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Coat of arms of Ireland
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Coat of arms of Ireland
Details
Armiger
Republic of Ireland
Adopted
1945 (registered: Arms of Ireland)[1] c.1541 (recorded: Kingdom of Ireland), c.1280 (recorded: King of Ireland)
Escutcheon
Azure a harp Or, stringed argent
(Irish: Ar ghorm cláirseach órga na sreanga airgidí)
Earlier versions
Use
The harp is used on all Acts of Oireachtas; the seal of the President; the cover of Irish passports; various government departments; the obverse of Irish euro coins. It is also used in the United Kingdom, where it appears in the lower-left quadrant of the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom and is incorporated as a badge into devices used by official bodies in Northern Ireland.
The coat of arms of Ireland is blazoned as Azure a harp Or, stringed Argent (a gold harp with silver strings on a blue background). These arms have long been Ireland's heraldic emblem. References to them as being the arms of the king of Ireland can be found as early as the 13th century. These arms were adopted by Henry VIII of England when he ended the period of Lordship of Ireland and declared Ireland to be a kingdom again in 1541. When the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland were united in 1603, they were integrated into the unified royal coat of arms of kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland. The harp was adopted as the emblem of the Irish Free State when it separated from the United Kingdom in 1922. They were registered as the arms of Ireland with the Chief Herald of Ireland on 9 November 1945.[2]
The depiction of the harp has changed over time. In the 17th century, during the period of the Kingdom of Ireland, the pillar of the harp began to be depicted as a bare-breasted woman. When the arms were restored as the arms of the independent Irish state in 1922, a late-medieval Gaelic harp (a cláirseach), the Trinity College Harp, was used as a model.
Several variants of the arms of Ireland exist, including a heraldic badge and an infrequently used crest and torse. The Lordship of Ireland, the medieval realm of Ireland that existed between 1171 and 1541 under the English crown, had a separate arms, which are blazoned Azure, three crowns in pale Or, bordure Argent (three golden crowns ordered vertically on a blue background with a white border). A variant of the arms of the ancient royal province of Meath were also apparently used at one time as the arms of Ireland.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Presidential Standard
1.2 Previous arms
2 Achievement
2.1 Supporters and motto
3 Green flag
4 Arms and Flag of the Four Provinces
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
As heraldry is essentially a feudal art, it was not until the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169 that Irish coats of arms came into being, several decades after the art began to take seed in England and continental Europe. The earliest reference to a herald of arms for Ireland was in 1392 on the creation of the first Ireland King of Arms. The Ireland King of Arms, which was under the English College of Arms, was succeeded by an independent Ulster King of Arms, and an Athlone Pursuivant, in 1552, which despite its name had jurisdiction for arms over all of Ireland. In 1943, the Ulster King of Arms was merged with the Norroy King of Arms in England to form the Norroy and Ulster King of Arms. The office of the Chief Herald of Ireland was created as successor to the Ulster King of Arms and the arms of Ireland were registered by the Chief Herald of Ireland on 9 November 1945.
However, reference to the harp as the arms of the king of Ireland can be found in one of the oldest medieval rolls of arms. The Wijnbergen Roll, a French roll of arms dating from c. 1280 and preserved in The Hague, Netherlands, attributed "D'azure a la harpe d'or" (English: Blue with a harp of gold) to the King of Ireland ("le Roi d'Irlande").[3][4] The harp, traditionally associated with King David, was a rare charge on medieval rolls and only two arms with a harp are listed in a collection of 19 early rolls.[5] Triangular devices appeared on medieval Irish coinage by kings John and Edward I in the 12th and 13th centuries. These devices may have been crude harps or it may be that the harp developed from the use of triangles to distinguish Irish coins.[6] The idea of a harp being the arms of Ireland may have originated as a reference to a fictional character, le roi d'irelande, in the courtly legend cycle of Tristan. Alternatively, it may have derived from a celebrated 13th century bardic poem, Tabhroidh Chugam Cruit mo Riogh, dedicated to the Donnchadh Cairbreach O'Briain (d. 1242), a Gaelic King of Thomond.[7]
Whatever its origins, the harp was adopted as the symbol of the new Kingdom of Ireland, established by Henry VIII, in 1541. A document in the Office of the Ulster King of Arms, from either the late reign of Henry VIII or the early reign his son of Edward VI, states that they were the arms of the kingdom of Ireland.[7] The arms were incorporated into the unified Royal Coats of Arms of England, Ireland and Scotland upon the Union of the Crowns of the three kingdoms in 1603. Upon the secession of the Irish Free State from the United Kingdom in 1922, the harp was taken as the emblem of the independent Irish state.
Today, the image of the harp is used on the coins, passports and official seals of Ireland and is incorporated into the emblems of many bodies in Northern Ireland, such as the Police Service of Northern Ireland. The harp is frequently incorporated into the emblems of Irish companies, such as Guinness and Ryanair. It appears on the arms of countries with historical links to Ireland or the United Kingdom, such as Montserrat and Canada. In 1984, exemplars of the modern design, approved by the Chief Herald, were registered by the Government of Ireland with the World Intellectual Property Organization under Article 6ter of the Paris Convention, which relates to state emblems.[8][9][10] The government only registered "left-facing" images, with the harp's sound board on the right. While the Attorney General's office felt that right-facing images should also be registered, patent agents advised this might be interfere with Guinness Brewery's use of such harps in its logo since the 1870s.[11]
Presidential Standard[edit]
Standard of the President of Ireland
As well as being the arms of Ireland, since 1945 the harp is the arms of each President of Ireland whilst in office. Typically the arms are borne as a banner in the form of a Presidential Standard. The standard is flown over Áras an Uachtaráin, the President's residence in Dublin, at Dublin Castle when the President is in residence and on vehicles used by the President. As with other Presidential and Royal Standards, it is never flown at half mast. However, the Presidential Standard never takes precedence over the flag of Ireland, whereas, for example, the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom takes precedence over the flag of the United Kingdom.
Previous arms[edit]
Arms of the Lordship of Ireland.
Arms of Kingdom of Ireland.
The Lordship of Ireland, the medieval realm of Ireland that existed between 1171 and 1541 under the English crown, had separate arms. A commission of Edward IV in c. 1467-8 into the arms of Ireland found them to be blazoned Azure, three crowns in pale Or, bordure Argent (three golden crowns ordered vertically on a blue background with a white border).[7][12][13] The association of these arms with Ireland is likely to have originated with Irish magnates (both Norman and Gaelic) who fought in Edward I's Scottish wars at the turn of the 14th century. These were the arms of Edmund the Martyr, which the Irish lords adopted as their banner in the same way as English lords identified with the banner of St. George. However, these arms were also well known in other medieval contexts and are often attributed to King Arthur.[7]
It is believed that the three crowns were abandoned as the arms of Ireland after Henry VIII's split with the Papacy. Strictly speaking, following the Norman invasion of the 12th century, Ireland was a feudal possession of the Pope under the overlordship of the English monarch. The decision to change the three crowns arms may have sprung "from an idea that they might denote the feudal sovereignty of the pope" — whose tiara has three crowns — "whose vassal the king of England was, as lord of Ireland."[3][13]
Despite this, the memory of the three crowns arms may have remained for a time with one Elizabethan variant of the harp, sometimes found on coins, maps and seals as early as 1562, using of the three harps, one replacing each of the three crowns of the lordship's arms. This appears to have been a creation of the newly established Ulster King of Arms and never captured the popular imagination sufficiently to replace the single Harp arms that was in use from the reign of Henry VIII. Thus, at the funeral cortège of Elizabeth I in 1603 depicted in a manuscript at the British Library, the Earl of Clanrickarde is shown carrying the banner of Ireland just as in the Wijnbergen Roll.[7]
A variant of arms of the royal province of Meath were also apparently used at one time as the arms of Ireland. Meath, now a part of the province of Leinster was once the province of the High Kings of Ireland. Its arms are of a king sitting on a throne on a blue field. The variant apparently used as the arms of Ireland were of a majesty on a sable (black) background instead of an azure (blue) field.[8]
Achievement[edit]
The armorial achievement of the Kingdom of Ireland, including the infrequently used crest.
Arms of Kingdom of Ireland after 1707.
The design of the harp used by the modern Irish state is based on the Brian Boru harp, a late-medieval Gaelic harp now in Trinity College, Dublin.[note 1] The design is by an English sculptor, Percy Metcalfe. Metcalfe's design was in response to a competition held by the state to design Irish coinage, which was to start circulation in December 1928. Metcalfe's design became the model for future official interpretations of the harp as an emblem of the state.[citation needed]
The modern design is markedly different from earlier depictions. During the 17th century, it became common to depict the harp with a woman's head and breasts, like a ship's figurehead, as the pillar.
It is not necessary to show a full complement of thirty strings, provided that the numbers do not fall below nine (notwithstanding the illustration to the left).[8] The strings are always silver and the harp is always gold.
The harp is shown on a blue background. The colour of the field is sometimes called St. Patrick's blue, a name applied to shades of blue associated with Ireland. In current designs, used by the UK and Irish states, the field is invariably a deep blue. The use of blue in the arms has been associated with Gormfhlaith, a Gaelic mythological personification of Ireland. The word Gormfhlaith is a compound of the Irish words gorm ("blue") and flaith ("sovereign"); it is noted in early Irish texts as the name of several queens closely connected with dynastic politics in the 10th and 11th century Ireland. The National Library of Ireland, in describing the blue background of the arms, notes that in early Irish mythology the sovereignty of Ireland (Irish: Flaitheas Éireann) was represented by a woman often dressed in a blue robe.[8]
A crest, which was little used, is thought to have been created for the ascension of James I.[14] This crest was blazoned: A tower triple towered or, from the portal a hart springing argent, attired and unguled also or.[15] The torse was Or and azure.[15] The torse and crest were apparently little used even during the period of the Kingdom of Ireland. From the Acts of Union in 1801 until the declaration of the Republic of Ireland in 1949, the crest was used only intermittently. Unlike Scotland, Ireland did not reserve the right to bear a distinct coat of arms within the United Kingdom. The crest and torse are not employed by the Irish state today.
Historically, the harp was frequently seen surmounted by a crown. In this case, the depiction is as heraldic badge, a device used to indicate allegiance to or the property of someone or something. Elizabeth I used the badge as her second Great Seal of 1586. This motif had earlier featured of the coins of the Lordship of Ireland during the Tudor period and continued to be used on the coins of the Kingdom of Ireland. Following the creation of the United Kingdom, the device was used on the cap badges of the Royal Irish Constabulary and later the Royal Ulster Constabulary. The badge can be seen today on the cap badge of the Royal Irish Regiment of the British Army. The harp, unsurmounted by a crown, is used as a badge in the Republic of Ireland today, but the harp surmounted by a crown is also found (e.g. in 'colours' ties of Trinity College sports teams).
Supporters and motto[edit]
The heraldic badge of Ireland, created during the Tudor era, is distinguished from the arms of Ireland by being ensigned with a royal crown.
The arms of Ireland are without supporters. However, historically, some depictions of the arms have been accompanied by various supporters. For example, during the late Tudor period, depictions of the arms appeared accompanied by a dragon and a lion, representing Wales and England. The Tudors were monarchs of England but of Welsh descent. In later centuries, following the union of the crowns of England and Scotland, depictions appeared accompanied by a lion and a unicorn, representing England and Scotland. Other depictions included two stags, representing Ireland, or a stag and a lion. However, none of these were ever a part of the blazon and should be interpreted in terms of artistic licence.
Several mottos associated with Ireland and have also been used alongside representations of the harp, including the patriotic slogan, Erin Go Bragh (English: Ireland Forever), Quis separabit? (English: Who will separate [us]?), the motto of the Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick, and It is new strung and shall be heard, the motto of the Society of United Irishmen. However, no heraldic motto has ever been granted to Ireland and none ever accompanies the coat of arms.
Green flag[edit]
The unofficial green ensign of Ireland from Bowles's Universal Display of the Naval Flags of all Nations maritime flag chart, 1783.
As well as the coat of arms, which shows the harp on an Azure (blue) field, Ireland has long been associated with a flag also bearing the harp. This flag is identical to the coat of arms but with a green field, rather than blue, and is blazoned Vert, a Harp Or, stringed Argent (a gold harp with silver strings on a green field).
The earliest-known record of the green flag is attributed to Eoghan Ruadh Ó Néill, a 17th-century exile and soldier in the Irish brigade of the Spanish army. His ship, the St. Francis, is recorded as flying from her mast top "the Irish harp in a green field, in a flag" as she lay at anchor at Dunkirk en route to Ireland.[8] Ó Néill was returning to Ireland in order to participate in the Irish Confederate Wars (1641—1653), during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (a series of civil wars engulfing England, Ireland and Scotland), where he would contribute as a leading general. Variants of the green flag were flown by United Irishmen during the 1798 Rebellion and by the Irish émigré in foreign armys, such as the Irish Brigade of the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861–1865) and Saint Patrick's Battalion in the Mexican Army during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848).
Although the Kingdom of Ireland never had an official flag, this flag is recorded as the flag of Ireland by 18th and 19th century sources. It was used as a naval jack and as the basis for the unofficial green ensign of Ireland, particularly during the 18th and 19th centuries. The flag is identical to the arms of the province of Leinster. It is believed that the Leinster arms are derived from it, rather than the other way around.
Arms and Flag of the Four Provinces[edit]
Main article: Four Provinces Flag of Ireland
The traditional arms of the four provinces of Ireland quartered to form the popular arms of Ireland.
The flag of the four provinces of Ireland, quartered to form a popular flag of all of Ireland.
The arms of the four traditional provinces of Ireland are popularly displayed quartered as arms of Ireland. The quartering is usually in the order Leinster first, Connacht second, Ulster third and Munster fourth. The resulting arms are frequently displayed in the form of a banner. They also appear as charges in other arms and emblems. For example, the arms of the Genealogical Office, which is headed by the Chief Herald of Ireland, are the four provinces shown quartered beneath a chief Gules, charged with a Tudor Portcullis Or between two Scrolls Argent (a red band with a gold Tudor portcullis between two silver scrolls).[7]
The arms of Leinster (Vert, a Harp Or, stringed Argent) are believed to have likely evolved from the arms of Ireland itself with a change of tincture. Similarly, Munster's arms (Azure, three antique crowns Or) are thought to have been derived from those of the former Lordship of Ireland, or from the short-lived dukedom of Ireland created for Robert de Vere in 1386. The crowns now usually depicted as "antique" or "eastern": a gold rim with eight sharp, triangular rays, of which five are seen.[16][17]
The arms of Ulster are the arms of the de Burgh, Earls of Ulster, combined with the red hand seal of the O'Neills. These two dynasties and symbols are inseparably linked to Ulster. The combination of them is blazoned Or, on a Cross Gules, an inescutcheon Argent, charged with a dexter hand erect aupaumee and couped at the wrist Gules.[7]
Finally, Connacht's arms are blazoned Party Per Pale Argent and Azure, in the first an eagle dimidiated and displayed Sable in the second issuant from the partition an arm embowed and vested, the hand holding a sword erect, all Argent. These are believed to have been adopted from the arms of the medieval Schottenklöster (Gaelic monastery) in Regensburg, Germany. The arms of the Regensburg Schottenklöster, which date from at least the 14th century, combined the arms of the Holy Roman Emperor (from whom the abbey received protection) dimidiated with a symbol that may be linked with the crest of the O'Brien dynasty arms (an 11th-century O'Brien is listed as the "fundator" of the abbey). The arms may have been granted to Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair, King of Connacht and the last High King of Ireland before the Norman invasion, by the abbey as a gift to return his patronage. The arms were given as the "old tyme arms" of Ireland by the Athlone Pursuivant, Edward Fletcher, c. 1575 and, with slight change of tinctures, became the arms of Connacht in the seventeenth century.[7]
See also[edit]
Coat of arms of Northern Ireland
Flag of Ireland
Irish heraldry
List of flags of Ireland
Shamrock
Great Seal of the Irish Free State
Seal of the President of Ireland
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ The Trinity College Harp was once thought to have belonged to Brian Boru, the 11th century High King of Ireland. However, the harp has since been dated to the 14th or 15th century and so cannot have actually belonged to him. It is on permanent display in the Long Room of the library of Trinity College, Dublin
References[edit]
Jump up ^ National Library of Ireland (Genealogical Office) (17 September 2011). "Grant of Arms (Registration): Arms of Ireland". National Library of Ireland Catalogue. National Library of Ireland. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013.
Jump up ^ Office of the Chief Herald, Arms of Ireland Archived 18 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine., The National Library of Ireland (Grant Type: Registration; Register volume: G.O. MS 111G; Folio number: 20; Date: 9 November 1945)
^ Jump up to: a b Michael C. O'Laughlin, 2001, The Irish Book of Arms, Irish Genealogical Association, p 15
Jump up ^ Hartemink, Ralf (1996). "Civic Heraldry of Ireland, National arms of Ireland". Heraldry of the World. ngw.nl. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 2011-07-13.
Jump up ^ Velde, François. "Heraldry in Ireland". Heraldica.
Jump up ^ William Henry Grattan Flood, 1905, The Story of the Harp; James Simon, 1810, Simon's Essay on Irish coins, and of the currency of foreign monies in Ireland
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Kennedy, John (Autumn 1991), "The Arms of Ireland: Medieval and Modern", Coat of Arms (155)
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Carragin, Eoin (2007-04-18). "Heraldry in Ireland" (PDF). National Library of Ireland. p. 3. Retrieved 2008-03-17.
Jump up ^ "Glossary". Irish Patents Office. pp. Article 6ter. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
Jump up ^ "C.4304-551" (PDF). WIPO Circular (4304). 15 February 1985. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
Images: IE1 IE2 IE3 IE4 IE5 IE6 IE7 IE8 IE9 IE10
Jump up ^ Humphreys, Joe (28 December 2013). "State feared Guinness objections over plan to make harp logo a trademark". The Irish Times. p. 1. Retrieved 29 December 2013.
Jump up ^ W. G. Perrin and Herbert S. Vaughan, 1922, "British Flags. Their Early History and their Development at Sea; with an Account of the Origin of the Flag as a National Device", Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, pp. 51-52
^ Jump up to: a b Chambers's Encyclopædia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, 1868, p. 627
Jump up ^ Questions and Answers, Notes and Queries, 1855, p. 350
^ Jump up to: a b Fox-Davies, A.C., 1915, The Book of Public Arms, London
Jump up ^ Boutell, Charles; Fox-Davies, A. C. (1914), The Handbook to English Heraldry (Illustrated 11th ed.), Teddington, United Kingdom: The Echo Library, p. 160, ISBN 978-1-4068-2770-5
Jump up ^ Swyrich Corporation. "antique crown". Symbolism. Swyrich Corporation. Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coats of arms of Ireland.
Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland
Two "Ireland" images in Ulster Office's Draft Grants of Arms ca. 1580-1690: folio 18 (top left) and folio 71
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text:
Celsius
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Celsius (disambiguation).
A thermometer calibrated in degrees Celsius
The Celsius scale, previously known as the centigrade scale,[1][2] is a temperature scale used by the International System of Units (SI). As an SI derived unit, it is used by all countries in the world, except the United States, Myanmar, and Liberia. It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale. The degree Celsius (symbol: °C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval, a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty. Before being renamed to honor Anders Celsius in 1948, the unit was called centigrade, from the Latin centum, which means 100, and gradus, which means steps.
Before 1954, the Celsius scale was based on 0 °C for the freezing point of water and 100 °C for the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure following a change introduced in 1743 by Jean-Pierre Christin to reverse the Celsius thermometer scale (from water boiling at 0 degrees and ice melting at 100 degrees). This scale is widely taught in schools today.
By international agreement, since 1954 the unit "degree Celsius" and the Celsius scale are defined by absolute zero and the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW), a specially purified water. This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible, is defined as being exactly 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as exactly 273.16 K (0.01 °C; 32.02 °F).[3] This means that a temperature difference of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin are exactly the same.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Centigrade, hectograde and Celsius
1.2 Common temperatures
2 Name and symbol typesetting
2.1 Unicode character
3 Temperatures and intervals
4 Coexistence of Kelvin and Celsius scales
5 Melting and boiling points of water
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links
History[edit]
An illustration of Anders Celsius's original thermometer. Note the reversed scale, where 100 is the freezing point of water and 0 is its boiling point.
In 1742, Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744) created a temperature scale which was the reverse of the scale now known by the name "Celsius": 0 represented the boiling point of water, while 100 represented the freezing point of water.[5] In his paper Observations of two persistent degrees on a thermometer, he recounted his experiments showing that the melting point of ice is essentially unaffected by pressure. He also determined with remarkable precision how the boiling point of water varied as a function of atmospheric pressure. He proposed that the zero point of his temperature scale, being the boiling point, would be calibrated at the mean barometric pressure at mean sea level. This pressure is known as one standard atmosphere. The BIPM's 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) later defined one standard atmosphere to equal precisely 1,013,250 dynes per square centimetre (101.325 kPa).[6]
In 1743, the Lyonnais physicist Jean-Pierre Christin, permanent secretary of the Académie des sciences, belles-lettres et arts de LyonFR, working independently of Celsius, developed a scale where zero represented the freezing point of water and 100 represented the boiling point of water.[7][8] On 19 May 1743 he published the design of a mercury thermometer, the "Thermometer of Lyon" built by the craftsman Pierre Casati that used this scale.[9][10][11]
In 1744, coincident with the death of Anders Celsius, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) reversed Celsius's scale.[12] His custom-made "linnaeus-thermometer", for use in his greenhouses, was made by Daniel Ekström, Sweden's leading maker of scientific instruments at the time, whose workshop was located in the basement of the Stockholm observatory. As often happened in this age before modern communications, numerous physicists, scientists, and instrument makers are credited with having independently developed this same scale;[13] among them were Pehr Elvius, the secretary of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (which had an instrument workshop) and with whom Linnaeus had been corresponding; Daniel Ekström[SV], the instrument maker; and Mårten Strömer (1707–1770) who had studied astronomy under Anders Celsius.
The first known Swedish document[14] reporting temperatures in this modern "forward" Celsius scale is the paper Hortus Upsaliensis dated 16 December 1745 that Linnaeus wrote to a student of his, Samuel Nauclér. In it, Linnaeus recounted the temperatures inside the orangery at the University of Uppsala Botanical Garden:
...since the caldarium (the hot part of the greenhouse) by the angle of the windows, merely from the rays of the sun, obtains such heat that the thermometer often reaches 30 degrees, although the keen gardener usually takes care not to let it rise to more than 20 to 25 degrees, and in winter not under 15 degrees...
Centigrade, hectograde and Celsius[edit]
Since the 19th century, the scientific and thermometry communities worldwide have referred to this scale as the centigrade scale. Temperatures on the centigrade scale were often reported simply as degrees or, when greater specificity was desired, as degrees centigrade (symbol: °C). Because the term centigrade was also the Spanish and French language name for a unit of angular measurement (1/10000 of a right angle) and had a similar connotation in other languages, the term centesimal degree (known as the gradian, "grad" or "gon": 1ᵍ = 0.9°, 100ᵍ = 90°) was used when very precise, unambiguous language was required by international standards bodies such as the BIPM. More properly, what was defined as "centigrade" then would now be "hectograde". Furthermore, in the context here, centigrade/hectograde is referring to the whole 0–100 range, not the given part thereof, hence "20° centigrade" means "20ᵍ per 100 gradians" (or 20% hectograde), not its literal description, "0.2 gradians".
(To be descriptively correct, "20° centigrade" should be "20° hectocentigrade", or just "20 gradians" {20ᵍ}.)
To eliminate such confusion, the 9th CGPM and the CIPM (Comité international des poids et mesures) formally adopted "degree Celsius" in 1948,[15][a] formally keeping the recognized degree symbol, rather than adopting the gradian/centesimal degree symbol.
For scientific use, "Celsius" is the term usually used, with "centigrade" otherwise continuing to be in common but decreasing use, especially in informal contexts in English-speaking countries.[16] It was not until February 1985 that the forecasts issued by the BBC switched from "centigrade" to "Celsius".[17]
Common temperatures[edit]
Some key temperatures relating the Celsius scale to other temperature scales are shown in the table below.
Key scale relations
Kelvin
Celsius
Fahrenheit
Absolute zero
(precisely, by definition) 0 K −273.15 °C −459.67 °F
Boiling point of liquid nitrogen 77.4 K −195.8 °C[18] −320.4 °F
Sublimation point of dry ice. 195.1 K −78 °C −108.4 °F
Intersection of Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. 233.15 K −40 °C −40 °F
Melting point of H2O (purified ice)[19] 273.1499 K −0.0001 °C 31.9998 °F
Water's triple point
(precisely, by definition) 273.16 K 0.01 °C 32.018 °F
Normal human body temperature (approximate average)[20] 310.15 K 37.0 °C 98.6 °F
Water's boiling point at 1 atm (101.325 kPa)
(approximate: see Boiling point)[b] 373.1339 K 99.9839 °C 211.971 °F
Name and symbol typesetting[edit]
The "degree Celsius" has been the only SI unit whose full unit name contains an uppercase letter since the SI base unit for temperature, the kelvin, became the proper name in 1967 replacing the term degrees Kelvin. The plural form is degrees Celsius.[21]
The general rule of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) is that the numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number, e.g. "30.2 °C" (not "30.2°C" or "30.2° C").[22] Thus the value of the quantity is the product of the number and the unit, the space being regarded as a multiplication sign (just as a space between units implies multiplication). The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree, minute, and second for plane angle (°, ′, and ″, respectively), for which no space is left between the numerical value and the unit symbol.[23] Other languages, and various publishing houses, may follow different typographical rules.
Unicode character[edit]
Unicode provides the Celsius symbol at codepoint U+2103 ℃ degree celsius. However, this is a compatibility character provided for roundtrip compatibility with legacy encodings. It easily allows correct rendering for vertically written East Asian scripts, such as Chinese. The Unicode standard explicitly discourages the use of this character: "In normal use, it is better to represent degrees Celsius "°C" with a sequence of U+00B0 ° degree sign + U+0043 C latin capital letter c, rather than U+2103 ℃ degree celsius. For searching, treat these two sequences as identical."[24]
Shown below is the degree Celsius character followed immediately by the two-component version:
℃ °C
When viewed on computers that properly support Unicode, the above line may be similar to the image in the line below (enlarged for clarity):
The canonical decomposition is simply an ordinary degree sign and "C", so some browsers may simply display "°C" in its place due to Unicode normalization.
Temperatures and intervals[edit]
The degree Celsius is a special name for the kelvin for use in expressing Celsius temperatures.[25] The degree Celsius is also subject to the same rules as the kelvin with regard to the use of its unit name and symbol. Thus, besides expressing specific temperatures along its scale (e.g. "Gallium melts at 29.7646 °C" and "The temperature outside is 23 degrees Celsius"), the degree Celsius is also suitable for expressing temperature intervals: differences between temperatures or their uncertainties (e.g. "The output of the heat exchanger is hotter by 40 degrees Celsius", and "Our standard uncertainty is ±3 °C").[26] Because of this dual usage, one must not rely upon the unit name or its symbol to denote that a quantity is a temperature interval; it must be unambiguous through context or explicit statement that the quantity is an interval.[c] This is sometimes solved by using the symbol °C (pronounced "degrees Celsius") for a temperature, and C° (pronounced "Celsius degrees") for a temperature interval, although this usage is non-standard.[27]
What is often confusing about the Celsius measurement is that it follows an interval system but not a ratio system; that it follows a relative scale not an absolute scale. This is put simply by illustrating that while 10 °C and 20 °C have the same interval difference as 20 °C and 30 °C, the temperature 20 °C is not twice the air heat energy as 10 °C. As this example shows, degrees Celsius is a useful interval measurement but does not possess the characteristics of ratio measures like weight or distance.[28]
Coexistence of Kelvin and Celsius scales[edit]
In science and in engineering, the Celsius scale and the Kelvin scale are often used in combination in close contexts, e.g. "...a measured value was 0.01023 °C with an uncertainty of 70 µK...". This practice is permissible because the magnitude of the degree Celsius is equal to that of the kelvin. Notwithstanding the official endorsement provided by decision #3 of Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM, which stated "a temperature interval may also be expressed in degrees Celsius", the practice of simultaneously using both °C and K remains widespread throughout the scientific world as the use of SI-prefixed forms of the degree Celsius (such as "µ°C" or "microdegrees Celsius") to express a temperature interval has not been well-adopted.
Melting and boiling points of water[edit]
One effect of defining the Celsius scale at the triple point of Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW, 273.16 K and 0.01 °C), and at absolute zero (0 K and −273.15 °C), is that neither the melting nor boiling point of water under one standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa) remains a defining point for the Celsius scale. In 1948 when the 9th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) in Resolution 3 first considered using the triple point of water as a defining point, the triple point was so close to being 0.01 °C greater than water's known melting point, it was simply defined as precisely 0.01 °C.[29] However, current measurements show that the difference between the triple and melting points of VSMOW is actually very slightly (<0.001 °C) greater than 0.01 °C. Thus, the actual melting point of ice is very slightly (less than a thousandth of a degree) below 0 °C. Also, defining water's triple point at 273.16 K precisely defined the magnitude of each 1 °C increment in terms of the absolute thermodynamic temperature scale (referencing absolute zero). Now decoupled from the actual boiling point of water, the value "100 °C" is hotter than 0 °C – in absolute terms – by a factor of precisely 373.15/273.15 (approximately 36.61% thermodynamically hotter). When adhering strictly to the two-point definition for calibration, the boiling point of VSMOW under one standard atmosphere of pressure is actually 373.1339 K (99.9839 °C). When calibrated to ITS-90 (a calibration standard comprising many definition points and commonly used for high-precision instrumentation), the boiling point of VSMOW is slightly less, about 99.974 °C.[30]
This boiling-point difference of 16.1 millikelvin between the Celsius scale's original definition and the current one (based on absolute zero and the triple point) has little practical meaning in common daily applications because water's boiling point is very sensitive to variations in barometric pressure. For example, an altitude change of only 28 cm (11 in) causes the boiling point to change by one millikelvin.
Celsius temperature conversion formulae
from Celsius
to Celsius
Fahrenheit
[°F] = [°C] × 9⁄5 + 32 [°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9
Kelvin
[K] = [°C] + 273.15 [°C] = [K] − 273.15
Rankine
[°R] = ([°C] + 273.15) × 9⁄5 [°C] = ([°R] − 491.67) × 5⁄9
For temperature intervals rather than specific temperatures,
1 °C = 1 K = 9⁄5 °F = 9⁄5 °R
Comparisons among various temperature scales
See also[edit]
Comparison of temperature scales
Degrees of frost
ITS-90
Réaumur scale
Thermodynamic temperature
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ According to The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the term "Celsius' thermometer" had been used at least as early as 1797. Further, the term "The Celsius or Centigrade thermometer" was again used in reference to a particular type of thermometer at least as early as 1850. The OED also cites this 1928 reporting of a temperature: "My altitude was about 5,800 metres, the temperature was 28° Celsius." However, dictionaries seek to find the earliest use of a word or term and are not a useful resource as regards to the terminology used throughout the history of science. According to several writings of Dr. Terry Quinn CBE FRS, Director of the BIPM (1988–2004), including "Temperature Scales from the early days of thermometry to the 21st century" (PDF). (146 KiB) as well as Temperature (2nd Edition/1990/Academic Press/0125696817), the term Celsius in connection with the centigrade scale was not used whatsoever by the scientific or thermometry communities until after the CIPM and CGPM adopted the term in 1948. The BIPM was not even aware that "degree Celsius" was in sporadic, non-scientific use before that time. It is also noteworthy that the twelve-volume, 1933 edition of OED didn't even have a listing for the word Celsius (but did have listings for both centigrade and centesimal in the context of temperature measurement). The 1948 adoption of Celsius accomplished three objectives:
1. All common temperature scales would have their units named after someone closely associated with them; namely, Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, Réaumur and Rankine.
2. Notwithstanding the important contribution of Linnaeus who gave the Celsius scale its modern form, Celsius' name was the obvious choice because it began with the letter C. Thus, the symbol °C that for centuries had been used in association with the name centigrade could continue to be used and would simultaneously inherit an intuitive association with the new name.
3. The new name eliminated the ambiguity of the term "centigrade", freeing it to refer exclusively to the French-language name for the unit of angular measurement.
Jump up ^ For Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water at one standard atmosphere (101.325 kPa) when calibrated solely per the two-point definition of thermodynamic temperature. Older definitions of the Celsius scale once defined the boiling point of water under one standard atmosphere as being precisely 100 °C. However, the current definition results in a boiling point that is actually 16.1 mK less. For more about the actual boiling point of water, see VSMOW in temperature measurement. There is a different approximation using ITS-90 which approximates the temperature to 99.974 °C
Jump up ^ In 1948, Resolution 7 of the 9th CGPM stated, "To indicate a temperature interval or difference, rather than a temperature, the word 'degree' in full, or the abbreviation 'deg' must be used." This resolution was abrogated in 1967/1968 by Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM which stated that ["The names "degree Kelvin" and "degree", the symbols "°K" and "deg" and the rules for their use given in Resolution 7 of the 9th CGPM (1948),] ...and the designation of the unit to express an interval or a difference of temperatures are abrogated, but the usages which derive from these decisions remain permissible for the time being." Consequently, there is now wide freedom in usage regarding how to indicate a temperature interval. The most important thing is that one's intention must be clear and the basic rule of the SI must be followed; namely that the unit name or its symbol must not be relied upon to indicate the nature of the quantity. Thus, if a temperature interval is, say, 10 K or 10 °C (which may be written 10 kelvin or 10 degrees Celsius), it must be unambiguous through obvious context or explicit statement that the quantity is an interval. Rules governing the expressing of temperatures and intervals are covered in the BIPM's "SI Brochure, 8th edition" (PDF). (1.39 MiB).
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Celsius temperature scale". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 19 February 2012. Celsius temperature scale, also called centigrade temperature scale, scale based on 0° for the freezing point of water and 100° for the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure.
Jump up ^ Helmenstine, Anne Marie (December 15, 2014). "What Is the Difference Between Celsius and Centigrade?". Chemistry.about.com. About.com. Retrieved March 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ "SI brochure, section 2.1.1.5". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "Essentials of the SI: Base & derived units". Retrieved 9 May 2008.
Jump up ^ Celsius, Anders (1742) "Observationer om twänne beständiga grader på en thermometer" (Observations about two stable degrees on a thermometer), Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar (Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 3 : 171–180 and Fig. 1.
Jump up ^ "Resolution 4 of the 10th meeting of the CGPM (1954)".
Jump up ^ Don Rittner; Ronald A. Bailey (2005): Encyclopedia of Chemistry. Facts On File, Manhattan, New York City. pp. 43.
Jump up ^ Smith, Jacqueline (2009). "Appendix I: Chronology". The Facts on File Dictionary of Weather and Climate. Infobase Publishing. p. 246. ISBN 978-1-4381-0951-0. 1743 Jean-Pierre Christin inverts the fixed points on Celsius' scale, to produce the scale used today.
Jump up ^ Mercure de France (1743): MEMOIRE sur la dilatation du Mercure dans le Thermométre. Chaubert; Jean de Nully, Pissot, Duchesne, Paris. pp. 1609–1610.
Jump up ^ Journal helvétique (1743): LION. Imprimerie des Journalistes, Neuchâtel. pp. 308–310.
Jump up ^ Memoires pour L'Histoire des Sciences et des Beaux Arts (1743): DE LYON. Chaubert, París. pp. 2125–2128.
Jump up ^ Citation: Uppsala University (Sweden), Linnaeus' thermometer
Jump up ^ Citation for Daniel Ekström, Mårten Strömer, Christin of Lyons: The Physics Hypertextbook, Temperature; citation for Christin of Lyons: Le Moyne College, Glossary, (Celsius scale); citation for Linnaeus' connection with Pehr Elvius and Daniel Ekström: Uppsala University (Sweden), Linnaeus' thermometer; general citation: The Uppsala Astronomical Observatory, History of the Celsius temperature scale
Jump up ^ Citations: University of Wisconsin–Madison, Linnæus & his Garden and; Uppsala University, Linnaeus' thermometer
Jump up ^ "CIPM, 1948 and 9th CGPM, 1948". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
Jump up ^ "centigrade, adj. and n". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 20 November 2011.
Jump up ^ 1985 BBC Special: A Change In The Weather on YouTube
Jump up ^ Lide, D.R., ed. (1990–1991). Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. 71st ed. CRC Press. p. 4–22.
Jump up ^ The ice point of purified water has been measured to be 6995890000000000000♠0.000089(10) degrees Celsius – see Magnum, B.W. (June 1995). "Reproducibility of the Temperature of the Ice Point in Routine Measurements" (PDF). Nist Technical Note. 1411. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 14, 2007. Retrieved 11 February 2007.
Jump up ^ Elert, Glenn (2005). "Temperature of a Healthy Human (Body Temperature)". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 22 August 2007.
Jump up ^ "Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty: Historical context of the SI. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). 2000. Retrieved 16 November 2011.
Jump up ^ BIPM, SI Brochure, Section 5.3.3.
Jump up ^ For more information on conventions used in technical writing, see the informative SI Unit rules and style conventions by the NIST as well as the BIPM's SI brochure: Subsection 5.3.3, Formatting the value of a quantity.
Jump up ^ "22.2". The Unicode Standard, Version 9.0 (PDF). Mountain View, CA, USA: The Unicode Consortium. July 2016. ISBN 978-1-936213-13-9. Retrieved 20 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Note (e) of SI Brochure, Section, 2.2.2, Table 3
Jump up ^ Decision #3 of Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM
Jump up ^ H.D. Young, R.A. Freedman (2008). University Physics with Modern Physics (12th ed.). Addison Wesley. p. 573
Jump up ^ This fact is demonstrated in the book Biostatistics: A Guide to Design, Analysis, and Discovery By Ronald N. Forthofer, Eun Sul Lee and Mike Hernandez
Jump up ^ "Resolution 3 of the 9th CGPM (1948)". International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
Jump up ^ Citation: London South Bank University, Water Structure and Behavior, notes c1 and c2
External links[edit]
Look up Celsius in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
NIST, Basic unit definitions: Kelvin
The Uppsala Astronomical Observatory, History of the Celsius temperature scale
London South Bank University, Water, scientific data
BIPM, SI brochure, section 2.1.1.5, Unit of thermodynamic temperature
TAMPILE, Comparison of temperature scales
C to F converter, Celsius to Fahrenheit Converter
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Scales of temperature
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Conversion formulas and comparison
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SI units
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text:
Amur falcon
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Amur falcon
Male
Female
Conservation status
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Falconiformes
Family: Falconidae
Genus: Falco
Species: F. amurensis
Binomial name
Falco amurensis
Radde, 1863
Breeding Non-breeding
Synonyms
Erythropus amurensis
Falco vespertinus var. amurensis
The Amur falcon (Falco amurensis) is a small raptor of the falcon family. It breeds in south-eastern Siberia and Northern China before migrating in large flocks across India and over the Arabian Sea to winter in Southern Africa. It was earlier treated as a subspecies of the red-footed falcon (Falco vespertinus) and known as the eastern red-footed falcon. Males are dark grey with reddish brown thighs and undertail coverts; reddish orange eye-ring, cere, and feet. Females are duller above, with dark scaly markings on white underparts, an orange eye ring, cere, and legs. Only a pale wash of rufous is visible on their thighs and undertail coverts. Their diet consists mainly of insects, such as termites; during migration over the sea, they are thought to feed on migrating dragonflies.
Contents
[hide]
1 Description
2 Taxonomy
3 Distribution and migration
4 Behaviour and ecology
4.1 Foraging and food
4.2 Nesting
4.3 Parasites
5 Status and conservation
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links
Description[edit]
Male
Female in flight
Males are characteristically dark sooty grey above with rufous thighs and vent. In flight, the wing lining is white, contrasting with the dark wing feathers. Adult males of the closely related red-footed falcon have a dark grey wing lining. In Africa, males can be confused with melanistic Gabar goshawks, but the chestnut on the vent is distinctive. Also, there may be some superficial resemblance to the sooty falcon and the grey kestrel, but those two species both have yellow feet and cere. The wings are long as in most falcons (with a span of 63–71 cm) and at rest the wing tip reaches or extends just beyond the tail-tip.[2]
Females can be more difficult to identify as they share a pattern common to many falcons, but are distinctive in having an orange eye-ring, a red cere and reddish orange feet. Juveniles can be confused only with those of the red-footed falcon, but lack the buffy underwing coverts.
Taxonomy[edit]
The Amur falcon was long considered a subspecies or morph of the red-footed falcon, but it is nowadays considered distinct. Nonetheless, it is the red-footed falcon's closest relative; their relationship to other falcons is more enigmatic. They appear morphologically somewhat intermediate between kestrels and hobbies and DNA sequence data has been unable to further resolve this question, mainly due to lack of comprehensive sampling.[3][4][5]
The genus name Falco is Late Latin and derives from falx, falcis, a sickle, referencing the claws of the bird.[6] The species name amurensis is from Amurland in south-eastern Siberia.[7]
Distribution and migration[edit]
[show]Measurements
[2][8]
Length
275–290 mm (10.8–11.4 in)
285–300 mm (11.2–11.8 in)
Tail
123–130 mm (4.8–5.1 in)
129–132 mm (5.1–5.2 in)
Head
41–43 mm (1.6–1.7 in)
42–44 mm (1.7–1.7 in)
Tarsus
60–62 mm (2.4–2.4 in)
65–67 mm (2.6–2.6 in)
Weight
97–155 g (3.4–5.5 oz)
111–188 g (3.9–6.6 oz)
The Amur falcon breeds in east Asia from the Transbaikalia, Amurland, and northern Mongolian region to parts of North Korea. They migrate in a broad front through India and Sri Lanka, sometimes further east over Thailand and Cambodia and then over the Arabian Sea, sometimes in passage on the Maldives and other islands to reach southern Africa. Birds going over India are thought to be aided by strong winds blowing westward. These winds are strong at an altitude of about 3000m and the birds are thought to fly at a height of above 1000m during migration.[9] The route taken to return to their breeding grounds runs slightly more northward. Vagrants have been recorded as far west as in Italy, Sweden, St. Helena and the United Kingdom.[8][2]
Behaviour and ecology[edit]
Foraging and food[edit]
The Amur falcon feeds mainly late in the evening or early in the morning capturing a wide range of insects in the air or on the ground. They capture most of their prey in flight, sometimes by hovering, but will also pick prey by alighting on the ground.[8] The winter diet appears to be almost entirely made up of insects[10] but they take small birds, mammals [11] and amphibians to feed their young in their breeding range. The rains in Africa produce swarms of termites, locusts, ants and beetles that provide ample food.[12] Their migration over the Arabian Sea coincides with the timing of the migration of dragonflies (Pantala flavescens) and these are thought to provide food during the most arduous part of their migration route.[13][14]
Nesting[edit]
Nesting pair with chicks
During migration they stay in open forest or grasslands, roosting colonially on exposed perches or wires.[8] Their breeding habitat is open wooded country with marshes. The breeding season is May to June and several pairs may nest close together. Abandoned nest platforms belonging to birds of prey or corvids and even tree hollows are re-used for nesting. Three or four eggs are laid (at two day intervals). Both parents take turns to incubate and feed the chicks which hatch after about a month. The young birds leave the nest after about a month.[8]
Parasites[edit]
The Amur falcon hosts three species of lice, Degeeriella rufa, Colpocephalum subzerafae, and Laembothrion tinnunculi.[15]
Status and conservation[edit]
The wide breeding range and large population size of the Amur falcon have led to the species being assessed as being of least concern. The flocking behaviour during migration and the density at which they occur, however, expose them to hunting and other threats. During their migration from their breeding area to the winter quarters, they are plump and are hunted for food in parts of northeastern India as well as in eastern Africa.[1][16] In 2012, mass trapping and capture of migrating Amur falcons in Nagaland (India) was reported in the media and a successful campaign was begun to prevent their killing.[17] As part of this campaign, three birds were fitted with 5 gm satellite transmitters that allowed them to be tracked during their migration.[18]
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b BirdLife International (2012). "Falco amurensis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c Rasmussen, PC; JC Anderton (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2. Washington, DC & Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. p. 113.
Jump up ^ Wink, Michael; Seibold, I.; Lotfikhah, F. & Bednarek, W. (1998): Molecular systematics of holarctic raptors (Order Falconiformes). In: Chancellor, R.D., Meyburg, B.-U. & Ferrero, J.J. (eds.): Holarctic Birds of Prey: 29–48. Adenex & WWGBP.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, Carole S. (1999). "Phylogeny of the Falconidae inferred from molecular and morphological data" (PDF). Auk. 116 (1): 116–130. doi:10.2307/4089459.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, Carole S.; Barrowclough, George F.; Groth, Jeff G.; Mertz, Lisa (2004). "Phylogeny of the Falconidae (Aves): a comparison of the efficacy of morphological, mitochondrial, and nuclear data". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 32 (1): 101–109. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2003.11.019. PMID 15186800.
Jump up ^ Shorter Oxford English dictionary. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2007. p. 3804. ISBN 0199206872.
Jump up ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 46, 266. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Orta, J. (1994). "Amur Falcon". In del Hoyo, J.; A. Elliott; J. Sargatal. Handbook of birds of the world. Vol. 2. New World vultures to guineafowl. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 265–266.
Jump up ^ Clement, Peter; Holman, David (2001). "Passage records of Amur Falcon Falco amurensis from SE Asia and southern Africa including first records from Ethiopia". Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club. 121 (1): 222–230.
Jump up ^ Kopij, Grzegorz (2009). "Seasonal variation in the diet of the Amur kestrel (Falco amurensis) in its winter quarter in Lesotho". African Journal of Ecology. 48 (2): 559–562. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01130.x.
Jump up ^ Alexander, Jarryd; Symes, Craig T (2016). "Temporal and spatial dietary variation of Amur falcons (Falco amurensis) in their South African nonbreeding range". Journal of Raptor Research. 50 (3): 276–288. doi:10.3356/JRR-15-16.1.
Jump up ^ Pietersen, Darren W; Symes, Craig T (2010). "Assessing the diet of Amur Falcon Falco amurensis and Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni using stomach content analysis". Ostrich: Journal of African Ornithology. 81 (1): 39–44. doi:10.2989/00306525.2010.455817.
Jump up ^ Anderson, R. Charles (2009). "Do dragonflies migrate across the western Indian Ocean?" (PDF). Journal of Tropical Ecology. 25: 347–358. doi:10.1017/S0266467409006087. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-12-02.
Jump up ^ Dixon, A; Purev-Ochir, G.; Batbayar, N. (2011). "Autumn migration of an Amur Falcon Falco amurensis from Mongolia to the Indian Ocean tracked by satellite". Forktail. 27: 81–84.
Jump up ^ Piross, I. Sandor; et al. (2015). "Louse (Insecta: Phthiraptera) infestations of the Amur Falcon (Falco amurensis) and the Red-footed Falcon" (PDF). Ornis Hungarica. 23 (1): 58–65. doi:10.1515/orhu-2015-0005.
Jump up ^ Ali, S; S. Dillon Ripley. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. 1 (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 361–363.
Jump up ^ Falcon preservationists
Jump up ^ Boyes, Steve. "Safe Passage For Amur Falcons Through India". National Geographic. Retrieved 11 December 2013.
Further reading[edit]
Adventures in Nagaland and Satellite tracks of three individuals
How to make 2.5 billion termites disappear? A case for protecting the Amur falcon, Ornithological Observations, an open-content, electronic journal published by BirdLife South Africa and the Animal Demography Unit at the University of Cape Town
The Great migration of Amur Falcon, The Morung Express
External links[edit]
Atlas of Southern African Birds.
Global Raptor Information Network
Media related to Falco amurensis at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Falco amurensis at Wikispecies
Taxon identifiers
Wd: Q481742
ARKive: falco-amurensis
eBird: amufal1
EoL: 1049213
GBIF: 2480998
iNaturalist: 4686
ITIS: 560066
IUCN: 22696437
NCBI: 495945
Species+: 3635
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