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Disinvestment from South Africa
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The campaign gained prominence in the mid-1980s on university campuses in the US. The debate headlined the October 1985 issue (above) of Vassar College's student newspaper.[1]
Disinvestment (or divestment) from South Africa was first advocated in the 1960s, in protest of South Africa's system of apartheid, but was not implemented on a significant scale until the mid-1980s. The disinvestment campaign, after being realized in federal legislation enacted in 1986 by the United States, is credited by some[2] as pressuring the South African Government to embark on negotiations ultimately leading to the dismantling of the Apartheid system.
Contents
[hide]
1 United Nations campaigns
1.1 Attempts to persuade British policymakers
1.2 Steadfast rejection by the West
1.3 1970s
2 United States campaign (1977–1989)
2.1 The Sullivan Principles (1977)
2.2 Achieving critical mass (1984–1989)
2.3 University campuses
2.3.1 Michigan State University
2.3.2 Columbia University
2.3.3 Smith College
2.3.4 Harvard University
2.3.5 University of California
2.3.6 Gettysburg College
2.4 States and cities
2.5 Federal involvement
2.5.1 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
2.5.2 Budget Reconciliation Act
2.5.3 Further legislative efforts
3 Effects on South Africa
3.1 Economic effects
4 Anti-apartheid opposition
5 Outside criticism
6 Further reading
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
United Nations campaigns[edit]
International opposition to
apartheid in South Africa
Campaigns[show]
Academic boycott
Sporting boycott
Disinvestment
Constructive engagement
Free South Africa Movement
International anti-apartheid music
Instruments and legislation[show]
1962 UN Resolution 1761
1973 Crime of Apartheid Convention
1977 Gleneagles Agreement
1977 Sullivan principles
1986 Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
Organisations[show]
Anti-Apartheid Movement
Artists United Against Apartheid
Commonwealth of Nations
Halt All Racist Tours
Organisation of African Unity
TransAfrica
UN Special Committee against Apartheid
Conferences[show]
1964 Conference for Economic Sanctions
1978 World Conference against Racism
UN Security Council Resolutions[show]
Resolution 134 (Sharpeville massacre)
Resolution 181 (voluntary arms embargo)
Resolution 191 (sanctions feasibility)
Resolution 282 (arms embargo strengthening)
Resolution 418 (mandatory arms embargo)
Resolution 435 (South-West Africa ceasefire)
Resolution 591 (arms embargo strengthening)
Other aspects[show]
Elimination of Racism Day
"Biko" (song)
Activists
Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute
Equity television programming ban
Rugby union and apartheid
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In November 1962, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 1761, a non-binding resolution establishing the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa. All Western nations were unhappy with the call for sanctions and as a result boycotted the committee.[3]
Following this passage of this resolution the UK-based Anti-Apartheid Movement spearheaded the arrangements for an international conference on sanctions to be held in London in April 1964. According to Lisson, "The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their implications on the economies of South Africa, the UK, the US and the Protectorates. Knowing that the strongest opposition to the application of sanctions came from the West (and within the West, Britain), the Committee made every effort to attract as wide and varied a number of speakers and participants as possible so that the Conference findings would be regarded as objective."[3]
The conference was named the International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa. This conference, Lisson writes,
established the necessity, the legality and the practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa, whose policies were seen to have become a direct threat to peace and security in Africa and the world. Its findings also pointed out that in order to be effective, a programme of sanctions would need the active participation of Britain and the US, who were also the main obstacle to the implementation of such a policy.[3]
Attempts to persuade British policymakers[edit]
The conference was not successful in persuading Britain to take up economic sanctions against South Africa though. Rather, the British government "remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional 'because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not in any case believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South African Government to change its policies'".[3]
The AAM tried to make sanctions an election issue in the 1964 General Election in Britain. Candidates were asked to state their position on economic sanctions and other punitive measures against the South African government. Most candidates who responded answered in the affirmative. After the Labour Party sweep to power though, commitment to the anti-apartheid cause dissipated. In short order, Labour Party leader Harold Wilson told the press that his Labour Party was "not in favour of trade sanctions partly because, even if fully effective, they would harm the people we are most concerned about - the Africans and those white South Africans who are having to maintain some standard of decency there".[3] Even so, Lisson writes that the "AAM still hoped that the new Labour Government would be more sensitive to the demands of public opinion than the previous Government." But by the end of 1964, it was clear that the election of the Labour Party had made little difference in the governments overall unwillingness to imposing sanctions.
Steadfast rejection by the West[edit]
Lisson summarizes the situation at the UN in 1964:
At the UN, Britain consistently refused to accept that the situation in South Africa fell under Chapter VII of the [United Nations] Charter. Instead, in collaboration with the US, it worked for a carefully worded appeal on the Rivonia and other political trials to try to appease Afro-Asian countries and public opinion at home and abroad; by early 1965 the issue of sanctions had lost momentum.[3]
According to Lisson, Britain's rejection was premised on its economic interests in South Africa, which would be put at risk if any type of meaningful economic sanctions were put in place.
1970s[edit]
In 1977, the voluntary UN arms embargo became mandatory with the passing of United Nations Security Council Resolution 418.
An oil embargo was introduced on 20 November 1987 when the United Nations General Assembly adopted a voluntary international oil embargo.[4]
United States campaign (1977–1989)[edit]
The Sullivan Principles (1977)[edit]
Main article: Sullivan Principles
Knight[5] writes that anti-apartheid movement in the U.S. found that Washington was unwilling to get involved in economically isolating South Africa. The movement responded by organized lobbying of individual businesses and institutional investors to end their involvement with or investments in the apartheid state as a matter of corporate social responsibility. This campaign was coordinated by several faith-based institutional investors eventually leading to the creation of the Interfaith Center on Corporate Responsibility. An array of celebrities, including singer Paul Simon, also participated.
The key instrument of this campaign was the so-called Sullivan Principles, authored by and named after the Rev. Dr. Leon Sullivan. Leon Sullivan was an African-American preacher in Philadelphia who, in 1977, was also a board member of the corporate giant General Motors. At that time, General Motors was the largest employer of blacks in South Africa. The principles required that the corporation ensure that all employees are treated equally and in an integrated environment, both in and outside the workplace, and regardless of race, as a condition of doing business. These principles directly conflicted with the mandated racial discrimination and segregation policies of apartheid-era South Africa, thus making it impossible for businesses adopting the Sullivan Principles to continue doing business there.
While the anti-Apartheid movement lobbied individual businesses to adopt and comply with the Sullivan Principles, the movement opened an additional front with the institutional investors. Besides advocating that institutional investors withdraw any direct investments in South African-based companies, anti-Apartheid activists also lobbied for the divestment from all U.S.-based companies having South African interests who had not yet themselves adopted the Sullivan Principles. The institutional investors such as public pension funds were the most susceptible to these types of lobbying efforts.
Public companies with South Africa interests were thus confronted on two levels: First, shareholder resolutions were submitted by concerned stockholders who, admitted, posed more of a threat to the often-cherished corporate reputations than to the stock price. Second, the companies were presented with the significant financial threat whereby one or more of their major institutional investors decides to withdraw their investments.[citation needed]
Achieving critical mass (1984–1989)[edit]
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The disinvestment campaign in the United States, which had been in existence for quite some years, gained critical mass following the Black political resistance to the 1983 South African constitution which included a "complex set of segregated parliaments". Richard Knight writes:
In a total rejection of apartheid, black South Africans mobilized to make the townships ungovernable, black local officials resigned in droves, and the government declared a State of Emergency in 1985 and used thousands of troops to quell "unrest". Television audiences throughout the world were to watch almost nightly reports of massive resistance to apartheid, the growth of a democratic movement, and the savage police and military response.[5]
The result of the widely televised South African response was "a dramatic expansion of international actions to isolate apartheid, actions that combined with the internal situation to force dramatic changes in South Africa's international economic relations".[5]
University campuses[edit]
Students organized to demand that their universities "divest", meaning that the universities were to cease investing in companies that traded or had operations in South Africa. At many universities, many students and faculty protested in order to force action on the issue. The first organized Anti-Apartheid Organization on University Campuses in the United States was CUAA founded at the University of California Berkeley by Ramon Sevilla. Sevilla was a principal organizer that had support from Nelson Mandela, with whom Sevilla was in communication while Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island in South Africa as well as with The African National Congress (the ANC). Some of the most effective actions in support of the divestment of investments of U.S. companies doing business in South Africa took place between the years of 1976 and 1985, as Sevilla travelled throughout the American Continent and Europe gathering support for the overthrow of the South African Apartheid Government, which also led to his arrest at U.C. Berkeley on several occasions in the successful effort to force the University of California to divest all of their investments in companies doing business in South Africa, which also became the driving force for divestment worldwide in all companies doing business in the country of Apartheid South Africa. For example, in April 1986, 61 students were arrested after building a shantytown in front of the chancellor's office at UC Berkeley, Ramon Sevilla Chair CUAA.[6]
As a result of these organized "divestment campaigns", the boards of trustees of several prominent universities voted to divest completely from South Africa and companies with major South African interests.
The first of these was Hampshire College in 1977.
These initial successes set a pattern which was later repeated and many more campuses across the country. Activism surged in 1984 on the wave of public interest created by the wide television coverage of the then recent resistance efforts of the black South Africans.
Overall, according to Knight's analysis,[5] the numbers year over year for educational institutions fully or partially divesting from South Africa were:
1984
1987
1988
Number of institutions divesting
53 128 155
Michigan State University[edit]
The anti-Apartheid disinvestment campaign on campuses began on the West coast and Midwest in 1977 at Michigan State University and Stanford University.[7][8] It had some early successes in 1978 at Michigan State University, which voted total divestiture, [9][10] at Columbia University;[11] and the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Following the Michigan State University divestiture in 1978, in 1982, the State of Michigan Legislature and Governor voted for divestiture by all of the more than 30 State of Michigan colleges and universities, an action later struck down as unconstitutional by the Michigan Court of Appeals in response to a suit against the Act by the University of Michigan. [12]
Columbia University[edit]
The initial Columbia divestment, focused largely on bonds and financial institutions directly involved with the South African regime.[13] It followed a year long campaign first initiated by students who had worked together to block the appointment of former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to an endowed chair at the University in 1977.[14] Broadly backed by a diverse array of student groups and many notable faculty members the Committee Against Investment in South Africa held numerous teach-ins and demonstrations through the year focused on the trustees ties to the corporations doing business with South Africa. Trustee meetings were picketed and interrupted by demonstrations culminating in May 1978 in the takeover of the Graduate School of Business.[15][16]
Smith College[edit]
Smith College, in Northampton, Mass., which is connected to Hampshire College in Amherst, Mass., through the Five College Consortium engaged with divesting from South Africa several years later. In the spring semester of 1986 students at Smith College protested the Board of Trustee's decision not to fully divest[17] the college's endowment from companies in South Africa. Student protests included a sit-in in College Hall, the main administrative office which included nearly 100 students sleeping in over night on 24 February 1986. The next day students staged a full blockade of the building, not allowing any staff into the building and anticipating arrest, though the President of the college at the time, Mary Maples Dunn, refused to have the students arrested.
Students of Smith College blocking the entrance to College Hall in 1986 as an act of protest urging the Board of Trustees to divest the college's endowment from South Africa
A comprehensive list of the demands they made throughout the demonstration was published on 28 February 1986,[18] at 8:30 am. The "Women at College Hall" agreed to end the blockade if The Board of Trustees agreed to "issue a statement of intent to deliberate again, with a quorum, the issue of divestment" before Spring Break, and that the Investor Responsibility Committee would meet with representatives from the South African Task Force, the Ethical Investment Committee, and students from the Divestment Committee to look at "a restructuring of the investment policy". Students also demanded that the Board of Trustees “recognize the need for more dialogue with the Smith College community” and that they act on this with more meetings and transparency. In relation to the action, students demanded that a required teach-in be conducted to educate the college and the Board of Trustees on divestment, South African apartheid, and the College Hall Occupation, in addition, a booklet would be compiled by the demonstrators that would be distributed to the college to educate the community on the movement. They also demanded that the president grant amnesty to anyone who directly or indirectly participated in the occupation.
On 1 March 1986, the protest ended when negotiations with administrators led to an agreement that the trustees would re-evaluate their decision, a mandatory teach-in would be held, and amnesty would be granted to anyone involved in the demonstration.[18] After student pressures, Smith College voted to divest all $39 million in stocks that they held in companies working in South Africa by 31 October 1988.[19]
Harvard University[edit]
Harvard University only undertook a partial "divestment" from South Africa and only after significant resistance.[20] Adam Soften and Aln Wirzbicki give this description:
Throughout the 1980s, Harvard professors for the most part avoided involvement with South Africa in protest of apartheid, and then president Derek C. Bok was a vocal supporter of work by the U.S. to prompt reform in South Africa. But the University was slow to pull its own investments out of companies doing business in South Africa, insisting that through its proxy votes, it could more effectively fight apartheid than by purging stocks from its portfolio. But after a decade of protests, Harvard did adopt a policy of selective divestment, and by the end of the 1980s was almost completely out of South Africa.[20]
University of California[edit]
University of California, in contrast to the limited action undertaken by Harvard, authorized the withdrawal of three billion dollars worth of investments from the apartheid state. Nelson Mandela stated his belief that the University of California's massive divestment was particularly significant in abolishing white-minority rule in South Africa.[21]
Gettysburg College[edit]
In 1989, after a three-year review by the Gettysburg College Board of Trustees and a five-month campaign by the Salaam Committee--a campus group made up of students and faculty--the college voted to divest $5.4 million from companies connected to South Africa.[22]
States and cities[edit]
Boycott - Contaminated with apartheid - South African goods - 12 inch sticker used by activists, from the collection of the Library of Congress
In addition to campuses, anti-apartheid activists found concerned and sympathetic legislators in cities and states. Several states and localities did pass legislation ordering the sale of such securities, most notably the City and County of San Francisco, which passed legislation on June 5, 1978 not to invest "in corporations and banks doing business in or with South Africa".[23] The result was that "by the end of 1989 26 states, 22 counties and over 90 cities had taken some form of binding economic action against companies doing business in South Africa".[5] Many public pension funds connected to these local governments were legislated to disinvestment from South African companies. These local governments also exerted pressure via enacting selective purchasing policies, "whereby cities give preference in bidding on contracts for goods and services to those companies who do not do business in South Africa".[5]
Federal involvement[edit]
The activity at the state and city level set the stage for action at the federal level.
Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act[edit]
Main article: Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act
This began when the Senate and House of Representatives presented Ronald Reagan with the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act of 1986 which had been introduced by Congressman Ronald Dellums, supported by the members of the Congressional Black Caucus in the House, and piloted through the House by Congressman Howard Wolpe, chairman of the House Africa Subcommittee. Ronald Reagan responded by using his veto, but surprisingly and, in testament to the strength of the anti-Apartheid movement, the Republican controlled Senate overrode his veto. Knight gives this description the act:
The Act banned new U.S. investment in South Africa, sales to the police and military, and new bank loans, except for the purpose of trade. Specific measures against trade included the prohibition of the import of agricultural goods, textiles, shellfish, steel, iron, uranium and the products of state-owned corporations.[5]
The results of the act were mixed in economic terms according to Knight:[5] Between 1985 and 1987, U.S. imports from South Africa declined 35%, although the trend reverses in 1988 when imports increased by 15%. Between 1985 and 1998, U.S. exports to South Africa increased by 40%.
Knight attributes some of the increase in imports in 1988 to lax enforcement of the 1986 Act citing a 1989 study by the General Accounting Office. Knight writes that a "major weakness of the Act is that it does little to prohibit exports to South Africa, even in such areas as computers and other capital goods".[5]
Budget Reconciliation Act[edit]
A second federal measure introduced by Representative Charles Rangel in 1987 as an amendment to the Budget Reconciliation Act halted the ability of U.S. corporations from attaining tax reimbursements for taxes paid in South Africa. The result was that U.S. corporations operating in South Africa were subject to double taxation. According to Knight:
The sums of money involved are large. According to the Internal Revenue Service, taxes involved in 1982 were $211,593,000 on taxable income of $440,780,000. The U.S. Chamber of Commerce in South Africa has estimated that the measure increases the tax bill for U.S. companies from 57.5% to 72% of profits in South Africa.[5]
Further legislative efforts[edit]
An additionally and much harsher sanctions bill was passed by the House of Representatives (Congress) in August 1988. This bill mandated "the withdrawal of all U.S. companies from South Africa, the sale by U.S. residents of all investments in South African companies and an end to most trade, except for the import of certain strategic minerals".[5] In the end, the bill didn't become law as wasn't able to pass the Senate. (In the United States legislative system a bill must be passed by both the Senate and the House of Representatives before it can be signed into law by the President.) Even so, the fact that such a harsh bill made any progress at all through the legislature "alerted both the South African government and U.S. business that significant further sanctions were likely to be forthcoming" if the political situation in South Africa remained unchanged.
Effects on South Africa[edit]
Economic effects[edit]
Main article: Economic history of South Africa § Sanctions
Four exchange control stamps in a South African passport from the mid-1980s allowing the passport holder to take a particular amount of currency out of the country. Exchange controls such as these were imposed by the South African government to restrict the outflow of capital from the country.
While post-colonial African countries had already imposed sanctions on South Africa in solidarity with the Defiance Campaign, these measures had little effect because of the relatively small economies of those involved. The disinvestment campaign only impacted South Africa after the major Western nations, including the United States, got involved beginning in mid-1984. From 1984 onwards, according to Knight,[5] because of the disinvestment campaign and the repayment of foreign loans, South Africa experienced considerable capital flight. The net capital movement out of South Africa was:
R9.2 billion in 1985
R6.1 billion in 1986
R3.1 billion in 1987
R5.5 billion in 1988
The capital flight triggered a dramatic decline in the international exchange rate of the South African currency, the rand. The currency decline made imports more expensive which in turn caused inflation in South Africa to rise at a very steep 12-15% per year.[5]
The South African government did attempt to restrict the damaging outflow of capital. Knight writes that "in September 1985 it imposed a system of exchange control and a debt repayments standstill. Under exchange control, South African residents are generally prohibited from removing capital from the country and foreign investors can only remove investments via the financial rand, which is traded at a 20% to 40% discount compared to the commercial rand. This means companies that disinvest get significantly fewer dollars for the capital they withdraw."[5]
Anti-apartheid opposition[edit]
While disinvestment, boycotts and sanctions aimed at the removal of the apartheid system, there was also considerable opposition from within the anti-apartheid movement within South Africa coming from both black and white leaders. Mangosuthu Buthelezi, Chief Minister of KwaZulu and leading black figure slammed sanctions, stating that "They can only harm all the people of Southern Africa. They can only lead to more hardships, particularly for the blacks."[24] Well known anti-apartheid opposition MPs Helen Suzman and Harry Schwarz also strongly opposed moves to disinvest from South Africa. Both politicians of the Progressive Federal Party, they argued that disinvestment would cause further economic hardships for black people, which would ultimately worsen the political climate for negotiations. Suzman described them as "self defeating, wrecking the economy and do not assist anybody irrespective of race". Schwarz also argued that "Morality is cheap when someone else is paying."[25]
Outside criticism[edit]
Many criticised disinvestment because of its economic impact on ordinary black South Africans, such as British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, who described sanctions and disinvestment as "the way of poverty, starvation and destroying the hopes of the very people — all of them—whom you wish to help."[26] John Major, then her Foreign Secretary, said disinvestment would "feed white consciences outside South Africa, not black bellies within it",[27] although in 2013, he said that the Conservative Government led by Margaret Thatcher was wrong to oppose tougher sanctions against South Africa during the apartheid era.[28]
Many conservatives opposed the disinvestment campaign, accusing its advocates of hypocrisy for not also proposing that the same sanctions be leveled on either the Soviet Union or the People's Republic of China.
Libertarian Murray Rothbard also opposed this policy, asserting that the most-direct adverse impact of the boycott would actually be felt by the black workers in that country, and the best way to remedy the problem of apartheid was by promoting trade and the growth of free market capitalism in South Africa.[29]
Ronald Reagan, who was the President of the United States during the time the disinvestment movement was at its peak, also opposed it, instead favoring a policy of "constructive engagement" with the Pretoria government.
Further reading[edit]
"For U.S. Firms in South Africa, The Threat of Coercive Sullivan Principles". Heritage Foundation. 12 November 1984.
"On 'Constructive Engagement' in South Africa". The MIT Tech. 105(47). 5 November 1985.
"The Choice for U.S. Policy in South Africa: Reform or Vengeance". Heritage Foundation. 25 July 1986.
Misconceptions about U.S. policy toward South Africa. US Department of State Bulletin. September 1986.
Richard Knight. Chapter: "Sanctions, Disinvestment, and U.S. Corporations in South Africa". Sanctioning Apartheid (Africa World Press). 1990.
"Disinvestment from South Africa: They Did Well by Doing Good". Contemporary Economic Policy. XV(1):76-86. January 1997.
Robert Kinloch Massie, Loosing the Bonds, The United States and South Africa in the Apartheid Years, Doubleday, New York, 1997
See also[edit]
Anti-Apartheid Movement
Academic boycotts of South Africa
Disinvestment
Economic history of South Africa
Socially responsible investing
Disinvestment from Iran
Disinvestment from Israel
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "The Fergusson Years: Vassar, 1986-2006" Archived 28 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine., Vassar College Libraries Archives & Special Collections. Poughkeepsie, NY. 2006.
Jump up ^ See the debate in Nature: "Boycott of Israel? It worked for South Africa", Steven Rose and Hilary Rose, Nature, volume 417, p. 221 (2002) and the response "Did an academic boycott help to end apartheid?", George Fink, Nature, Volume 417, Issue 6890, p. 690 (2002).
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Arianna Lisson, "The Anti-Apartheid Movement, Britain and South Africa: Anti-Apartheid Protest vs Real Politik" Archived 7 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine., PhD Dissertation, 15 September 2000
Jump up ^ "Policies of apartheid of the Government of South Africa & International solidarity with the liberation struggle in South Africa". United Nations General Assembly. 1987-11-20. Retrieved 2015-07-29.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Richard Knight. Chapter: "Sanctions, Disinvestment, and U.S. Corporations in South Africa". Sanctioning Apartheid (Africa World Press), 1990
Jump up ^ "Around the Nation; 61 Arrested at Berkeley in Protest of Apartheid". The New York Times. AP. 1986-04-02.
Jump up ^ Schutt, Randy. "A Powerful and Inspiring Campaign: A Short History of SCRIP's Efforts to End Stanford University's Support of South African Apartheid in 1977". Vernal Education Project. 1998-02-03.
Jump up ^ D. (pseudonym), Bob. "Students Organize Against Stanford's Investment Policy". Grapevine. Volume 5, Number 6. Palo Alto, Calif. June 1977.
Jump up ^ [1]
Jump up ^ U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. (1985). The Anti-Apartheid Act of 1985. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 213. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ "Columbia Senate Supports Selling South African Stocks Selectively". The New York Times. 1978-05-07.
Jump up ^ [2]
Jump up ^ David Rosenberg (1978-06-08). "Trustees vote for divestiture from backers of S. African government". Columbia Spectator. p. 1.
Jump up ^ Mary Alice McDonaugh (1977-03-03). "400 sign petition against offering Kissinger faculty post; Anthony Lewis of the Times also blasts former Secretary". Columbia Spectator. p. 1.
Jump up ^ "Demonstration at Columbia". New York Daily News. 1978-05-02.
Jump up ^ "Student Sit-in at Columbia". New York Post. 1978-05-02 – via Getty Images.
Jump up ^ "Clark, Smith Decide to Divest". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Smith College Archives. "College Hall Occupation Oral History Project". 5 College Archives and Manuscript Collections. Smith College Archives. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "AROUND THE NATION; Smith College to End South Africa Investments". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b A CONFLICTED RELATIONSHIP: Harvard supported South Africa through investments, but partially divested under protest Archived 7 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. in Harvard Honors Nelson Mandela Archived 13 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine.. Adam A. Sofen and Alan E. Wirzbicki.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 8 June 2011. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
Jump up ^ White, Lauren (30 September 2016). "1990: Students Take Action to Protest Apartheid".
Jump up ^ Milk, Harvey (2012). The Harvey Milk Interviews: In His Own Words. Vince Emery Productions. ISBN 978-0-9725898-8-8. , p. 328.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 2011-08-29.
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 2015-01-13.
Jump up ^ "Press Conference ending visit to Zimbabwe", 30 March 1989
Jump up ^ British Foreign Secretaries Since 1974, Kevin Theakston Routledge, 2004, page 190
Jump up ^ "Sir John Major: Margaret Thatcher's government was wrong to oppose South Africa sanctions", The Independent, 10 December 2013
Jump up ^ Rothbard, Murray. "The Crusade Against South Africa". Making Economic Sense. Chapter 90. Auburn, AL: Mises Institute, 1995. Online Edition, Accessed 19 November 2009.
External links[edit]
African Activist Archive - more than 7,000 documents, posters, T-shirts, buttons, photos, video, and memories of activism in the U.S. to support the struggles of African peoples against apartheid, colonialism, and social injustice, 1950s-1990s. Also includes a directory of African activist organizations across the U.S.
Documenting the U.S. Solidarity Movement: With reflections on the sanctions and divestment campaigns
U.S. Economic Involvement with Apartheid South Africa
An Analysis of U.S. Disinvestment from South Africa: Unity, Rights, and Justice
Black South African Opinion on Disinvestment
The Crusade Against South Africa
Inkatha Freedom Party - Inkatha and the disinvestment campaign
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Anne of Green Gables
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the novel. For other uses, see Anne of Green Gables (disambiguation).
Anne of Green Gables
First edition.
Author
Lucy Maud Montgomery
Illustrator
M. A. and W. A. J. Claus
Country
Written and set in Canada, published in the United States[1][2]
Language
English
Series
Anne of Green Gables
Genre
Novel
Set in
Prince Edward Island, 1876–81
Published
June 1908 (L.C. Page & Co.)[3]
Followed by
Anne of Avonlea
Text
Anne of Green Gables at Wikisource
Anne of Green Gables is a 1908 novel by Canadian author Lucy Maud Montgomery (published as L. M. Montgomery). Written for all ages, it has been considered a children's novel since the mid-twentieth century. It recounts the adventures of Anne Shirley, an 11-year-old orphan girl who is mistakenly sent to Matthew and Marilla Cuthbert, a middle-aged brother and sister who had intended to adopt a boy to help them on their farm in the fictional town of Avonlea on Prince Edward Island. The novel recounts how Anne makes her way with the Cuthberts, in school, and within the town.
Since its publication, Anne of Green Gables has sold more than 50 million copies and has been translated into at least 36 languages. Montgomery wrote numerous sequels, and since her death, another sequel has been published, as well as an authorized prequel. The original book is taught to students around the world.[4]
The book has been adapted as films, made-for-television movies, and animated and live-action television series. Musicals and plays have also been created, with productions annually in Canada since 1964 of the first musical production, which has toured in Canada, the United States, Europe, and Japan.[5][6][7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Plot summary
3 Characters
3.1 Green Gables household
3.2 Anne's schoolmates
3.3 Avonlea's locals
3.4 Others
4 Related works
5 Tourism and merchandising
6 Legacy and honours
7 Adaptations
7.1 Films
7.2 Literature
7.3 Radio productions
7.4 Stage productions
7.5 Television movies
7.6 Television series
7.7 Web productions
8 Parodies
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Background[edit]
The portrait of Evelyn Nesbit by Rudolf Eickemeyer Jr. which inspired Montgomery.[8]
In writing the novel, Montgomery was inspired by notes she had made as a young girl about a couple who were mistakenly sent an orphan girl instead of the boy they had requested yet decided to keep her. She drew upon her own childhood experiences in rural Prince Edward Island, Canada. Montgomery used a photograph of Evelyn Nesbit, which she had clipped from New York’s Metropolitan Magazine and put on the wall of her bedroom, as the model for the face of Anne Shirley and a reminder of her "youthful idealism and spirituality."[8]
Montgomery was also inspired by the "formula Ann" orphan stories (called such because they followed such a predictable formula) which were popular at the time and distinguished her character by spelling her name with an extra "e".[9][10] She based other characters, such as Gilbert Blythe, in part on people she knew. She said she wrote the novel in the twilight of the day, while sitting at her window and overlooking the fields of Cavendish.[11]
Plot summary[edit]
Anne attacks Gilbert
Anne Shirley, a young orphan from the fictional community of Bolingbroke, Nova Scotia (based upon the real community of New London, Prince Edward Island),[12][13] is sent to live with Marilla and Matthew Cuthbert, siblings in their fifties and sixties, after a childhood spent in strangers' homes and orphanages. Marilla and Matthew had originally decided to adopt a boy from the orphanage to help Matthew run their farm at Green Gables, which is set in the fictional town of Avonlea. Through a misunderstanding, the orphanage sends Anne instead.
Anne is highly imaginative, eager to please and, at times, quite a dramatic individual. However, she is defensive about her appearance, despising her red hair and pale, thin frame. She is often quite talkative, especially when it comes to describing her fantasies and dreams. At first, stern and sharp Marilla says Anne must return to the orphanage, but after much observation and considering, along with Matthew's strong liking to Anne, she decides to let her stay.
As a child of imagination, Anne takes much joy in life and adapts quickly, thriving in the close-knit farming village. Her imagination and talkativeness soon brighten up Green Gables.
The book recounts Anne's adventures in making a home: the country school where she quickly excels in her studies; her friendship with Diana Barry, the girl living next door (her best or "bosom friend" as Anne fondly calls her); her budding literary ambitions; and her rivalry with her classmate Gilbert Blythe, who teases her about her red hair. For that, he earns her instant hatred, although he apologizes many times. As time passes, Anne realizes she no longer hates Gilbert but cannot bring herself to speak to him.
The book also follows Anne's adventures with her new-found friends. Episodes include her play-time with her friends Diana, a calm girl named Jane Andrews and a good-natured but often hysterical girl called Ruby Gillis, and her run-ins with the unpleasant Pye sisters Gertie and Josie; and domestic mishaps such as dyeing her hair green while intending to dye it black, and accidentally getting Diana drunk by giving her what she thought was raspberry cordial but turned out to be currant wine.
At sixteen, Anne goes to Queen's Academy to earn a teaching license, along with Gilbert, Ruby, Josie, Jane, and several other students, excluding Diana much to Anne's dismay. She obtains her license in one year instead of the usual two and wins the Avery Scholarship for the top student in English. Her attainment of this scholarship would allow her to pursue a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) degree at the fictional Redmond College (based on the real Dalhousie University) on the mainland in Nova Scotia.
Near the end of the book however, tragedy strikes when Matthew dies of a heart attack after learning that all of his and Marilla's money has been lost in a bank failure. Out of devotion to Marilla and Green Gables, Anne gives up the scholarship to stay at home and help Marilla, whose eyesight is failing. She plans to teach at the Carmody school, the nearest school available, and return to Green Gables on weekends. In an act of friendship, Gilbert Blythe gives up his teaching position at the Avonlea School to work at the White Sands School instead, knowing that Anne wants to stay close to Marilla after Matthew's death. After this kind act, Anne and Gilbert's friendship is cemented, and Anne looks forward to what life will bring next.
Characters[edit]
Diana and Anne
Green Gables household[edit]
Anne Shirley: An imaginative, talkative, red-headed orphan who comes to live with Matthew Cuthbert and Marilla Cuthbert. Anne is very sensitive and dislikes the color of her hair. She exhibits categorical interest in everything romantic.
Marilla Cuthbert: Matthew's sister, she is an austere but fair woman who objects to Anne's imaginative, unusual conduct on the grounds of its being part of the same group of behavioral misconducts that bring about dereliction of responsibility or produce a disrespectful personal image. Life experience with Anne, however, profoundly affects Marilla's ways; in a very early instance, she experiences first-hand how worthless a confession under duress could be. Although conservative and austere, she is fond of Anne and has the glimmerings of a sense of humor.
Matthew Cuthbert: Marilla's brother, he is an overly shy, albeit kind, old man with a lumbering frame and above-average strength. Matthew takes a liking to Anne from the start and the two become fast friends. Because Marilla has primary responsibility for rearing the girl, he has no qualms about "spoiling" her and indulging her in pretty clothes and other frivolities.
Anne's schoolmates[edit]
Diana Barry: Anne's bosom friend and a kindred spirit. Anne and Diana become best friends from the moment they meet. She is the only girl of Anne's age who lives close to Green Gables. Anne admires Diana for being pretty and for her amiable disposition. Diana lacks Anne's powerful imagination but is a loyal friend.
Gilbert Blythe: A handsome, smart, witty and chivalrous classmate who has a crush on Anne the moment he sees her. Unaware of Anne's near-pathological sensitivity about her red hair, he tries to get Anne's attention by holding her braid and calling her "Carrots!" Anne's explosively hostile reaction only causes Gilbert to be more smitten. He makes several attempts to apologize, the failure of all of which do not seem to mar his admiration. He attempts to apologize one last time when he saves Anne from drowning; Anne crassly rebuffs this attempt, only to regret it almost immediately. Years later, he gives up his job offer of teaching at the Avonlea school so that Anne may live at Green Gables, upon which the two reconcile and become good friends.
Ruby Gillis: Another of Anne's friends. Having several "grown up" sisters, Ruby loves to share her knowledge of beaux with her friends. Ruby is portrayed as traditionally beautiful with long golden hair. She is hysterical and suffers from consumption (tuberculosis).
Jane Andrews: One of Anne's friends from school, she is plain and sensible. She does well enough academically to join Anne's class at Queen's.
Josie Pye: A classmate generally disliked by the other girls (as are her siblings), Josie is vain, dishonest, and jealous of Anne's popularity.
Avonlea's locals[edit]
Mrs. Rachel Lynde: A neighbour of Matthew and Marilla, Mrs. Lynde is an amalgamation of vices and virtues. She is industrious and helpful, and does work for the church, yet she is famous for being nosy and condescending. Although she and Anne start off the wrong foot, owing to Mrs. Lynde's blunt criticism and Anne's short temper, they soon become quite close. Mrs. Lynde is married and has raised ten children, although her husband, Thomas Lynde, is mentioned briefly and never speaks.
Mr. Phillips: Anne's first teacher at Avonlea, Mr. Phillips is unpopular with students, because of his boring and crude ways. In Anne's case, he continually misspells her name (without the "E") and punishes only her among twelve pupils who arrive late. He is described as lacking discipline, and "courts" one of his pupils openly (this was less frowned upon then as opposed to more contemporary times).
Miss Muriel Stacy: Anne's energetic replacement teacher. Her warm and sympathetic nature appeals to her students, but Avonlea's conservative parents disapprove of her liberal teaching methods. She forms a special relationship with Anne, who views her as a mentor. Miss Stacy encourages Anne to develop her character and intellect and helps prepare her for the entrance exam at Queen's Academy, where she finishes in a tie for first with Gilbert Blythe.
Reverend and Mrs. Allan: The minister and his wife also befriend Anne, with Mrs. Allan becoming particularly close. She is described as pretty.
Mr. & Mrs. Barry: Diana's parents. Mr. Barry farms. Near the end of the book, he offers to rent some tracts to help out Anne and Marilla, after Matthew's passing. Mrs. Barry has a severe personality, expecting her children to follow strict rules. After Anne accidentally gets Diana drunk, Mrs. Barry rejects the girl, forbidding Diana to have anything to do with Anne. This sanction is repealed after Anne saves Minnie May.
Minnie May Barry: Diana's baby sister, whose life is saved by Anne when she comes down with croup.
Others[edit]
Miss Josephine Barry: Diana's great-aunt. Initially portrayed in a negative light, she is quickly charmed by Anne's imagination, and eventually invites her and Diana to tea. She refers to Anne as "the Anne-girl" and even sends Anne beaded slippers as a Christmas present.
Mrs Hammond: Anne had lived with her for a portion of her pre-Green-Gables life. She was very mean as a result of her husband′s death. Anne was treated more as a maid in her home than as a daughter or friend.
Related works[edit]
Based on the popularity of her first book, Montgomery wrote a series of sequels to continue the story of her heroine Anne Shirley. They are listed chronologically below, by Anne's age in each of the novels.
Lucy Maud Montgomery's books on Anne Shirley:
№
Book
Date published
Anne Shirley's age
Timeline year
1 Anne of Green Gables 1908 11–16 1876–1881
2 Anne of Avonlea 1909 16–18 1881–1883
3 Anne of the Island 1915 18–22 1883-1887
4 Anne of Windy Poplars (Canada and USA)
Anne of Windy Willows (UK and Australia) 1936 22–25 1887–1890
5 Anne's House of Dreams 1917 25–27 1890–1892
6 Anne of Ingleside 1939 34–40 1899–1905
The following books focus on Anne's children, or on other family friends. Anne appears in these volumes, but plays a lesser part.
№
Book
Date published
Anne Shirley's age
Timeline year
7 Rainbow Valley 1919 41–43 1906–1908
8 Rilla of Ingleside 1921 49–53 1914–1918
9 The Blythes Are Quoted 2009 40–75 1905–1940
Anne Shirley features in one story (and is referenced in other stories) in each of the following collections:
№
Book
Date published
Anne Shirley's age
Timeline year
— Chronicles of Avonlea 1912 approx. 20 1885
— Further Chronicles of Avonlea 1920 approx. 20 1885
The prequel, Before Green Gables (2008), was written by Budge Wilson with authorization of heirs of L. M. Montgomery.
Tourism and merchandising[edit]
The Green Gables farmhouse located in Cavendish
Sign marking trail through Balsam Hollow
The province and tourist facilities have highlighted the local connections to the internationally popular novels. Anne of Green Gables has been translated into 36 languages.[14][15] "Tourism by Anne fans is an important part of the Island economy".[16] Merchants offer items based on the novels.
The Green Gables farmhouse is located in Cavendish, Prince Edward Island. Many tourist attractions on Prince Edward Island have been developed based on the fictional Anne, and provincial licence plates once bore her image.[17] Balsam Hollow, the forest that inspired the Haunted Woods and Campbell Pond, the body of water which inspired The Lake of Shining Waters, both described in the book, are located in the vicinity.[18] In addition, the Confederation Centre of the Arts has featured the wildly successful Anne of Green Gables musical on its mainstage every summer for over five decades.[19] The Anne of Green Gables Museum is located in Park Corner, PEI, in a home that inspired L.M. Montgomery.[20]
The novel has been very popular in Japan, where it is known as Red-haired Anne,[21][22] and where it has been included in the national school curriculum since 1952. 'Anne' is revered as "an icon" in Japan, especially since 1979 when this story was broadcast as anime, Anne of Green Gables. Japanese couples travel to Prince Edward Island to have civil wedding ceremonies on the grounds of the Green Gables farm. Some Japanese girls arrive as tourists with red-dyed hair styled in pigtails, to look like Anne.[23] In 2014, Asadora 'Hanako to Anne' (Hanako Muraoka is the first translator in Japan) was broadcast and Anne became popular among old and young alike.
A replica of the Green Gables house in Cavendish is located in the theme park Canadian World in Ashibetsu, Hokkaido, Japan. The park was a less expensive alternative for Japanese tourists instead of traveling to P.E.I. The park hosted performances featuring actresses playing Anne and Diana. The theme park is open during the summer season with free admission, though there are no longer staff or interpreters.[24]
The Avonlea theme park near Cavendish and the Cavendish Figurines shop have trappings so that tourists may dress like the book's characters for photos.[25] Souvenir shops throughout Prince Edward Island offer numerous foods and products based on details of the 'Anne Shirley' novels. Straw hats for girls with sewn-in red braids are common, as are bottles of raspberry cordial soda.[26] In the first book, Lucy Maud Montgomery established the cordial soda as the favorite beverage of Anne, who declares: "I just love bright red drinks!"
Panorama of Green Gable farmhouse and grounds in Cavendish
Entrance to Anne of Green Gables Museum in Park Corner
Legacy and honours[edit]
Buildings
The popularity of the books and subsequent film adaptations is credited with inspiring the design and naming of buildings "Green Gables". An example still standing is an apartment block called "Green Gables" built in the 1930s, in New Farm, Queensland, Australia.[27]
Museum
Bala's Museum, located in Bala, Ontario, Canada, is a house museum established in 1992 and dedicated to Lucy M. Montgomery information and heritage. The house was a tourist home owned by Fanny Pike when Montgomery and her family stayed there on a summer vacation in 1922. That visit to the region inspired the novel The Blue Castle (1926).[28] The town is named Deerwood in the novel; this was Montgomery's only narrative setting outside Atlantic Canada.[29][30][31]
Postage stamps
On May 15, 1975, Canada Post issued Lucy Maud Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables designed by Peter Swan and typographed by Bernard N.J. Reilander. The 8¢ stamps are perforated 13 and were printed by Ashton-Potter Limited.[32]
In 2008, Canada Post issued two postage stamps and a souvenir sheet honouring Anne and the "Green Gables" house.[33]
Reading lists
In 2003, Anne of Green Gables was ranked number 41 in The Big Read, a survey of the British public by BBC to determine the "nation's best-loved novel" (not children's novel).[34]
In 2012, it was ranked number nine among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily U.S. audience.[35]
Adaptations[edit]
Films[edit]
Anne of Green Gables (1919), a silent film adapted to the screen by Frances Marion, directed by William Desmond Taylor, and starring Mary Miles Minter as Anne; this is considered a lost film.
Anne of Green Gables (1934), black & white "talkie" directed by George Nichols Jr. and starring Dawn O'Day as Anne Shirley; after filming, O'Day changed her screen name to "Anne Shirley".
Anne of Windy Poplars (1940) – directed by Jack Hively, is a black & white "talkie" starring Dawn O'Day as Anne Shirley, now billed as "Anne Shirley".
Anne of Green Gables (TBA), an upcoming feature film version of Anne of Green Gables: The Musical.[36]
Literature[edit]
Ana of California: A Novel (2015), by Andi Teran, is a “contemporary spin on Anne of Green Gables. The lead character of Anne Shirley has been adapted to Ana Cortez, a 15-year-old orphan who "can't tell a tomato plant from a blackberry bush" when she leaves East Los Angeles for the Northern California farm of Emmett and Abbie Garber.[37]
Radio productions[edit]
Anne of Green Gables (1941), a British radio drama produced and broadcast by BBC Home Service Basic, adapted into four parts by Muriel Levy, and starring Cherry Cottrell as Anne.[4]
Anne of Green Gables (1944), a recreation of the 1941 BBC Radio drama, produced and broadcast by BBC Home Service Basic.[38]
Anne of Green Gables (1954), a Canadian radio drama produced and broadcast by CBC Radio, adapted into 13 parts by Andrew Allen and starring Toby Tarnow as Anne.[39]
Anna zo Zeleného domu (1966), a Slovak radio drama produced and broadcast by Czechoslovak Radio, starring Anna Bučinská as Anne.[40]
Anne of Green Gables (1971), a British radio drama produced and broadcast by BBC Radio 4, adapted into 13 parts by Cristina Sellors, and read by Ann Murray.[41]
Anne of Green Gables (1997), a British radio drama produced and broadcast by BBC Radio 4, dramatized into five parts by Marcy Kahan and starred Barbara Barnes as Anne.[42]
Stage productions[edit]
Anne of Green Gables: The Musical, performed annually in the summer, at Charlottetown Festival, since 1965, this is Canada's longest-running main stage musical production, and has had a total audience of more than 2 million.[43][44][45] Anne of Green Gables – The Musical was composed by Canadians Don Harron and Norman Campbell, with lyrics by Elaine Campbell and Mavor Moore. The production has been performed before Queen Elizabeth II and it has toured across Canada, the United States, and Europe. In 1969, it had a run in London's West End. The Charlottetown Festival production performed at the 1970 World's Fair in Osaka, Japan. Walter Learning directed and organized a successful national tour of the musical in Japan in 1991.[46]
The Guild in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, hosts Anne and Gilbert, The Musical. Written by Nancy White, Bob Johnston, and Jeff Hochhauser, the production is based on Montgomery's sequels featuring Anne Shirley.[47]
The Nine Lives of L.M. Montgomery, a musical adapted from Montgomery's novel and her life, opened at Kings Playhouse in Georgetown, Prince Edward Island on June 20, 2008, the 100th anniversary of the book's publication. With book and lyrics by Adam-Michael James and music by Emmy-nominated composer Leo Marchildon, the musical depicts events from Montgomery’s life and features as characters heroines from all of her novels. Anne figures prominently, and is shown from age 12 into her 40s. Gilbert Blythe also appears. The show’s second production was at the Carrefour Theatre in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island and opened July 11, 2009. Both years, the musical was nominated for The Prince Edward Island Museum and Heritage Foundation's Wendell Boyle Award. In July 2010, a concert version of the show toured Prince Edward Island, with four performances at Green Gables.[48]
Theatreworks USA, a New York-based children's theatre company, produced an Anne of Green Gables musical in 2006 at the Lucille Lortel Theatre. A revived production, with musical contributions from Gretchen Cryer, is planned to tour grade-schools.[49]
The Peterborough Players, based in Peterborough, New Hampshire, staged an adaptation by Joseph Robinette of Anne of Green Gables in August 2009.[50]
Anne and Gilbert is a musical adaptation of the books Anne of Avonlea and Anne of the Island. It depicts the relationship of Anne and Gilbert during their years as teachers and college students, as well as their return to Avonlea.[51]
Television movies[edit]
Anne of Green Gables (1956), a made-for-television musical version directed by Norman Campbell and starring Toby Tarnow as Anne.
Anne de Green Gables (1957), a French-Canadian television film directed by Jacques Gauthier, starring Mireille Lachance as Anne Shirley.
Anne of Green Gables (1958), a recreation of the 1956 film directed by Don Harron, starring Kathy Willard as Anne.
Anne of Green Gables (1972), a British made-for-television 5-part mini-series directed by Joan Craft, starring Kim Braden as Anne.
Anne of Avonlea (1975), a British made-for-television 4-part mini-series directed by Joan Craft, starring Kim Braden as Anne.
Anne of Green Gables (1985), a CBC 4-hour television mini series directed by Kevin Sullivan with Megan Follows as Anne.
Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel (1987), a sequel to the 1985 miniseries which aired on CBC and the Disney Channel as Anne of Avonlea: The Continuing Story of Anne of Green Gables.
Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story (2000), a television miniseries based upon the novels.
Anne: Journey to Green Gables (2005), an animated video film produced by Sullivan Entertainment and the prequel to Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series (2001–2002)
Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning (2008), a television miniseries whose script is not based on the novels.
L.M. Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables (2016), a 90-minute made-for-television adaptation of the book by Breakthrough Films & Television, which began filming in Toronto in May 2015.[52][53] Casting was held in February 2015.[54] (This replaces the previously announced 13-part series that had been set to film in 2013).[55] It was adapted by Susan Coyne, directed by John Kent Harrison, and stars Ella Ballentine as Anne.[56] The world premiere of the film, advertised under the abbreviated title Anne of Green Gables, on February 15, 2016 on YTV.
Anne of Green Gables: The Good Stars aired on YTV on February 20, 2017.
Anne of Green Gables: Fire & Dew, aired July 1, 2017 on YTV.
Television series[edit]
Anne as she appeared in the 1979 Japanese anime adaptation of Anne of Green Gables.
Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series
Anne of Green Gables (1952), a BBC television series starring Carole Lorimer as Anne.[57]
Akage no An (1979; Red-Haired Anne), an animated television series, part of Nippon Animation's World Masterpiece Theater, produced in Japan and directed by Isao Takahata.
Road to Avonlea (1990–1996) shown on CBC, a live-action television series produced by Kevin Sullivan, based upon characters and episodes from several of L.M. Montgomery's books, excluding Anne Shirley. Gilbert Blythe, Marilla Cuthbert, Rachel Lynde and other characters from the Anne books are included, and the series is set within the same continuity as Sullivan's 1980s miniseries.
Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series (2000), a PBS Kids animated series for older children ages eight to twelve, created by Sullivan Entertainment Inc.
Kon'nichiwa Anne: Before Green Gables (2009), part of the World Masterpiece Theater, this prequel to Akage no An is based on Budge Wilson's authorized prequel Before Green Gables (2008).
Anne (2017), an eight-part TV series produced and broadcast by CBC in Canada, and released through Netflix internationally under the title, Anne with an "E".[58][59]
Web productions[edit]
Green Gables Fables (2014–2016), an American-Canadian web series which conveys the story in the form of Tumblr posts, tweets, vlogs, and other social media. It is a modern adaptation of Anne of Green Gables and Anne of the Island, with many of its elements changed to better suit 21st-century culture. Mandy Harmon portrays the main character, Anne Shirley.[60]
Project Green Gables (2015–2016), a Finnish web series and a modern adaptation of Anne of Green Gables, which conveys the story in the form of vlogs. Laura Eklund Nhaga plays Anne Shirley.[61]
Parodies[edit]
As one of the most familiar characters in Canadian literature, Anne of Green Gables has been parodied by several Canadian comedy troupes, including CODCO (Anne of Green Gut) and The Frantics (Fran of the Fundy).
References[edit]
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Jump up ^ Montgomery, Lucy Maud (2004) [1908]. Devereux, Cecily Margaret, ed. Anne of Green Gables. Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-362-7.
Jump up ^ "'Anne of Green Gables' 1st edition sells at auction for US$37,000, a new record". The Guardian. December 12, 2009.
^ Jump up to: a b Mollins, Julie (March 19, 2008). "New Anne of Green Gables book stirs debate". Reuters Life!. Toronto.
Jump up ^ "Anne of Green Gables New TV Series • Willow and Thatch". Willow and Thatch. 2016-08-24. Retrieved 2017-06-13.
Jump up ^ "Tourists flock to see Anne of Green Gables-World-chinadaily.com.cn". www.chinadaily.com.cn.
Jump up ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia ISBN 978-0-771-02099-5 p. 1972
^ Jump up to: a b Gammel, Irene (2009). Looking for Anne of Green Gables: The Story of L. M. Montgomery and her Literary Classic. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Jump up ^ "Anne of Green Gables".
Jump up ^ Gammel, Irene (July 8, 2008). Looking for Anne of Green Gables: The Story of L. M. Montgomery and Her Literary Classic. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-38237-7 – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Gammel, Irene (2009). "The Mystery of Anne Revealed,". Looking for Anne of Green Gables: The Story of L. M. Montgomery and her Literary Classic. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Jump up ^ "The Geography of Anne of the Island". lmm-anne.net. 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23.
Jump up ^ "Birthplace of L. M. Montgomery, New London". lmm-anne.net. 2008. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23.
Jump up ^ Anne of Green Gables – Celebrate 100 Years Archived December 15, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
"Anne of Green Gables has sold millions of copies in more than 36 languages"
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Jump up ^ CBC News (June 19, 2008). CBC.ca, "100 years of Anne of Green Gables".
Jump up ^ "License plate goes green", "The Guardian", April 5, 2007
Jump up ^ Green Gables Government of Prince Edward Island. Retrieved on July 24, 2006
Jump up ^ "Anne of Green Gables-The Musical". Retrieved September 30, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Anne Museum - Park Corner, Prince Edward Island - Home Page". www.annemuseum.com.
Jump up ^ Yuka Kajihara (April 4, 2004). "Anne in Japan FAQ 1.0". Yukazine.com. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "Buttercups: L.M. Montgomery & Anne of Green Gables fan club in Japan" Archived May 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine., Yukazine, April 4, 2004
Jump up ^ Bruni, Frank (November 18, 2007). "Beckoned by Bivalves: Prince Edward Island". The New York Times
Jump up ^ "Anne of Green Gables theme park in Japan falls on hard times". CBC News. Retrieved 2017-04-27.
Jump up ^ "Cloning Anne of Green Gables". Tacky Tourist Photos. Archived from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "The Heroine's Bookshelf: Anne of Green Gables". Theheroinesbookshelf.com. October 12, 2010. Archived from the original on July 17, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2011.
Jump up ^ "In search of Anne with some unexpected discoveries". State Library of Queensland. 2016-02-15. Retrieved February 2, 2016.
Jump up ^ "History: A look back at the last 20 years". Bala's Museum with Memories of Lucy Maud Montgomery. Retrieved October 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ Montgomery, Lucy Maud (12 February 2018). "The Blue Castle". Bibliotech Press – via Google Books.
Jump up ^ Depository, Book. "The Blue Castle : Lucy Maud Montgomery : 9781618950239". www.bookdepository.com.
Jump up ^ L.M. Montgomery and Canadian Culture ISBN 978-0-802-04406-8 pp. 120-121
Jump up ^ "Canadian Postal Archives Database". collectionscanada.gc.ca.
Jump up ^ "Canada Post – Anne of Green Gables". Canada Post. Retrieved 2012-03-16.
Jump up ^ "The Big Read – Top 100". BBC. April 2003. Retrieved October 27, 2012.
Jump up ^ Bird, Elizabeth (July 7, 2012). "Top 100 Chapter Book Poll Results". A Fuse #8 Production. Blog. School Library Journal (blog.schoollibraryjournal.com). Retrieved October 30, 2015.
Jump up ^ "New Anne of Green Gables film announced". cbc.ca. 10 September 2013.
Jump up ^ Teran, Andi (June 2015). Ana of California: A Novel. Penguin Books.
Jump up ^ "BBC Home Service Basic - 21 April 1944 - BBC Genome". genome.ch.bbc.co.uk.
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Jump up ^ "25 Hundred and Counting". 22 August 2017.
Jump up ^ McIntosh, Andrew. "Lucy Maud Montgomery".
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Jump up ^ "The Nine Lives of L.M. Montgomery". Ninelivesoflmm.com. February 15, 2012. Retrieved November 3, 2013.
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Jump up ^ "In Production – ANNE OF GREEN GABLES TV Movie". Ontario Film Commission. May 15, 2015. Retrieved May 21, 2015.
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Bibliography[edit]
Bustard, Ned (January 2009). Anne of Green Gables Comprehension Guide. Veritas Press. ISBN 978-1-932168-79-2.
Campbell, Norman (1972). Anne of Green Gables. Samuel French, Inc. ISBN 978-0-573-68002-1.
Gammel, Irene (2008). Looking for Anne of Green Gables: The Story of L.M. Montgomery and her Literary Classic. authorized by the heirs of L. M. Montgomery.
Gammel, Irene; Benjamin Lefebvre (May 30, 2010). Anne's World: A New Century of Anne of Green Gables. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-1106-1.
Montgomery, Lucy Maud (June 3, 2008). The Green Gables Collection. Doubleday Canada. ISBN 978-0-385-66599-5.
Teran, Andi (June 2015). Ana of California. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-312649-2.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Anne of Green Gables.
Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Anne of Green Gables
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Anne of Green Gables
The Anne of Green Gables and L. M. Montgomery Lexicon, collection of Anne book cover artwork, games, recipes, time line and more
Anne of Green Gables at Project Gutenberg
Anne of Green Gables at Faded Page (Canada)
Anne of Green Gables public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Anne of Green Gables Centenary
"L.M. Montgomery Research Centre", University of Guelph Library Archival & Special Collections.
Anne of Green Gables at L.M. Montgomery Online Formerly the L.M. Montgomery Research Group
"Top 100 Children's Novels #9". School Library Journal Blog. Retrieved 2012-05-20.
[show]
v
t
e
Works by Lucy Maud Montgomery
Novels
Anne of Green Gables series
Anne of Green Gables (1908)
Anne of Avonlea (1909)
Anne of the Island (1915)
Anne of Windy Poplars (1936)
Anne's House of Dreams (1917)
Anne of Ingleside (1939)
Rainbow Valley (1919)
Rilla of Ingleside (1921)
Emily trilogy
Emily of New Moon (1923)
Emily Climbs (1925)
Emily's Quest (1927)
Pat of Silver Bush
Pat of Silver Bush (1932)
Mistress Pat (1935)
The Story Girl
The Story Girl (1911)
The Golden Road (1913)
Miscellaneous
Kilmeny of the Orchard (1910)
The Blue Castle (1926)
Magic for Marigold (1929)
A Tangled Web (1931)
Jane of Lantern Hill (1937)
Short story collections
Chronicles of Avonlea (1912)
Further Chronicles of Avonlea (1920)
The Blythes Are Quoted (2009)
Poetry
The Watchman & Other Poems (1916)
The Poetry of Lucy Maud Montgomery (1987)
Non-fiction
The Alpine Path: The Story of My Career (1917)
Courageous Women (1934) (with Marian Keith and Mabel Burns McKinley)
The Selected Journals of L. M. Montgomery, Vol. I–V (1985–2004)
[show]
v
t
e
The Anne of Green Gables series by L. M. Montgomery
Characters
Anne Shirley
Gilbert Blythe
Walter Blythe
Original novels
Anne of Green Gables (1908)
Anne of Avonlea (1909)
Anne of the Island (1915)
Anne of Windy Poplars (1936)
Anne's House of Dreams (1917)
Anne of Ingleside (1939)
Rainbow Valley (1919)
Rilla of Ingleside (1921)
Companion books
Chronicles of Avonlea (1912)
Further Chronicles of Avonlea (1920)
Before Green Gables (authorised prequel by Budge Wilson, 2008)
The Blythes Are Quoted (2009)
Films
Anne of Green Gables (1919)
Anne of Green Gables (1934)
Anne of Windy Poplars (1940)
Anne of Green Gables (1956)
Anne of Green Gables (1985)
Anne of Green Gables: The Sequel (1987)
Anne of Green Gables: The Continuing Story (2000)
Anne: Journey to Green Gables (2005)
Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning (2008)
L.M. Montgomery's Anne of Green Gables (2016)
Television series
Anne of Green Gables (1972)
Anne of Avonlea (1975)
Anne of Green Gables (1979)
Road to Avonlea (1990-1996)
Anne of Green Gables: The Animated Series (2000)
Kon'nichiwa Anne: Before Green Gables (2009)
Anne (2017)
Stage
Anne of Green Gables: The Musical (since 1965)
Anne & Gilbert (since 2005)
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Avonlea
Green Gables
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LCCN: no2010143485
GND: 4359421-9
BNF: cb14532211w (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anne_of_Green_Gables&oldid=838484972"
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value: Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia

value: About the project, what you can do, where to find things

value: A list of recent changes in the wiki [ctrl-alt-r]

value: portal navigation p-interaction p-interaction-label

value: portal navigation p-wikibase-otherprojects p-wikibase-otherprojects-label

value: Анн от „Зелените покриви“ – Bulgarian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bg
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-da
display: none;

value: Anne of Green Gables (libro) – Esperanto

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-eo
display: none;

value: آن در گرین گیبلز – Persian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fa
display: none;

value: Anne… la maison aux pignons verts – French

value: 빨간 머리 앤 – Korean

value: Աննան կանաչ կտուրներից – Armenian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-hy
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-is
display: none;

value: Anna dai capelli rossi (romanzo) – Italian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-it
display: none;

value: האסופית – Hebrew

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-he
display: none;

value: Жашыл чатырдагы Анна – Kyrgyz

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ky
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lv
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-lt
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-nl
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-no
display: none;

value: Ania z Zielonego Wzgórza (powieść) – Polish

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-pl
display: none;

value: Аня из Зелёных Мезонинов – Russian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-simple
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sk
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sv
display: none;

value: Енн із Зелених Дахів – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value: Anne tóc đỏ dưới chái nhà xanh – Vietnamese

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

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