popular culture for a while. Thus, Nathan Haskell Dole published a novel called Omar, the Tentmaker: A Romance of Old Persia in 1898. Omar the Tentmaker of Naishapur is a historical novel by John Smith Clarke, published in 1910. "Omar the Tentmaker" is also the title of a 1914 play by Richard Walton Tully in an oriental setting, adapted as a silent film in 1922. US General Omar Bradley was given the nickname "Omar the Tent-Maker" in World War II.[73] The name has also been recorded as a slang expression for "penis".[74]
The lunar crater Omar Khayyam was named in his honour in 1970, as was the minor planet 3095 Omarkhayyam discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Zhuravlyova in 1980.[75]
The statue of Khayyam in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran.
See also[edit]
Iran portal
Biography portal
Poetry portal
Astronomy portal
Mathematics portal
Astronomy in medieval Islam
Mathematics in medieval Islam
Nozhat al-Majales
Omar Khayyam (film)
The Keeper: The Legend of Omar Khayyam
Notes[edit]
a For instance, in the work of Al-Qifti[4]:55 or Abu'l-Hasan Bayhaqi.[12]:436
b For instance, in the work of Rashid-al-Din Hamadani[76]:409–410 or in Munis al-ahrār.[77]:436
^ Jump up to: a b c "Omar Khayyam (Persian poet and astronomer)". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
^ Jump up to: a b Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Mehdi Aminrazavi. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, Vol. 1: From Zoroaster to 'Umar Khayyam, I.B. Tauris in association with The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2007.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Multiple Authors. "KHAYYAM, OMAR". Encyclopædia Iranica Online. Retrieved 5 October 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Mehdi Aminrazavi, The Wine of Wisdom: The Life, Poetry and Philosophy of Omar Khayyam, Oneworld Publications (2007)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j Struik, D. (1958). Omar Khayyam, mathematician. The Mathematics Teacher, 51(4), 280-285.
Jump up ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Omar Khayyam", MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews .
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 4. Cambridge University Press (1975): Richard Nelson Frye
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Kennedy, E. (1958). Omar Khayyam. The Mathematics Teacher, Vol. 59, No. 2 (1966), pp. 140-142.
^ Jump up to: a b The Tomb of Omar Khayyâm, George Sarton, Isis, Vol. 29, No. 1 (Jul., 1938), 15.
Jump up ^ Edward FitzGerald, Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam, Ed. Christopher Decker, (University of Virginia Press, 1997), xv;"The Saljuq Turks had invaded the province of Khorasan in the 1030s, and the city of Nishapur surrendered to them voluntarily in 1038. Thus Omar Khayyam grew to maturity during the first of the several alien dynasties that would rule Iran until the twentieth century.".
Jump up ^ Peter Avery and John Heath-Stubbs, The Ruba'iyat of Omar Khayyam, (Penguin Group, 1981), 14;"These dates, 1048-1031, tell us that Khayyam lived when the Saljuq Turkish Sultans were extending and consolidating their power over Persia and when the effects of this power were particularly felt in Nishapur, Khayyam's birthplace.
^ Jump up to: a b E. D. R., & H. A. R. G. (1929). The Earliest Account of 'Umar Khayyām. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, 5(3), 467-473.
^ Jump up to: a b c Great Muslim Mathematicians. Penerbit UTM (July 2000): Mohaini Mohamed
Jump up ^ (Rozenfeld 1988, pp. 64–65)
Jump up ^ (Katz 1998, p. 270). Excerpt: In some sense, his treatment was better than ibn al-Haytham's because he explicitly formulated a new postulate to replace Euclid's rather than have the latter hidden in a new definition.
Jump up ^ Rolwing, R., & Levine, M. (1969). THE PARALLEL POSTULATE. The Mathematics Teacher, 62(8), 665-669.
Jump up ^ Smith, David, 1935, "Euclid, Omar Khayyam and Saccheri," Scripta Mathematica.
^ Jump up to: a b Cooper, G. (2003). Journal of the American Oriental Society,123(1), 248-249.
Jump up ^ Howard Eves, Omar Khayyam's Solution of Cubic Equations, The Mathematics Teacher (1958), pages 302-303.
Jump up ^ "Omar Al Hay of Chorassan, about 1079 AD did most to elevate to a method the solution of the algebraic equations by intersecting conics." Guilbeau, Lucye (1930), "The History of the Solution of the Cubic Equation", Mathematics News Letter, 5 (4): 8–12, doi:10.2307/3027812, JSTOR 3027812
Jump up ^ Bijan Vahabzadeh, "KHAYYAM, OMAR xv. As Mathematician", Encyclopædia Iranica.
Jump up ^ Netz, R. (1999). Archimedes Transformed: The Case of a Result Stating a Maximum for a Cubic Equation. Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 54(1), 1-47.
^ Jump up to: a b c Deborah A. Kent, & David J. Muraki. (2016). A Geometric Solution of a Cubic by Omar Khayyam … in Which Colored Diagrams Are Used Instead of Letters for the Greater Ease of Learners. The American Mathematical Monthly, 123(2), 149-160.
Jump up ^ A. R. Amir-Moez, "A Paper of Omar Khayyám", Scripta Mathematica 26 (1963), pp. 323–37
Jump up ^ The Mathematics Teacher, 25(4), 238-241. (1932).
Jump up ^ A. R. Amir-Moez, Khayyam's Solution of Cubic Equations, Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 35, No. 5 (November 1962), pp. 269–271. This paper contains an extension by the late Mohsen Hashtroodi of Khayyam's method to degree four equations.
Jump up ^ Mathematical Masterpieces: Further Chronicles by the Explorers, p. 92
^ Jump up to: a b c E. H. Whinfield, The Quatrains of Omar Khayyam, Psychology Press (2000)
Jump up ^ "Muslim extraction of roots". Mactutor History of Mathematics.
Jump up ^ J. L. Coolidge, The Story of the Binomial Theorem, Amer. Math. Monthly, Vol. 56, No. 3 (Mar., 1949), pp. 147–157
Jump up ^ دقیق ترین تقویم جهان، هدیه خیام به ایرانیان (in Persian). Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
Jump up ^ پيمانه کردن سال و ماه از ديرباز تا کنون در گفتگو با دکتر ايرج ملک پور (in Persian). Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
Jump up ^ پژوهش‌های ایرانی | پاسداشت گاهشماری ایرانی (in Persian). Ghiasabadi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
Jump up ^ پژوهش‌های ایرانی | گاهشماری تقویم جلالی (in Persian). Ghiasabadi.com. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
Jump up ^ Akrami, Musa. "The development of Iranian calendar: historical and astronomical foundations". arXiv.org. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Panaino, A; Abdollahy, R; Balland, D. "CALENDARS (In the Islamic period)". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Farrell, Charlotte (1996), "The ninth-century renaissance in astronomy", The Physics Teacher, 34 (5): 268–272, Bibcode:1996PhTea..34..268F, doi:10.1119/1.2344432 .
Jump up ^ Heydari-Malayeri, M. "concise review of the Iranian calendar". arXiv.org. Retrieved 21 November 2017.
Jump up ^ Saliba, G. (2002). Iranian Studies, 35(1/3), 220-225.
Jump up ^ Donald and Marilynn Olson (1988), 'Zodiac Light, False Dawn, and Omar Khayyam', The Observatory, vol. 108, p. 181-182. "Rex Pay, 2000". Humanistictexts.org. Archived from the original on 2012-03-24. Retrieved 2012-09-08.
^ Jump up to: a b c Ali Dashti (translated by L. P. Elwell-Sutton), In Search of Omar Khayyam, Routledge Library Editions: Iran (2012)
Jump up ^ Edward Denison Ross, Omar Khayyam, Bulletin of the School Of Oriental Studies London Institution (1927)
Jump up ^ Francois De Blois , Persian Literature - A Bio-Bibliographical Survey: Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period (2004), p. 307.
Jump up ^ Francois De Blois , Persian Literature - A Bio-Bibliographical Survey: Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period (2004), p. 305.
Jump up ^ Ambrose George Potter, A Bibliography of the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1929).
Jump up ^ Francois De Blois , Persian Literature - A Bio-Bibliographical Survey: Poetry of the Pre-Mongol Period (2004), p. 312.
^ Jump up to: a b Nasr, S. H., & Aminrazavi, M. (2007). Anthology of philosophy in Persia: from Zoroaster to Omar Khayyam.
Jump up ^ Boscaglia, F. (2015). Pessoa, Borges and Khayyam. Variaciones Borges
^ Jump up to: a b c d Ross, E. (1898). Al-Musaffariyé: Containing a Recent Contribution to the Study of 'Omar Khayyām. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 349-366.
Jump up ^ Aminrazavi, Mehdi. "Umar Khayyam". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 22 November 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d J. C. E. Bowen. (1973). The Rubāՙiyyāt of Omar Khayyam: A Critical Assessment of Robert Graves' and Omar Ali Shah's Translation. Iran, 11, 63-73.
Jump up ^ Davis, Dick. "FitzGerald, Edward". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
Jump up ^ FitzGerald, E. (2010). Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (p. 12). Champaign, Ill.: Project Gutenberg
Jump up ^ Schenker, D. (1981). Fugitive Articulation: An Introduction to "The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyam". Victorian Poetry, 19(1), 49-64.
Jump up ^ Hedayat's "Blind Owl" as a Western Novel. Princeton Legacy Library: Michael Beard
Jump up ^ Katouzian, H. (1991). Sadeq Hedayat: The life and literature of an Iranian writer (p. 138). London: I.B. Tauris
Jump up ^ Bashiri, Iraj. "Hedayat's Learning".
Jump up ^ Hitchens, C. (2007). The portable atheist: Essential readings for the nonbeliever (p. 7). Philadelphia, PA: Da Capo.
Jump up ^ CSILLIK, B. (1960). THE REAL 'OMAR KHAYYĀM. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 10(1), 59-77. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23682646
Jump up ^ Albano, G. (2008). The Benefits of Reading the "Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám" as Pastoral. Victorian Poetry, 46(1), 55-67.
Jump up ^ C. H. A. Bjerregaard, Sufism: Omar Khayyam and E. Fitzgerald, The Sufi Publishing Society (1915), p. 3
Jump up ^ Idries Shah, The Sufis, Octagon Press (1999), pp. 165-166
Jump up ^ "Every line of the Rubaiyat has more meaning than almost anything you could read in Sufi literature" Abdullah Dougan Who is the Potter? Gnostic Press 1991 ISBN 0-473-01064-X
Jump up ^ S. H. Nasr, 2006, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present, Chapter 9., pp. 165–183
Jump up ^ Meyerhof, M. (1948). 'Alī al-Bayhaqī's Tatimmat Siwān al-Hikma: A Biographical Work on Learned Men of the Islam. Osiris, 8, 122-217.
Jump up ^ Ali Dasht, In Search of Omar Khayyam (2012), p. 42.
Jump up ^ Beveridge, H. (1905). XVIII. Omar Khayyam. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 37(3), 521-526.
Jump up ^ J. D. Yohannan, Persian Poetry in England and America, 1977., p. 202.
Jump up ^ The Great Umar Khayyam: A Global Reception of the Rubaiyat (AUP – Leiden University Press) by A. A. Seyed-Gohrab, 2012.
Jump up ^ Simidchieva, M. (2011). FitzGerald's Rubáiyát and Agnosticism. In A. Poole, C. Van Ruymbeke, & W. Martin (Eds.), FitzGerald's Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám: Popularity and Neglect (pp. 55-72). Anthem Press.
Jump up ^ UNIS. "Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran".
Jump up ^ "Khayyam statue finally set up at University of Oklahoma". Tehran Times. Archived from the original on 2016-04-05. Retrieved 2016-04-04.
Jump up ^ Jeffrey D. Lavoie, The Private Life of General Omar N. Bradley (2015), p. 13.
Jump up ^ Michael Kimmel, Christine Milrod, Amanda Kennedy, Cultural Encyclopedia of the Penis (2014), p. 93.
Jump up ^ Dictionary of Minor Planet Names – p.255. Books.google.com. 1979-02-26. Retrieved 2012-09-08.
Jump up ^ Browne, E. (1899). Yet More Light on 'Umar-i-Khayyām. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 409-420.
Jump up ^ Ross, E. (1927). 'Omar Khayyam. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, 4(3), 433-439.
References[edit]
Turner, Howard R. (1997). Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-78149-0.
Jos Biegstraaten (2008). "Omar Khayyam (Impact On Literature And Society In The West)". Encyclopaedia Iranica. vol. 15. Encyclopaedia Iranica Foundation.
Nasr, S. H. (2006). Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present: Philosophy in the Land of Prophecy. SUNY Press. ISBN 0-7914-6799-6.
Katz, Victor (1998). A History of Mathematics: An Introduction (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley. p. 879. ISBN 0-321-01618-1.
KnoebelNasr, Arthur; Laubenbacher, Reinhard; Lodder, Jerry; Pengelley, David (2007). Mathematical Masterpieces: Further Chronicles by the Explorers. Springer. ISBN 0-387-33061-5.
ed. by J.A. Boyle. (1968). The Cambridge History of Iran (5): The Saljug and Mongol Periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-06936-X. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
Smith, David Eugene (1935). "Euclid, Omar Khayyâm, and Saccheri". Scripta Mathematica. III (1): 5–10. OCLC 14156259.
Rozenfeld, Boris A. (1988). A History of Non-Euclidean Geometry: Evolution of the Concept of a Geometric Space. Springer Verlag. pp. 65, 471. ISBN 0-387-96458-4.
E.G. Browne (1998). Literary History of Persia. (Four volumes, 2,256 pages, and 25 years in the writing). ISBN 0-7007-0406-X
Jan Rypka (1968). History of Iranian Literature. Reidel Publishing Company. OCLC 460598. ISBN 90-277-0143-1
Omar Khayyam: Vierzeiler (Rubāʿīyāt) übersetzt von Friedrich Rosen mit Miniaturen von Hossein Behzad. ISBN 978-3-86931-622-2 Details
For further reference:
R. M. Chopra, Great Poets of Classical Persian, June 2014, Sparrow Publication, Kolkata. (ISBN 978-81-89140-99-1).
External links[edit]
Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Omar Khayyám
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Omar Khayyam
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Omar Khayyam.
Hashemipour, Behnaz (2007). "Khayyām: Ghiyāth al‐Dīn Abū al‐Fatḥ ʿUmar ibn Ibrāhīm al‐Khayyāmī al‐Nīshāpūrī". In Thomas Hockey; et al. The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 627–8. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. (PDF version)
Umar Khayyam, at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Khayyam's works in original Persian at Ganjoor Persian Library
Khayyam in Tarikhema.ir
Works by Omar Khayyam at Project Gutenberg
Works by Omar Khayyám at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Omar Khayyam at Internet Archive
Works by Omar Khayyam at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
The illustrated Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám at Internet Archive.
Omar Khayyam's Rubaiyat as translated by Edward Fitzgerald – 1st edition
The Rubaiyat by Omar Khayyam – The Internet Classics Archive
Illustrations to the Rubaiyat by Adelaide Hanscom
Barney Rickenbacker, Exploring Khayyaam website. Different versions of well-known quatrains compared, with notes.
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Sohrab Shahid-Saless
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Amrollah Abjadian
Jaleh Amouzgar
Najaf Daryabandari
Behzad Ghaderi Sohi
Mohammad Ghazi
Lili Golestan
Sadegh Hedayat
Saleh Hosseini
Ahmad Kamyabi Mask
Mohammad Moin
Ebrahim Pourdavoud
Hamid Samandarian
Jalal Sattari
Jafar Shahidi
Ahmad Shamlou
Ahmad Tafazzoli
Abbas Zaryab
Essayists
Aydin Aghdashloo
Mohammad Ebrahim Bastani Parizi
Ehsan Yarshater
Contemporary Persian and Classical Persian are the same language, but writers since 1900 are classified as contemporary. At one time, Persian was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic world. Today it is the official language of Iran, Tajikistan and one of the two official languages of Afghanistan.
Authority control
WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 100210377
LCCN: n79105787
ISNI: 0000 0001 2283 6122
GND: 118736302
SELIBR: 196261
SUDOC: 027053008
BNF: cb119181488 (data)
ULAN: 500245123
MusicBrainz: 4e49f8fa-20b0-47c0-bc2c-37fe9e9e6221
NLA: 35584149
NDL: 00451778
NKC: jn20010601215
ICCU: IT\ICCU\CFIV\096900
BNE: XX1057335
SNAC: w6vd701t
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Omar_Khayyam&oldid=838253704"
Categories:
Omar Khayyam
1048 births
1131 deaths
Algebra
Philosophers from Nishapur
Mathematicians from Nishapur
11th-century Persian poets
12th-century Persian poets
Medieval Persian astronomers
Medieval Persian mathematicians
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Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie
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Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie
Book Cover
Author
David Lubar
Cover artist
R. Lawrence Amari
Country
United States
Language
English
Genre
Young adult novel
Publisher
Speak
Publication date
2005
Media type
Print (Hardback & Paperback)
ISBN
978-0-14-240780-6
Followed by
Sophomores and Other Oxymorons
Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie is a 2005 young adult novel by David Lubar. It is a story about the high school experiences of a fourteen-year-old boy named Scott Hudson. The book was one of the ALA's book picks for 2006.[1]
Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie follows the character of Scott Hudson as he attempts to survive high school and attract the attention of his crush Julia, a girl who recently became beautiful. If dealing with school activities and growing up isn't stressful enough, Scott's mother has announced that she's going to have a baby. In an attempt to make all of this more manageable, Scott tries to write down tips for getting through daily life and high school for his unborn sibling. The novel follows Scott's journey as he learns what to do and what not to do in high school as well as balancing activities, homework, friendships, and relationships with girls. Sophomores and Other Oxymorons is a sequel to the book and was released on August 18, 2015.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Characters
3 Themes
4 Reception
5 References
6 External links
Plot[edit]
Scott Hudson enters J.P. Zenger High as a freshman, along with his three best friends, Mitch, Patrick, and Kyle, and quickly realizes that it is very different from middle school. Upperclassmen are intimidating and will steal any lunch money along with loose change if you stand in the wrong place. Scott gets put in advanced classes, including an Honors English class which, despite the amount of homework, is his favorite class. His teacher, Mr. Franka, becomes a mentor to him. Scott finds out that he's not in classes with his friends since he's carrying all honors and college prep classes. He tries his best from the very start to get the attention of Julia Baskins, a girl who was in his kindergarten class and has recently become very beautiful over the summer. Because of her beauty she quickly blends in with the popular girls and is attracted to the football players who are often bullying Scott. Scott is also connected to another classmate named Louden, who is better known as Mouth. Scott tries every attempt to get Julia's attention such as joining the school paper, because he thinks that she is part of the staff, only to discover that she has written only a single column for the paper. He then runs for student council, after finding out that Julia is also running as well, and wins a seat, only to find out that she has not won. Because of this, Scott resigns from his position on the student council. It turns out that a lot of other members also resigned including the president meaning Julia who happened to have the 2nd most amount of votes is now president. He also auditions for the school play and is selected as a member of the crew, thinking that Julia is also auditioning for the play. However, Julia has not been selected as a member of the cast or crew. Soon, a new girl named Lee arrives at school, who wears face pins and weird clothes, and has wildly colored hair. Both soon realize that they share the same interests, but he can't get past his crush on Julia. Scott suddenly has another "friend" named Wesley, a high school senior. Though they share some interests, they have little in common. Then to put the cherry on top of all this excitement going on in his life, his mother announces that she is pregnant. He copes with all of this by creating a tip book for his soon-to-be baby sibling to help him, or her, survive high school when they get to it. In his entries to the baby, he often shows disdain by using degrading terms to talk to it such as "Smelly" or "Blob of unformed goo". But he writes it to be a good older brother to this new baby since Scott's own brother was never very present. As time goes by, Scott tries to find his place, but he starts to lose his best friends. Mitch finds a girlfriend and soon forgets the group, Patrick moves to Texas, then to Japan, and Kyle joins the wrestling team and soon puts Scott down for having a crush on Julia. Soon, Julia's boyfriend Vernon beats up Scott after finding out from Kyle (who lost a fight with Scott) that Scott has a crush on his girlfriend. Scott realizes that what a person says and does can affect the life of another after Mouth attempts to commit suicide. Later, he learns that not everything is what it seems once he finds out that his older brother, Bobby, who is struggling to find a job, can barely read. Scott's mother eventually gives birth to a new baby boy, whom they name Sean. Meanwhile, Bobby finds a job through guitar-playing and Julia eventually starts dating a nicer guy, though she is now close to Scott enough to give him a kiss on the cheek.
Characters[edit]
Scott Hudson: Scott is the main protagonist and narrator. A young boy who starts off in the novel transitioning from middle school to high school. At the start he struggles to keep up with the level of homework, dealing with upperclassmen, and maintaining a relationship with his friends. On top of all that, he also finds himself crushing on a girl who he previously didn't notice. Scott is very well-read and smart. He starts off in high school being in honors classes while his childhood friends are in less advanced classes, becomes involved in many activities in school and ends up making some very interesting friends throughout his freshmen year.
Julia Baskins: A girl who was in kindergarten with Scott. Scott refers to her at first sight as "an honest-to-goodness goddess". She shares an honors English course with Scott and often says the things he is thinking which only increases his admiration for her. She is extremely intelligent and kind but finds her place with the popular girls and pays no attention to Scott.
Lee: A new girl that comes to school in October. She sports bright green short chopped hair, lots of piercings, some of which are actually safety pins, and wears all black. Her and Scott start to get along after bonding about poetry and literature talked about in their honors English class. She is misunderstood by everyone in school and is often bullied for her appearance. Scott protects her when there is a threat posted on her locker and each time after in the book. She proves to be the best friend Scott has because of their similar interests.
Wesley Cobble: A senior who is feared by most of the other students in the school. He often shakes down freshmen for their loose change and lunch money. Befriends Scott after Scott lies to him about why he was in the principal's office. He then bonds with Scott over good books and unexpected food favorites like hot cocoa with little marshmallows. He becomes an older brother figure for Scott.
Bobby Hudson: Scott's older brother. He comes and goes, often looking like he was dragged through the mud whenever he shows up again. He is a good brother to Scott but never very present. Used to be in a band with his friends and has trouble keeping a steady job. Later on Scott finds out that the reason Bobby struggles so much with certain things is because he has trouble reading.
Kyle: One of Scott's three childhood friends. Very athletic and sarcastic towards Scott. He sticks by him the longest but soon gets wrapped up with the friends he makes on the wrestling team and hangs out with them more than Scott.
Patrick: One of Scott's three childhood friends. Often makes fun of Scott for reading all the time, but for the most part, never has too much to say. Halfway through their freshmen year, he has to move away to Texas and then to Japan because of his father's job.
Mouth: A kid who has been in Scott's classes since kindergarten. Louden is his real name, but nobody ever mentions him by anything other than Mouth. He is called Mouth because he never stops talking and often finds himself in sticky situations because of this word vomit. He thinks he is always doing what is best but it often will get someone in trouble because he doesn't know better. Due to stress and rejection, Mouth tries to commit suicide by hanging himself, but survives, and is then transferred to a different school.
Mitch: One of Scott's three childhood friends. He quickly gets a girlfriend coming into high school and ignores his friends from that point on.
Vernon: A member of the school football team and Julia's boyfriend, Vernon is tough and sometimes bullies other people. He gets angry when there is no mention of him in the school paper. He then beats Scott up when he finds out about his crush on Julia. Because of this however, Julia dumps him and starts dating someone else.
Themes[edit]
Brotherhood: There are several brothers in the book as well as bonds that are like brothers.There is the weak bond between Scott and his older brother Bobby; the hate bond that Scott has with his soon-to-be baby brother or sister; the bond between Scott and his childhood friends that slowly diminishes; the new bond between Scott and Wesley; and the faint bond between Scott and his AP English teacher.
Growing Up: An obvious theme for a book about going from middle school to high school. Scott deals with fitting in, dealing with stress, a new baby on the way to be his sibling, and growing apart from his friends as they find their own space in high school. Scott learns a lot about himself throughout his freshmen year as well. He learns about standing up for himself and what it means to be a good friend.
Actions have Consequences: Another theme is that actions have consequences. Scott has to grow up to be able to make the decisions in life, yet sometimes it can lead to consequences.
Reception[edit]
Critical reception for Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie was mixed to positive, with TeenReads praising the character of Scott Hudson.[2] Kirkus Reviews wrote that the book was "Fresh, funny and perfectly plausible as a demonstration of various writing exercises for classroom use, but only if you like laughter."[3] AudioFile praised the production values of the audio version.[4] The School Library Journal called Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie "an excellent choice for public and school libraries".[5]
Publishers Weekly wrote that the book "strains too hard to be clever" and that "most readers will breathe a sigh of relief when the gimmicks start to fade".[6] Booklist criticized Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie, stating that it "delivers too many messages as Scott learns one important lesson after another" but that "most readers will find plenty of amusing, accurate observations about freshman life, from the insecurities of first dates to the dangers of walking the hall between classes".[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ ALA Book Picks 2006 School Library Journal
Jump up ^ Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie TeenReads
Jump up ^ Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie Kirkus Reviews
Jump up ^ Audiobook Reviews SLEEPING FRESHMEN NEVER LIE AudioFile
Jump up ^ Audio: Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie School Library Journal
Jump up ^ Children's review: Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie Publishers Weekly
Jump up ^ Booklist Review: Sleeping Freshmen Never Lie Booklist
External links[edit]
Official author page
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sleeping_Freshmen_Never_Lie&oldid=815238663"
Categories:
2005 American novels
American young adult novels
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