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Queen Máxima of the Netherlands
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This name uses Spanish naming customs: the first or paternal family name is Zorreguieta and the second or maternal family name is Cerruti.
Máxima
Queen Maxima in 2015
Queen consort of the Netherlands
Tenure
30 April 2013 – present
Born
Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti
(1971-05-17) 17 May 1971 (age 46)
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Spouse
Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (m. 2002)
Issue
Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange
Princess Alexia
Princess Ariane
Father
Jorge Zorreguieta
Mother
María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart
Religion
Roman Catholic
[show]
Dutch royal family
HM The King *
HM The Queen *
HRH The Princess of Orange *
HRH Princess Alexia *
HRH Princess Ariane *
HRH Princess Beatrix *
HRH Princess Mabel
Countess Luana
Countess Zaria
HRH Prince Constantijn *
HRH Princess Laurentien *
Countess Eloise
Count Claus-Casimir
Countess Leonore
Extended royal family[show]
HRH Princess Irene
HRH The Duke of Parma
HRH The Duchess of Parma
HRH Princess Luisa
HRH Princess Cecilia
HRH Hereditary Prince Carlos
HRH The Countess of Colorno
Mr Tjalling ten Cate
Julia ten Cate
Paola ten Cate
HRH The Count of Bardi
HRH The Countess of Bardi
HRH Princess Zita
HRH Princess Gloria
HRH The Marchioness of Sala
Mr Albert Brenninkmeijer
Alaïa-Maria Brenninkmeijer
Xavier Brenninkmeijer
HRH Princess Margriet *
Professor Pieter van Vollenhoven *
HH Prince Maurits
HH Princess Marilène
Anna van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven
Lucas van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven
Felicia van Lippe-Biesterfeld van Vollenhoven
HH Prince Bernhard
HH Princess Annette
Isabella van Vollenhoven
Samuel van Vollenhoven
Benjamin van Vollenhoven
HH Prince Pieter-Christiaan
HH Princess Anita
Emma van Vollenhoven
Pieter van Vollenhoven
HH Prince Floris
HH Princess Aimée
Magali van Vollenhoven
Eliane van Vollenhoven
Willem van Vollenhoven
HRH Princess Christina
Bernardo Guillermo
Eva Guillermo
Isabel Guillermo
Julián Guillermo
Nicolás Guillermo
Juliana Guillermo
* Member of the Dutch royal house
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Queen Máxima of the Netherlands (born Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti;[1] 17 May 1971) is the wife of King Willem-Alexander.
On 30 April 2013, she became the first queen consort of The Netherlands since Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life and education
2 Relationship with Willem-Alexander
3 Marriage and family
4 Activities
5 Controversy over statement on Dutch identity
6 International appointments
7 Titles, honours and arms
7.1 Royal titles and styles
7.2 Honours
7.2.1 National honours
7.2.2 Foreign honours
7.3 Arms
8 References
9 External links
Early life and education[edit]
Máxima aged six, 1977
Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti was born in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 17 May 1971. Queen Máxima is the daughter of Jorge Zorreguieta (1928–2017), Secretary of Agriculture under General Jorge Rafael Videla during Argentina's last civil-military dictatorship (1976–1983), and his second wife, María del Carmen Cerruti Carricart (born 1944). She has two brothers, a sister, and three half-sisters by her father's first wife, Marta López Gil.[2][3] She is named after her paternal great-grandmother Máxima Bonorino González (1874–1965). Her father was a scion of the Zorreguieta family who had been landed gentry, professionals, regional politicians, and statesmen for generations. Her maternal great-grandfather was also from the landed gentry; Domingo Carricart Etchart (1885-1953) was a landowner, politician, Director of the Banco Provincial de Buenos Aires, first mayor of González Chaves, and mayor of Tres Arroyos.[4]
She grew up in the Recoleta neighbourhood of Buenos Aires city, and studied at Northlands School, a bilingual school of the city of Olivos. She graduated with a degree in Economics from the Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina (UCA) in 1995. This private university is governed by a directory of local bishops, including the current Pope Francis, then Archbishop of Buenos Aires and Grand Chancellor of UCA. During her student years, Francis presided over the traditional Mass at the beginning of classes. She later completed her studies with a Master's degree in the United States.[5]
From 1989 to 1990, while still in college, she worked for Mercado Abierto Electrónico S.A. From 1992 to 1995, she worked in the sales department of Boston Securities SA in Buenos Aires, where she conducted research on software for financial markets. From July 1996 to February 1998, the current queen Máxima worked for HSBC James Capel Inc. in New York City, where she became vice president of institutional sales for Latin America. From then until July 1999, she was vice president of the emerging markets division of Dresdner Kleinwort Benson in New York. From May 2000 to March 2001 she worked in the Deutsche Bank in Brussels.[6] She also worked as an English language teacher to children and adults, and of mathematics for high school students and freshmen.[7]
Relationship with Willem-Alexander[edit]
Máxima and Willem-Alexander, 2001
Máxima met Willem-Alexander in April 1999 in Seville, Spain, during the Seville Spring Fair. In an interview, they stated that he introduced himself only as "Alexander", so that she did not know he was a prince. She thought he was joking when he later told her that he was not only a prince, but the Prince of Orange and heir apparent to the Dutch throne. They agreed to meet again two weeks later in New York, where Máxima was working for Dresdner Kleinwort Benson. Their relationship apparently began in New York, but she did not meet his parents, Queen Beatrix and Prince Claus, for some time.[8]
The news of the couple's relationship and eventual marriage plans caused controversy in the Netherlands, due to the involvement of Máxima's father Jorge Zorreguieta as a cabinet minister during the National Reorganization Process, the most recent Argentinian dictatorship. Her father's tenure as a minister took place during the beginning stages of the Dirty War, a period of repression that saw 10,000–30,000 people killed or disappeared during the seven-year military regime. At the request of the States General, Michiel Baud, a Dutch professor in Latin American studies, carried out an inquiry into the involvement of Zorreguieta in the Dirty War (roughly, 1974–83). Zorreguieta claimed that, as a civilian, he was unaware of the Dirty War while he was a cabinet minister. Baud determined that Máxima's father had not been directly involved in any of the numerous atrocities that took place during that period. However, Baud also concluded that Zorreguieta was almost certainly aware of them; in Baud's view, it was highly unlikely that a cabinet minister would not have known about them.[9] Even so, his possible presence at the royal wedding was debated for several months.[10]
Marriage and family[edit]
The royal wedding, February 2002
Willem-Alexander, Máxima and their daughters on the balcony of the Royal Palace, after the abdication of Queen Beatrix in 2013
The couple announced their engagement on 30 March 2001; Máxima addressed the nation in Dutch (which at the time she only spoke to basic conversational extent) during the live televised broadcast.[11] Máxima was granted Dutch citizenship by Royal Decree on 17 May 2001 and now has dual citizenship: Argentine and Dutch.[12] The engagement was formally approved by the States General later that year—a necessary step for Willem-Alexander to remain heir to the throne.[13]
Máxima and Willem-Alexander were married on 2 February 2002 in a civil ceremony in the Beurs van Berlage, Amsterdam, which was then followed by a religious ceremony at Amsterdam's Nieuwe Kerk ("New Church").[14][15] She remained a Roman Catholic after her marriage.
She is the first Dutch queen consort to have been born outside Europe although, through her father, she is a descendant of King Afonso III of Portugal and other noble families of the Iberian Peninsula who moved to the Argentine viceroyalty during the early nineteenth century.[2][16][17]
Máxima's parents were not present at the wedding; her father was told he could not attend due to his role as a cabinet minister during the National Reorganization Process, and her mother chose not to attend without her husband.[18][19]
The couple have three daughters:
Catharina-Amalia, Princess of Orange, born 7 December 2003 at HMC Bronovo in The Hague.
Princess Alexia, born 26 June 2005 at HMC Bronovo in The Hague.
Princess Ariane, born 10 April 2007 at HMC Bronovo in The Hague.
Máxima is also godmother of:
Countess Sophie Philippa Máxima Walburga Marie of Waldburg-Zeil, born 29 June 2000.
Prince Sverre Magnus of Norway, born 3 December 2005.
Countess Leonore Marie Irene Enrica of Orange-Nassau, born 3 June 2006.
Activities[edit]
Willem-Alexander reads, with Queen Maxima at his side, the throne speech for Budget Day to members of the Senate and House in the Knights Hall.
Queen Máxima has a particular concern for the integration of immigrants into Dutch culture. She was a member of a special parliamentary commission which sought to recommend ways to increase the participation of female immigrants in the workforce. Máxima stresses the importance for immigrants of learning the Dutch language (as she did) in order to fully participate in Dutch society. Dutch is the Queen's third language; she is also fluent in Spanish (her native language) and English. She speaks French to a conversational level.
She participates in conferences around the world representing the Netherlands. She was granted a seat in the Dutch Council of State on 20 October 2004,[20] the highest advisory body and court of administration. She was a member of the Committee for Ethnic Minority Women’s Participation from July 2003 until 2005. She has a seat on the board of governors of the Chair on the Management of Diversity and Integration at the Free University of Amsterdam; she (along with her husband) is a patron of the Orange Fund (established to promote social welfare and cohesion in the Netherlands); and she also chairs the Board of Trustees of the Prince Claus Chair in Development and Equity of the International Institute of Social Studies [21] and the University of Utrecht.[22]
Máxima is one of the few members of royal families anywhere in the world to be an open supporter of gay rights, and was the first member of a royal family to attend an LGBT rights conference, having attended a conference concerned with LGBT rights on 5 March 2008.[23][24]
Queen Máxima has been honorary chair of the Money Wise Platform since 2010. In this capacity, the Queen focuses attention on the importance of financial education and managing money sensibly, especially where children and young people are concerned. The Queen acts as special advisor to the Platform and consults with interested parties on ways of increasing people’s financial awareness and resilience.
Since 10 June 2015, Queen Máxima has been the honorary chair of the Ambassadors for Music at School Platform. Queen Máxima has for some years been committed to giving as many children as possible the opportunity to create music.
Controversy over statement on Dutch identity[edit]
In 2007 Maxima inadvertently caused a wave of massive criticism when in a speech to the Scientific Council for Government Policy she said that in the seven years that she had been in the Netherlands, she had been unable to find the Dutch identity.[25] Maxima is quoted as having said the following:
“ ... but 'the' Dutch identity? No, I have not found it. The Netherlands is: large windows without curtains so everyone can look in; but also adherence to privacy and coziness. The Netherlands is: one biscuit at tea; but also great hospitality and warmth. The Netherlands is: sobriety, control and pragmatism; But also the experience of intense emotions together. The Netherlands is far too diverse to summarize in one cliché. 'The' Dutchman does not exist. As a consolation I can tell you that 'the' Argentinian also does not exist. I therefore find it very interesting that the title of the report of the Scientific Council for Government Policy is not 'the Dutch identity'. But: Identification with the Netherlands. That leaves room for development and diversity.[26] ”
Critics felt that with this statement she unwisely entered a politically very sensitive area. During an interview in May 2011, on the occasion of her fortieth birthday, Maxima said that she was shocked by the commotion her words had caused. She claimed she was misunderstood and that she wanted to make a compliment to the Netherlands for being a many-faceted society[citation needed].
International appointments[edit]
Máxima in 2015 with Mexican President Enrique Peña Nieto
Queen Máxima currently serves as the United Nations Secretary-General’s Special Advocate for Inclusive Finance for Development (UNSGSA). The UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon designated her to this role in September 2009 in order to raise awareness on the importance of inclusive financial systems for achieving economic and development goals such as poverty alleviation, food security and education. In her work as UNSGSA, the Queen focuses on how formal financial services such as savings, insurance, and credit can prevent people from falling into poverty due to expenditures on healthcare, and people who are not able to protect themselves against rising food prices and poverty because they do not have access to basic savings accounts. The role of the UNSGSA is to foster action by governments, private sector, financial system standard setters, and others towards a more inclusive financial system that works for the poor.[27]
Máxima is also the Honorary Patron of the G20 Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion (GPFI) since June 2011. In this role she works with governments and partners to advance the G20 Action Plan on Financial Inclusion, and the G20 Financial Inclusion Peer Learning Program. Previously, the Queen was a member of the Advisors Group for the United Nations' International Year of Microcredit 2005 [28] and until 2009, was a member of UN Advisors Group on Inclusive Financial Sectors.
Titles, honours and arms[edit]
By a decree issued on 25 January 2002, upon the solemnization of marriage, Máxima Zorreguieta was granted the titles Princess of the Netherlands and Princess of Orange-Nassau, and the style Royal Highness was formally conferred upon her. She also became "mevrouw van Amsberg (Mrs. van Amsberg)".[29]
Another decree issued on the same day also granted her own personal coat of arms and a personal standard.[30]
On 13 May 2011, the Dutch parliament confirmed that Máxima would become queen consort of the Netherlands upon her husband's accession, after a debate over her future title and style.[31] On 28 January 2013, it was announced that Queen Beatrix would abdicate on 30 April in favour of Willem-Alexander.[32] Máxima is the Kingdom's first queen consort since Princess Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, the second wife of William III. She is the first Dutch queen consort to have been born as a commoner, and the first to have been born outside Europe.
Royal titles and styles[edit]
2 February 2002 – 30 April 2013: Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mrs. van Amsberg[citation needed]
30 April 2013 – present: Her Majesty The Queen[33]
Máxima's full title and style is "Her Majesty Queen Máxima, Princess of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau".[33]
Honours[edit]
Royal Standard of Máxima
See also: List of honours of the Dutch royal family by country
National honours[edit]
Netherlands:
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
King Willem-Alexander Investiture Medal (30 April 2013)
Foreign honours[edit]
Belgium:
Grand Cordon of the Order of Leopold[34][35]
Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown[36]
Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross
Brunei: Member 1st Class of the Order of the Most Esteemed Family Order of Brunei[37]
Chile: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit
Denmark: Knight of the Order of the Elephant[38][39]
France: Grand Cross of the Order of National Merit[40]
Germany: Grand Cross Special issue of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Italy: Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic[41]
Japan: Grand Cordon (Paulownia) of the Order of the Precious Crown
Luxembourg: Grand Cross of the Order of Adolphe of Nassau[42]
Mexico: Sash of the Order of the Aztec Eagle[43]
Norway: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Olav[44]
Oman: Member 1st Class of the Order of Sultan Qaboos[45]
Poland: Grand Cross of the Order of the White Eagle[46]
Portugal: Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Prince Henry[47]
Spain: Dame Grand Cross of the Order of Isabella the Catholic[48]
Sweden: Commander Grand Cross of the Royal Order of the Polar Star[49]
United Arab Emirates: Grand Cross of the Order of Union[50]
Arms[edit]
Coat of arms of Queen Máxima of the Netherlands
Notes
This coat of arms is used by Queen Máxima of the Netherlands.[51] It was granted by royal decree-law of Queen Beatrix on 25 January 2002.[30]
Escutcheon
Quarterly: I and IV azure billety or, a lion with coronet also or armed and langued gules, holding in his dexter paw a sword argent hilted or, and in his sinister seven arrows argent pointed and bound together or, which is of the Kingdom of the Netherlands; II and III or, a horn azure opened and bound gules, which is of the First House of Orange; an inescutcheon or bearing a castle of three towers gules flanked on each side by a poplar tree au naturel, and a river azure flowing from the base, ondoyant to the gate of the castle, which is of the house of Zorreguieta in Argentina.
Symbolism
The first and fourth quarters are the coat of arms of the Netherlands, based on the coat of arms of the House of Nassau.[51]
The second and third quarters are the coat of arms of the Prince of Orange.[51]
In the center is the coat of arms of Queen Máxima's paternal family, the Zorreguieta family.[51]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Pronunciation in Spanish ([ˈmaksima soreˈɣjeta ˈseruti]) and Dutch ([ˈmɑksimaː]).
^ Jump up to: a b Reitwiesner, William Addams. "Ancestry of Maxima Zorreguieta". WARGS. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Andrea Borella Annuario della Nobiltà Italiana, Edition XXXI Teglio (SO) 2010 S.A.G.I. Casa Editrice, vol. 1 and Ascendencia de Da. Máxima Zorreguieta, Princesa de la Corona de los Paises Bajos Archived 3 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Ancestry of Maxima Zorreguieta Archived 15 September 2012 at Archive.is
Jump up ^ "From Commoner to Queen - The Story of Máxima Zorreguieta". Euro Channel - The Best of Europe. Archived from the original on 9 October 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2015. After moving to the United States to complete a master’s degree
Jump up ^ "Studie en werk vóór 2002". Het Koninklij Huis. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
Jump up ^ "Hats off to birthday girl Queen Máxima of the Netherlands". Hello Magazine. 15 May 2015. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
Jump up ^ "Princess Maxima". Hello magazine. Archived from the original on 21 April 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ Human rights: Zorreguieta vs.humanrights Archived 19 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine., March 2001.
Jump up ^ "Crown Princess Maxima of the Netherlands". Hello!. Archived from the original on 14 December 2012. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Engagement period Archived 22 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine., Royal Wedding 2002.
Jump up ^ Ook Beatrix heeft dubbele nationaliteit Archived 21 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine., (Queen Beatrix also has dual citizenship), Radio Netherlands Worldwide, 6 March 2007.
Jump up ^ Joyful christening of Catharina-Amalia
Jump up ^ Amsterdam Museum toont trouwtafel van Prins Willem-Alexander en Prinses Maxima Archived 15 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine., Royal Wedding 2002.
Jump up ^ Princess Maxima & Prince Willem-Alexander's Wedding: A Look Back Archived 24 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Genealogía Argentina Archived 3 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ La Casa de Orange - Nassu y su parentesco político con Doña Máxima Zorroguieta Archived 13 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Fox News Archived 9 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Dutch abdication: profile of Maxima Zorreguieta, Holland's new Queen consort Archived 25 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Prinses Máxima krijgt zitting in Raad van State" (in Dutch). 19 October 2004. Archived from the original on 29 March 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
Jump up ^ Iss.nl Archived 19 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Queen Maxima at the Utrecht University in Utrecht". Archived from the original on 13 April 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2016.
Jump up ^ FreeForm | Chicago Free Press: Judge Not... Archived 7 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Landelijke koploperovereenkomst lesbisch". Rijksoverheid. 14 November 2007. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Speech Máxima on identity Archived 14 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine., NIS, July 17, 2008
Jump up ^ Translated from the Dutch original.
Jump up ^ Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima of the Netherlands Archived 8 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "International Year of Microcredit 2005". Year of Microcredit. Archived from the original on 26 November 2012. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Decree of 25 January 2002 laying down the titles and styles of Máxima Zorreguieta and titles, names, and styles of the children who might be born from the marriage of His Royal Highness Prince Willem-Alexander Claus George Ferdinand, Prince of Orange, Prince of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, Jonkheer van Amsberg with Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima of the Netherlands, Princess of Orange-Nassau, Mrs van Amsberg Archived 28 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine.. Official Gazette of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. No. 41. Published: 31 January 2002
^ Jump up to: a b Decree of 25 January 2002, regarding the coat of arms and personal flag of Her Royal Highness Princess Máxima Archived 13 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.. Official Gazette of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. No. 42. Published: 31 January 2002
Jump up ^ Pinedo, Danielle; Versteegh, Kees (15 February 2013). "Deskundigen in NRC: Máxima kreeg te snel titel 'koningin'". nrc.nl (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 19 September 2016.
Jump up ^ www.koninklijkhuis.nl Archived 1 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
^ Jump up to: a b "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Alamy Archived 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Alamy Archived 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ State visit of Beatrix in Belgium, 2006, Belga Pictures, group photo Archived 25 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Noblesse et Royautés Archived 25 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine. (French), State visit of Netherlands in Brunei (01/2013), Photo Archived 1 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Getty Images Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Getty Images Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Koning krijgt grootkruis van Legioen van Eer Archived 23 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. - website De Telegraaf
Jump up ^ Quirinale website Archived 4 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ The royal forums Archived 4 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine., State visit of Luxembourg to Netherlands, 2006, Photo Archived 1 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Official decree Archived 23 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine., 2 November 2009
Jump up ^ Kongehuset[dead link]
Jump up ^ Alamy Archived 8 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Interia Archived 27 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine. - The Queen wears the rosette of the order above her brooch.
Jump up ^ Portugal Archived 4 April 2013 at WebCite
Jump up ^ Boletín Oficial del Estado Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Mad Hattery Archived 31 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine., pictures during Princess Victoria of Sweden's wedding
Jump up ^ H.H Sheikh Khalifa welcomes HM Queen Beatrix of Netherlands Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. - website of the UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs
^ Jump up to: a b c d (in Dutch) Wapens van leden van het Koninklijk Huis Archived 23 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine., Dutch Royal House. Retrieved on 6 May 2013.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Queen Máxima of the Netherlands.
Queen Máxima at the website of the Royal House
Dutch royalty
Vacant
Title last held by
Claus von Amsberg
as prince consort Queen consort of the Netherlands
30 April 2013 – present Incumbent
[show]
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Dutch royal consorts
Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti (2013–present)
Claus van Amsberg (1980–2002)
Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld (1948–1980)
Duke Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1901–1934)
Princess Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1879–1890)
Princess Sophie of Württemberg (1849–1877)
Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna of Russia (1840–1849)
Princess Wilhelmine of Prussia (1813–1837)
Hortense de Beauharnais (1806–1810)
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Dutch princesses by marriage
Generations are numbered from William I of the Netherlands.
1st generation
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Princess Amalia of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
Princess Marie of Prussia
3rd generation
None
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None
5th generation
None
6th generation
Máxima Zorreguieta Cerruti
Mabel Martine Wisse Smit
Petra Laurentien Brinkhorst
Marie-Hélène van den Broek
Annette Sekrève
Anita van Eijk
Aimée Söhngen
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See also : List of current sovereign monarchs - Category:Royal consorts - Category:Queens consort
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VIAF: 20604949
LCCN: n2001038213
ISNI: 0000 0001 2123 3530
GND: 12406695X
SUDOC: 148917879
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Gram stain
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A Gram stain of mixed Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus ATCC 25923, gram-positive cocci, in purple) and Escherichia coli (E. coli ATCC 11775, gram-negative bacilli, in red), the most common Gram stain reference bacteria
Gram stain or Gram staining, also called Gram's method, is a method of staining used to distinguish and classify bacterial species into two large groups (gram-positive and gram-negative). The name comes from the Danish bacteriologist Hans Christian Gram, who developed the technique.
Gram staining differentiates bacteria by the chemical and physical properties of their cell walls by detecting peptidoglycan, which is present in the cell wall of Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative cells also contain peptidoglycan, but a very small layer of it that is dissolved when the alcohol is added. This is why the cell loses its initial color from the primary stain.[1] Gram-positive bacteria retain the crystal violet dye, and thus are stained violet, while the Gram-negative bacteria do not; after washing, a counterstain is added (commonly safranin or fuchsine) that will stain these Gram-negative bacteria a pink color. Both Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria pick up the counterstain. The counterstain, however, is unseen on Gram-positive bacteria because of the darker crystal violet stain.
The Gram stain is almost always the first step in the preliminary identification of a bacterial organism. While Gram staining is a valuable diagnostic tool in both clinical and research settings, not all bacteria can be definitively classified by this technique. This gives rise to gram-variable and gram-indeterminate groups.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Uses
2.1 Medical
2.2 Staining mechanism
3 Examples
3.1 Gram-positive bacteria
3.2 Gram-negative bacteria
3.3 Gram variable and gram-indeterminate bacteria
4 Orthographic note
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
History[edit]
The method is named after its inventor, the Danish scientist Hans Christian Gram (1853–1938), who developed the technique while working with Carl Friedländer in the morgue of the city hospital in Berlin in 1884. Gram devised his technique not for the purpose of distinguishing one type of bacterium from another but to make bacteria more visible in stained sections of lung tissue.[2] He published his method in 1884, and included in his short report the observation that the typhus bacillus did not retain the stain.[3]
Uses[edit]
Gram staining is a bacteriological laboratory technique[4] used to differentiate bacterial species into two large groups (gram-positive and gram-negative) based on the physical properties of their cell walls.[5][page needed] Gram staining is not used to classify archaea, formerly archaeabacteria, since these microorganisms yield widely varying responses that do not follow their phylogenetic groups.[6]
The Gram stain is not an infallible tool for diagnosis, identification, or phylogeny, and it is of extremely limited use in environmental microbiology. It is used mainly to make a preliminary morphologic identification or to establish that there are significant numbers of bacteria in a clinical specimen. It cannot identify bacteria to the species level, and for most medical conditions, it should not be used as the sole method of bacterial identification. In clinical microbiology laboratories, it is used in combination with other traditional and molecular techniques to identify bacteria. Some organisms are gram-variable (meaning they may stain either negative or positive); some are not stained with either dye used in the Gram technique and are not seen. In a modern environmental or molecular microbiology lab, most identification is done using genetic sequences and other molecular techniques, which are far more specific and informative than differential staining.
Gram staining has been suggested to be as effective a diagnostic tool as PCR in one primary research report regarding gonococcal urethritis.[7][non-primary source needed]
Medical[edit]
See also: Gram-negative bacterial infection and Gram-positive bacterial infection
Gram stains are performed on body fluid or biopsy when infection is suspected. Gram stains yield results much more quickly than culturing, and is especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are cerebrospinal fluid for meningitis and synovial fluid for septic arthritis.[4][8]
Staining mechanism[edit]
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of peptidoglycan (50–90% of cell envelope), and as a result are stained purple by crystal violet, whereas gram-negative bacteria have a thinner layer (10% of cell envelope), so do not retain the purple stain and are counter-stained pink by safranin. There are four basic steps of the Gram stain:
Applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed smear of a bacterial culture. Heat fixation kills some bacteria but is mostly used to affix the bacteria to the slide so that they don't rinse out during the staining procedure
The addition of iodide, which binds to crystal violet and traps it in the cell
Rapid decolorization with ethanol or acetone
Counterstaining with safranin.[9] Carbol fuchsin is sometimes substituted for safranin since it more intensely stains anaerobic bacteria, but it is less commonly used as a counterstain.[10]
Figure 1: Gram stain procedure and effect on Gram-negative and Gram-positive cell walls.
Crystal violet (CV) dissociates in aqueous solutions into CV+
and chloride (Cl−
) ions. These ions penetrate through the cell wall and cell membrane of both gram-positive and gram-negative cells. The CV+
ion interacts with negatively charged components of bacterial cells and stains the cells purple.[11]
Iodide (I−
or I−
3) interacts with CV+
and forms large complexes of crystal violet and iodine (CV–I) within the inner and outer layers of the cell. Iodine is often referred to as a mordant, but is a trapping agent that prevents the removal of the CV–I complex and, therefore, color the cell.[12]
When a decolorizer such as alcohol or acetone is added, it interacts with the lipids of the cell membrane.[13] A gram-negative cell loses its outer lipopolysaccharide membrane, and the inner peptidoglycan layer is left exposed. The CV–I complexes are washed from the gram-negative cell along with the outer membrane.[14][citation needed] In contrast, a gram-positive cell becomes dehydrated from an ethanol treatment. The large CV–I complexes become trapped within the gram-positive cell due to the multilayered nature of its peptidoglycan.[14][citation needed] The decolorization step is critical and must be timed correctly; the crystal violet stain is removed from both gram-positive and negative cells if the decolorizing agent is left on too long (a matter of seconds).[15][citation needed]
After decolorization, the gram-positive cell remains purple and the gram-negative cell loses its purple color.[15][citation needed] Counterstain, which is usually positively charged safranin or basic fuchsine, is applied last to give decolorized gram-negative bacteria a pink or red color.[16][17]
Examples[edit]
Gram-positive bacteria[edit]
Main article: Gram-positive bacteria
Gram-positive bacteria generally have a single membrane (monoderm) surrounded by a thick peptidoglycan. This rule is followed by two phyla: Firmicutes (except for the classes Mollicutes and Negativicutes) and the Actinobacteria.[5][18] In contrast, members of the Chloroflexi (green non-sulfur bacteria) are monoderms but possess a thin or absent (class Dehalococcoidetes) peptidoglycan and can stain negative, positive or indeterminate; members of the Deinococcus-Thermus group, stain positive but are diderms with a thick peptidoglycan.[5][page needed] [18]
Historically, the gram-positive forms made up the phylum Firmicutes, a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as Bacillus, Listeria, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, and Clostridium.[19][citation needed] It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like Mycoplasma that lack cell walls and so cannot be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms.[20][citation needed]
Some bacteria have cell walls which are particularly adept at retaining stains. These will appear positive by Gram stain even though they are not closely related to other gram-positive bacteria. These are called acid fast bacteria, and can only be differentiated from other gram-positive bacteria by special staining procedures.[21][citation needed]
Gram-negative bacteria[edit]
Main article: Gram-negative bacteria
Gram-negative bacteria generally possess a thin layer of peptidoglycan between two membranes (diderms). Most bacterial phyla are gram-negative, including the cyanobacteria, spirochaetes, and green sulfur bacteria, and most Proteobacteria (exceptions being some members of the Rickettsiales and the insect-endosymbionts of the Enterobacteriales).[5][page needed][18]
Gram variable and gram-indeterminate bacteria[edit]
Some bacteria, after staining with the Gram stain, yield a gram-variable pattern: a mix of pink and purple cells are seen.[14][citation needed] In cultures of Bacillus, Butyrivibrio, and Clostridium, a decrease in peptidoglycan thickness during growth coincides with an increase in the number of cells that stain gram-negative.[22] In addition, in all bacteria stained using the Gram stain, the age of the culture may influence the results of the stain.[23]
Gram-indeterminate bacteria do not respond predictably to Gram staining and, therefore, cannot be determined as either gram-positive or gram-negative. Examples include many species of Mycobacterium, including M. tuberculosis and M. leprae.[24][25]
Orthographic note[edit]
The term Gram staining is derived from the surname of Hans Christian Gram, the eponym (Gram) is therefore capitalized but not the common noun (stain) as is usual for scientific terms.[26] The adjectives 'gram-positive' and 'gram-negative'; as eponymous adjectives, their initial letter can be either lowercase 'g' or capital 'G', depending on whose style guide (if any) governs the document being written. Lowercase style is used by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other style regimens such as the AMA style.[27] Dictionaries may use lowercase,[28][29] uppercase,[30][31][32][33] or both.[34][35] Uppercase 'Gram-positive' or 'Gram-negative' usage is also common in many scientific journal articles and publications.[35][36][37] When articles are submitted to journals, each journal may or may not apply house style to the postprint version. Preprint versions contain whichever style the author happened to use. Even style regimens that use lowercase for the adjectives 'gram-positive' and 'gram-negative' still use capital for 'Gram stain'.
See also[edit]
Bacterial cell structure
References[edit]
Jump up ^ John G. Holt; Noel R. Krieg; Peter H.A. Sneath; James T. Staley; Stanley T. Williams (1994). Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (9th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 11. ISBN 0-683-00603-7.
Jump up ^ Austrian, R. (1960). "The Gram stain and the etiology of lobar pneumonia, an historical note". Bacteriological Reviews. 24 (3): 261–265. PMC 441053  . PMID 13685217.
Jump up ^ Gram, H.C. (1884). "Über die isolierte Färbung der Schizomyceten in Schnitt- und Trockenpräparaten". Fortschritte der Medizin (in German). 2: 185–189. .
English translation in: Brock, T.D. (1999). Milestones in Microbiology 1546–1940 (2 ed.). ASM Press. pp. 215–218. ISBN 1-55581-142-6.
Translation is also at: Brock, T.D. "Pioneers in Medical Laboratory Science: Christian Gram 1884". Hoslink. Retrieved 2010-07-27.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryan K.J., Ray C.G. (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 232f. ISBN 0838585299. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) [full citation needed]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Madigan, M.T.; Martinko J.; Parker J. (2004). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (10th ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 0-13-066271-2. [full citation needed]
Jump up ^ Beveridge T.J. (2001). "Use of the Gram stain in microbiology". Biotechnic & Histochemistry. 76 (3): 111–118. doi:10.1080/714028139. PMID 11475313.
Jump up ^ El-Garnal, A.H., Al-Otaibi, S.R., Alshamali, A., Abdulrazzaq, A., Najem, N., and Fouzan, A.A. Polymerase chain reaction is no better than Gram stain for diagnosis of gonococcal urethritis. Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology, and Leprology, (2009); 75, 101.[non-primary source needed]
Jump up ^ Søgaard M.; Nørgaard M.; Schønheyder H. (2007). "First notification of positive blood cultures: high accuracy of the Gram stain report". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 45 (4): 1113–1117. doi:10.1128/JCM.02523-06. PMC 1865800  . PMID 17301283.
Jump up ^ Microbiology: Principles and Explorations, p 65; Jacquelyn.G. Black Prentice Hall, 1993.
Jump up ^ "Medical Chemical Corporation". med-chem.com. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Leboffe, Michael (2014). Microbiology Laboratory Theory and Application (3rd ed.). Englewood, CO: Morton Publishing Company. p. 105. ISBN 1617312800.
Jump up ^ "StainsFile - Stain theory - What a mordant is not". stainsfile.info. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
Jump up ^ "Welcome to Microbugz - Gram Stain". www.austincc.edu. Retrieved 2017-05-26.
^ Jump up to: a b c Tim,, Sandle,. Pharmaceutical microbiology : essentials for quality assurance and quality control. ISBN 9780081000229. OCLC 923807961.
^ Jump up to: a b Gram's Serendipitous Stain by Hardy's Diagnostics at hardydiagnostics.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Hans-Christian-Gram.pdf
Jump up ^ Beveridge T.J.; Davies J.A. (November 1983). "Cellular responses of Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli to the Gram stain". Journal of Bacteriology. 156 (2): 846–58. PMC 217903  . PMID 6195148.
Jump up ^ Davies J.A.; Anderson G.K.; Beveridge T.J.; Clark H.C. (November 1983). "Chemical mechanism of the Gram stain and synthesis of a new electron-opaque marker for electron microscopy, which replaces the iodine mordant of the stain". Journal of Bacteriology. 156 (2): 837–845. PMC 217902  . PMID 6195147.
^ Jump up to: a b c Don J. Brenner, Noel R. Krieg, James T. Staley (July 26, 2005) [1984]. George M. Garrity, ed. Introductory Essays. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology. 2A (2nd ed.). New York: Springer. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-387-24143-2. British Library no. GBA561951. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link) [page needed]
Jump up ^ Galperin, Michael Y. (2013-12-27). "Genome Diversity of Spore-Forming Firmicutes". Microbiology Spectrum. 1 (2). doi:10.1128/microbiolspectrum.tbs-0015-2012. ISSN 2165-0497. PMC 4306282  . PMID 26184964.
Jump up ^ Practical Medical Microbiology by Dr. Hams H. Hashem, from http://qu.edu.iq/el/mod/resource/view.php?id=1391
Jump up ^ "THE ACID FAST STAIN". www2.highlands.edu. Retrieved 2017-06-09.
Jump up ^ Beveridge, Terry J. (March 1990). "Mechanism of gram variability in select bacteria". Journal of Bacteriology. 172 (3): 1609–20. doi:10.1128/jb.172.3.1609-1620.1990. PMC 208639  . PMID 1689718.
Jump up ^ Beveridge, Terry J. (March 1990). "Mechanism of Gram Variability in Select Bacteria" (PDF). Journal of Bacteriology. 172 (3): 1609–20. doi:10.1128/jb.172.3.1609-1620.1990. PMC 208639  . PMID 1689718. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
Jump up ^ Black, Jacquelyn (2012). Microbiology: Principles and Exploration (8th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-470-54109-8.
Jump up ^ Reynolds J.; Moyes R.B.; Breakwell D.P. (2009). "Differential staining of bacteria: acid fast stain". Current Protocols in Microbiology. Appendix 3: Appendix 3H. doi:10.1002/9780471729259.mca03hs15. PMID 19885935.
Jump up ^ Waddingham, Anne (28 August 2014). New Hart's Rules: The Oxford Style Guide. OUP Oxford. p. 105. ISBN 978-0199570027.
Jump up ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emerging Infectious Diseases Journal Style Guide. Preferred Usage
Jump up ^ Elsevier, Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary, Elsevier.
Jump up ^ Merriam-Webster, gram–positive, Merriam-Webster.
Jump up ^ "Definition of Gram-positive". Collins.
Jump up ^ "Gram stain". Oxford Dictionary.
Jump up ^ "Definition of Gram-positive". Medicinenet.
Jump up ^ "Gram negative/positive". Business dictionary.
Jump up ^ "gram-pos·i·tive or Gram-pos·i·tive". The American Heritage Dictionary.
^ Jump up to: a b "Gram-positive". Dictionary.com.
Jump up ^ Lisa Brown, Julie M. Wolf, Rafael Prados-Rosales & Arturo Casadevall (2015). "Through the wall: extracellular vesicles in Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 13: 620–630. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3480. PMC 4860279  . PMID 26324094. CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
Jump up ^ Kristen L. Mueller (12 June 2015). "Detecting Gram-negative bacteria". Science. 348 (6240): 1218. doi:10.1126/science.348.6240.1218-o.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gram stains.
The Wikibook School Science has a page on the topic of: Gram staining
Gram staining technique video
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e
Microbial and histological stains
Iron/hemosiderin
Prussian blue
Lipids
Sudan stain
Sudan II
Sudan III
Sudan IV
Oil Red O
Sudan Black B
Carbohydrates
Periodic acid–Schiff stain
Amyloid
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Gram stain
Methyl violet/Gentian violet
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Ziehl–Neelsen stain/acid-fast
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Auramine-rhodamine stain
Auramine O
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Connective tissue
trichrome stain: Masson's trichrome stain/Lillie's trichrome
Light Green SF yellowish
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H&E stain
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Gömöri trichrome stain
Neutral red
Janus Green B
Alcian blue stain
Movat's stain
Jaswant Singh–Bhattacharji (JSB) stain
Tissue stainability
Acidophilic
Basophilic
Chromophobic
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