text:
Mind your Ps and Qs
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"Ps and Qs" redirects here. For the song, see P's and Q's (song).
Look up mind one's ps and qs in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Mind your Ps and Qs is an English expression meaning "mind your manners", "mind your language", "be on your best behaviour" or similar.
Attempts at explaining the origin of the phrase go back to the mid-19th century. One explanation favoured in a letter to the editors of Notes and Queries dated 1851, as well as by the Oxford English Dictionary upon their revision of the relevant entry in 2007, is literal interpretation of the saying, concerning the distinction of the lowercase letters p and q in the context of the school-room or the printing-office.[1] As noted by W. D. Henkle in Educational Notes and Queries in 1876, in this case the proper spelling of the phrase should be "note your p's and q's", because the distinction of majuscule P and Q does not pose a problem.[2]
Nevertheless, a number of alternative explanations have been considered as more or less plausible. Another explanation suggests that "Ps and Qs" is short for "pleases" and "thank-yous", the latter of which contains a sound similar to the pronunciation of the name of the letter "Q". Another proposed origin is from the English pubs and taverns of the 17th century. Bartenders would keep a watch on the alcohol consumption of the patrons; keeping an eye on the pints and quarts that were consumed. As a reminder to the patrons, the bartender would recommend they "mind their Ps and Qs".[3] This may also have been a reminder to bartenders not to confuse the two units, written as "p" and "q" on the tally slate.[4]
Other origin stories, some considered "fanciful",[4] could come from French instructions to mind one's pieds (feet) and queues (wigs) while dancing. However, there is no French translation for this expression.[5] Another origin could be from sailors in the 18th century who were reminded to pay attention to their peas (pea coat) and queues (pony tail).[5]
Another proposal concerns the use of Norman French in medieval England; as the English dialect of the 11th century had no qs,[dubious – discuss] one must watch their usage in court or discourse with the French Norman conquerors. [6][dubious – discuss]
Quinion cites an apparently related expression of pee and kew for "highest quality" used in 17th-century English.[7]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Notes and Queries 4 (1851), p. 11. "Investigations by the Oxford English Dictionary in 2007 when revising the entry turned up early examples of the use of Ps and Qs to mean learning the alphabet. The first is in a poem by Charles Churchill, published in 1763: “On all occasions next the chair / He stands for service of the Mayor, / And to instruct him how to use / His A’s and B’s, and P’s and Q’s.” The conclusion must be that this is the true origin." Quinion, Michael. "Mind Your Ps and Qs" 1996. http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/psandqs.htm (accessed: February 09, 2008).
Jump up ^ Educational Notes and Queries 2 (1876), p. 136.
Jump up ^ Evins, Karlen. "I Didn't Know That" New York: Scribner, 2007, ..78.
^ Jump up to: a b Quinion, Michael. "Mind Your Ps and Qs" 1996. http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/psandqs.htm (accessed: February 09, 2008).
^ Jump up to: a b Martin, Gary. "Mind Your Ps and Qs" 1996. http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/248000.html (accessed: February 09, 2008).
Jump up ^ Crystal, David. "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of The English Language" pg. 30-31, 1995.
Jump up ^ "The Oxford English Dictionary has a citation from Rowlands’ Knave of Harts of 1612: “Bring in a quart of Maligo, right true: And looke, you Rogue, that it be Pee and Kew.” Nobody is really sure what either P or Q stood for. To say they’re the initials of “Prime Quality” seems to be folk etymology, because surely that would make “PQ” rather than “P and Q”.
External links[edit]
Quinn, Polly. "Where did the saying 'mind your Ps and Qs' come from?" (ask.yahoo.com) 2003.
Martin, Gary. "Mind Your Ps and Qs" 1996. (aphrases.org.uk)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mind_your_Ps_and_Qs&oldid=818623434"
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History of the internal combustion engine
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This article needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2017)
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Video montage of the Otto engines running at the Western Minnesota Steam Threshers Reunion (WMSTR), in Rollag, Minnesota. (2 min 16 s, 320x240, 340 kbit/s video)
Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines. In 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine. Also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel (gasoline), and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens designed the first American internal combustion engine. In 1807, French engineers Nicéphore (who went on to invent photography) and Claude Niépce ran a prototype internal combustion engine, using controlled dust explosions, the Pyréolophore. This engine powered a boat on the Saône river, France. The same year, the Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially.
Father Eugenio Barsanti, an Italian engineer, together with Felice Matteucci of Florence invented the first real internal combustion engine in 1853. Their patent request was granted in London on June 12, 1854, and published in London's Morning Journal under the title "Specification of Eugene Barsanti and Felix Matteucci, Obtaining Motive Power by the Explosion of Gasses". In 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine. In 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fueled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-cycle engine. In 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine. In 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the world's first jet aircraft.
Contents
[hide]
1 Prior to 1860
2 1860–1910
3 1920–1980
4 1980 to present
5 Engine starting
6 Modern vs. historical piston engines
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
Prior to 1860[edit]
al-Jazari's hydropowered saqiya chain pump device
Model of the Barsanti-Matteucci engine (1853) in the Osservatorio Ximeniano in Florence
Early internal combustion engines were used to power farm equipment similar to these models.
202 BCE–220 CE: The earliest hand-operated cranks appeared in China during the Han Dynasty.[1]
3rd century CE: Evidence of a crank and connecting rod mechanism dates to the Hierapolis sawmill in Asia Minor (Turkey), then part of the Roman Empire.
6th century: Several sawmills use a crank and connecting rod mechanism in Asia Minor and Syria, then part of the Byzantine Empire.
9th century: The crank appears in the mid-9th century in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices.[2]
1206: Al-Jazari invented an early crankshaft,[3][4] which he incorporated with a crank-connecting rod mechanism in his twin-cylinder pump. Like the modern crankshaft, Al-Jazari's mechanism consisted of a wheel setting several crank pins into motion, with the wheel's motion being circular and the pins moving back-and-forth in a straight line.[3] The crankshaft described by al-Jazari[3][4] transforms continuous rotary motion into a linear reciprocating motion.
17th century: Samuel Morland experiments with using gunpowder to drive water pumps.
17th century: Christiaan Huygens designs gunpowder to drive water pumps, to supply 3000 cubic meters of water/day for the Versailles palace gardens, essentially creating the first idea of a rudimentary internal combustion piston engine.
1780s: Alessandro Volta built a toy electric pistol[5] in which an electric spark exploded a mixture of air and hydrogen, firing a cork from the end of the gun.
1791: John Barber receives British patent #1833 for A Method for Rising Inflammable Air for the Purposes of Producing Motion and Facilitating Metallurgical Operations. In it he describes a turbine.
1794: Robert Street built a compressionless engine. He was also the first to use liquid fuel in an internal combustion engine.[6]
1794: Thomas Mead patents a gas engine.[7]
1798: John Stevens builds the first double-acting, crankshaft-using internal combustion engine.
1801: Philippe LeBon D'Humberstein comes up with the use of compression in a two-stroke engine.
1807: Nicéphore Niépce installed his "moss, coal-dust and resin" fueled Pyréolophore internal combustion engine in a boat and powered up the river Saône in France. A patent was subsequently granted by Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte on 20 July 1807.
1807: Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine powered by a hydrogen and oxygen mixture, and ignited by electric spark. (See 1780s: Alessandro Volta above.)[8]
1823: Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially. It was compressionless and based on what Hardenberg[9] calls the "Leonardo cycle", which, as the name implies, was already out of date at that time.
1824: French physicist Sadi Carnot established the thermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines.
1826 April 1: American Samuel Morey received a patent for a compressionless "Gas or Vapor Engine."[9] This is also the first recorded example of a carburetor.
1833: Lemuel Wellman Wright, UK patent no. 6525, table-type gas engine. Double-acting gas engine, first record of water-jacketed cylinder.[10]
1838: A patent was granted to William Barnett, UK patent no. 7615 April 1838. According to Dugald Clerk, this was the first recorded use of in-cylinder compression.[11]
1853–1857: Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci invented and patented an engine using the free-piston principle in an atmospheric two cycle engine.[12][13]
1856: in Florence at Fonderia del Pignone (now Nuovo Pignone, later a subsidiary of General Electric), Pietro Benini realized a working prototype of the Italian engine supplying 5 HP. In subsequent years he developed more powerful engines—with one or two pistons—which served as steady power sources, replacing steam engines.
1857: Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci describe the principles of the free piston engine where the vacuum after the explosion allows atmospheric pressure to deliver the power stroke (British patent no. 1625).
[13]
1860–1910[edit]
Patent of Otto-Langen engine 1863
Sir Dugald Clerk's two cycle engine from 1879
This internal combustion engine was an integral aspect of the patent for the first patented automobile, made by Karl Benz on January 29, 1886.
Karl Benz
1860: Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1822–1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine similar in appearance to a horizontal double-acting steam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, and flywheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam. This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
1861: Nikolaus Otto builds a copy of the Lenoir engine.
1862: Nikolaus Otto attempts the construction of the compressed charge four cycle engine, and fails.
1862: The earliest confirmed patent of the 4-cycle engine, by Alphonse Beau de Rochas. This was principle only, there was NO engine built to prove the concept.
1862: The German Nikolaus Otto begins to manufacture a no compression gas Lenoir engine with a free piston.[14]
1864: Nikolaus Otto, patented in England and other countries his first atmospheric gas engine. Otto was the first to build and sell this type of compressionless engine designed with an indirect-acting free-piston, whose great efficiency won the support of Eugen Langen and then most of the market, which at that time was mainly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas. Eugen Langen collaborated with Otto in the design and they began to manufacture it in 1864.[15]
1865: Pierre Hugon started production of the Hugon engine, similar to the Lenoir engine, but with better economy, and more reliable flame ignition.
1867: Otto and Langen exhibited their free piston engine at the Paris Exhibition in 1867, and they won the greatest award. It had less than half the gas consumption of the Lenoir or Hugon engines.
1870: In Vienna, Siegfried Marcus put the first mobile gasoline and the first modern internal combustion engine on a handcart.
1872: In America George Brayton invented Brayton's Ready Motor and went into commercial production, this used constant pressure combustion, and was the first commercial liquid fuelled internal combustion engine.
1876: Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, four-stroke engine.[16] The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four-stroke cycle, and after this decision, in-cylinder compression became universal.
1878: Dugald Clerk designed the first two-stroke engine with in-cylinder compression. He patented it in England in 1881.
1879: Karl Benz, working independently, was granted a patent for his reliable two-stroke, internal combustion engine, gas engine.
1882: James Atkinson invented the Atkinson cycle engine. Atkinson's engine had one power phase per revolution together with different intake and expansion volumes, potentially making it more efficient than the Otto cycle, but certainly avoiding Otto's patent.
1884: British engineer Edward Butler constructed the first petrol (gasoline) internal combustion engine. Butler invented the spark plug, ignition magneto, coil ignition and spray jet carburetor, and was the first to use the word petrol.[17]
1885: German engineer Gottlieb Daimler received a German patent for a supercharger [18]
1885/1886 Karl Benz designed and built his own four-stroke engine that was used in his automobile, which was developed in 1885, patented in 1886, and became the first automobile in series production.
1887: Gustaf de Laval introduces the de Laval nozzle
1889: Félix Millet begins development of the first vehicle to be powered by a rotary engine in transportation history.
1891: Herbert Akroyd Stuart built his oil engine, leasing rights to Hornsby of England to build them. They built the first cold-start compression-ignition engines. In 1892, they installed the first ones in a water pumping station. In the same year, an experimental higher-pressure version produced self-sustaining ignition through compression alone.
1892: Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine .[19]
1893 February 23: Rudolf Diesel received a patent for his compression ignition (diesel) engine.
1896: Karl Benz invented the boxer engine, also known as the horizontally opposed engine, or the flat engine, in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead center at the same time, thus balancing each other in momentum.
1897: Robert Bosch was the first to adapt a magneto ignition to a vehicle engine.
1898: Fay Oliver Farwell designs the prototype of the line of Adams-Farwell automobiles, all to be powered with three or five cylinder rotary internal combustion engines.
1900: Rudolf Diesel demonstrated the diesel engine in the 1900 Exposition Universelle (World's Fair) using peanut oil fuel (see biodiesel).[20]
1900: Wilhelm Maybach designed an engine built at Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft—following the specifications of Emil Jellinek—who required the engine to be named Daimler-Mercedes after his daughter. In 1902 automobiles with that engine were put into production by DMG.[21][22]
1903: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of theoretical papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space. A major point in his work is liquid fueled rockets.
1903: Ægidius Elling builds a gas turbine using a centrifugal compressor which runs under its own power. By most definitions, this is the first working gas turbine.
1905: Alfred Buchi patents the turbocharger and starts producing the first examples.
1903–1906: The team of Armengaud and Lemale in France build a complete gas turbine engine. It uses three separate compressors driven by a single turbine. Limits on the turbine temperatures allow for only a 3:1 compression ratio, and the turbine is not based on a Parsons-like "fan", but a Pelton wheel-like arrangement. The engine is so inefficient, at about 3% thermal efficiency, that the work is abandoned.
1908: New Zealand inventor Ernest Godward started a motorcycle business in Invercargill and fitted the imported bikes with his own invention–a petrol economiser. His economisers worked as well in cars as they did in motorcycles.
1908: Hans Holzwarth starts work on extensive research on an "explosive cycle" gas turbine,[23] based on the Otto cycle. This design burns fuel at a constant volume and is somewhat more efficient. By 1927, when the work ended, he has reached about 13% thermal efficiency.
1908: René Lorin patents a design for the ramjet engine.
1916: Auguste Rateau suggests using exhaust-powered compressors to improve high-altitude performance, the first example of the turbocharger.
1920–1980[edit]
1920: William Joseph Stern reports to the Royal Air Force that there is no future for the turbine engine in aircraft. He bases his argument on the extremely low efficiency of existing compressor designs. Due to Stern's eminence, his paper is so convincing there is little official interest in gas turbine engines anywhere, although this does not last long.
1921: Maxime Guillaume patents the axial-flow gas turbine engine. It uses multiple stages in both the compressor and turbine, combined with a single very large combustion chamber.
1923: Edgar Buckingham at the United States National Bureau of Standards publishes a report on jets, coming to the same conclusion as W.J. Stern, that the turbine engine is not efficient enough. In particular he notes that a jet would use five times as much fuel as a piston engine.[24]
1925: The Hesselman engine is introduced by Swedish engineer Jonas Hesselman represented the first use of direct gasoline injection on a spark-ignition engine.[25][26]
1925: Wilhelm Pape patents a constant-volume engine design.
1926: Alan Arnold Griffith publishes his groundbreaking paper Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, changing the low confidence in jet engines. In it he demonstrates that existing compressors are "flying stalled", and that major improvements can be made by redesigning the blades from a flat profile into an airfoil, going on to mathematically demonstrate that a practical engine is definitely possible and showing how to build a turboprop.
1926: Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket
1927: Aurel Stodola publishes his "Steam and Gas Turbines"—basic reference for jet propulsion engineers in the US.
1927: A testbed single-shaft turbo-compressor based on Griffith's blade design is tested at the Royal Aircraft Establishment.
1929: Frank Whittle's thesis on jet engines is published
1930: Schmidt patents a pulse-jet engine in Germany.
1935: Hans von Ohain creates plans for a turbojet engine and convinces Ernst Heinkel to develop a working model. Along with a single mechanic von Ohain develops the worlds first turbojet on a test stand.
1936: French engineer René Leduc, having independently rediscovered René Lorin's design, successfully demonstrates the world's first operating ramjet.
1937: The first successful run of Sir Frank Whittle's gas turbine for jet propulsion.
March, 1937: The Heinkel HeS 1 experimental hydrogen fueled centrifugal jet engine is tested at Hirth.
27 August 1939: Flight of the world's first turbojet power aircraft. Hans von Ohain's Heinkel He 178 V1 pioneer turbojet aircraft prototype makes its first flight, powered by an He S 3 von Ohain engine.
15 May 1941: The Gloster E.28/39 becomes the first British jet-engined aircraft to fly, using a Power Jets W.1 turbojet designed by Frank Whittle and others.
1942: Max Bentele discovers in Germany that turbine blades can break if vibrations are in its resonance range, a phenomenon already known in the US from the steam turbine experience.
18 July 1942: The Messerschmitt Me 262 first jet engine flight
1946: Samuel Baylin develops the Baylin Engine a three cycle internal combustion engine with rotary pistons. A crude but complex example of the future Wankel engine.[27]
1951: Engineers for The Texas Company—i.e. now Chevron—developed a four stroke engine with a fuel injector that employed what was called the Texaco Combustion Process, which unlike normal four stroke gasoline engines which used a separate valve for the intake of the air-gasoline mixture, with the T.C.P. engine the intake valve with a built in special shroud delivers the air to the cylinder in a tornado type fashion and then the fuel is injected and ignited by a spark plug. The inventors claimed their engine could burn on almost any petroleum based fuel of any octane and even some alcohol based fuels—e.g. kerosene, benzine, motor oil, tractor oil, etc.—without the pre-combustion knock and the complete burning of the fuel injected into the cylinder. While development was well advanced by 1950, there are no records of the T.C.P. engine being used commercially.[28]
1950s: Development begins by US firms of the Free-piston engine concept which is a crankless internal combustion engine.[29]
1954: Felix Wankel's first working prototype DKM 54 of the Wankel engine
1980 to present[edit]
1986: Benz Gmbh[30] files for patent protection for a form of Scotch yoke engine and begins development of same. Development subsequently abandoned.
1996: Ford Motor Company files patent for compact turbine engine.[31]
2004: Hyper-X first scramjet to maintain altitude
2004: Toyota Motor Corp files for patent protection for new form of Scotch yoke engine.[32]
Engine starting[edit]
Main article: Starter motor
Early internal combustion engines were started by hand cranking. Various types of starter motor were later developed. These included:
An auxiliary petrol engine for starting a larger petrol or diesel engine. The Hucks starter is an example
Cartridge starters, such as the Coffman engine starter, which used a device like a blank shotgun cartridge. These were popular for aircraft engines
Pneumatic starters
Hydraulic starters
Electric starters
Electric starters are now almost universal for small and medium-sized engines, while pneumatic starters are used for large engines.
Modern vs. historical piston engines[edit]
The first piston engines did not have compression, but ran on an air-fuel mixture sucked or blown in during the first part of the intake stroke. The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression of the fuel charge prior to combustion.
The problem of ignition of fuel was handled in early engines with an open flame and a sliding gate. To obtain a faster engine speed Daimler adopted a Hot Tube ignition which allowed 600 rpm immediately in his 1883 horizontal cylinder engine and very soon after over 900 rpm. Most of the engines of that time could not exceed 200 rpm due to their ignition and induction systems.[33]
The first practical engine, Lenoir's, ran on illuminating gas (coal gas). It wasn't until 1883, that Daimler created an engine that ran on liquid petroleum, a fuel called Ligroin which has a chemical makeup of Hexane-N. The fuel is also known as petroleum naptha.
Otto's first engines were push engines which produced a push through the entire stroke (like a Diesel). Daimler's engines produced a rapid pulse, more suitable for mobile engine use.
See also[edit]
Bertha Benz Memorial Route, commemorating the world's first long distance journey with an automobile propelled by an internal combustion engine in 1888.
Harry Ricardo
Timeline of heat engine technology
Timeline of motor vehicle brands
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Pages 118–119.
Jump up ^ A. F. L. Beeston, M. J. L. Young, J. D. Latham, Robert Bertram Serjeant (1990), The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 0-521-32763-6
^ Jump up to: a b c Sally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (2009), Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology, The Rosen Publishing Group, p. 41, ISBN 1-4358-5066-1
^ Jump up to: a b Paul Vallely, How Islamic Inventors Changed the World, The Independent, 11 March 2006.
Jump up ^ "ELECTRIC PISTOL". ppp.unipv.it.
Jump up ^ "The Early History of Combustion Engines".
Jump up ^ Spies, Albert. "Modern gas and oil engines". [New York, The Cassier's magazine company – via Internet Archive.
Jump up ^ "The History of the Automobile - Gas Engines". About.com. 2009-09-11. Retrieved 2009-10-19.
^ Jump up to: a b Hardenberg, Horst O. (1992). Samuel Morey and his atmospheric engine. SP-922. Warrendale, Pa.: Society of Automotive Engineers. ISBN 1-56091-240-5.
Jump up ^ Dugald Clerk, "Gas and Oil Engines", Longman Green & Co, (7th Edition) 1897, pp 3-5.
Jump up ^ Dugald Clerk, "Gas and Oil Engines", Longman Green & Co, 1897.
Jump up ^ "The Historical Documents". Barsanti e Matteucci. Fondazione Barsanti & Matteucci. 2009. Retrieved 2013-11-01.
^ Jump up to: a b Ricci, G.; et al. (2012). "The First Internal Combustion Engine". In Starr, Fred; et al. The Piston Engine Revolution. London: Newcomen Society. pp. 23–44. ISBN 978-0-904685-15-2. CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
Jump up ^ Machines: A Pictorial History; Sigvard Strandh. ISBN 84-86115-20-5
Jump up ^ http://services.eng.uts.edu.au/~johnd/ICEngines/HISTORY%20OF%20THE%20OTTO.pdf
Jump up ^ Zeleznik, F. J.; Mcbride, B. J. "Modeling the Internal Combustion Engine". NASA Reference Publication. NASA Technical Reports Server. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "Hiram Maxim and Edward Butler:Two local inventors". Bexley. Bexley. Archived from the original on 15 February 2016. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
Jump up ^ "Gottlieb Daimler".
Jump up ^ DE patent 67207 Rudolf Diesel: "Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart für Verbrennungskraftmaschinen" pg 4.
Jump up ^ Martin Leduc, "Biography of Rudolph Diesel" Archived 2010-06-11 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ "Wilhelm Maybach". www.nndb.com.
Jump up ^ The history behind the Mercedes-Benz brand and the three-pointed star. eMercedesBenz.com. April 17, 2008.
Jump up ^ Museum, Deutsches. "Deutsches Museum: Holzwarth Gas Turbine, 1908". www.deutsches-museum.de.
Jump up ^ "Report #159" (PDF). casi.ntrs.nasa.gov.
Jump up ^ Scania fordonshistoria 1891-1991 (in Swedish). 1992. ISBN 91-7886-074-1. (Translated title: Vehicle history of Scania 1891-1991)
Jump up ^ Volvo – Lastbilarna igår och idag (in Swedish). 1987. ISBN 91-86442-76-7. (Translated title: Volvo trucks yesterday and today)
Jump up ^ "How the Baylin Engine Works." Popular Mechanics, July 1946, pp. 131-132.
Jump up ^ "Engine With A Built In Tornado." Popular Mechanic, September 1950, pp. 94-95.
Jump up ^ "Revolution of the Free-Piston Engine" Popular Mechanics, September 1950, pp. 114-118.
Jump up ^ "BENZ GmbH Werkzeugsysteme". www.benz-tools.de.
Jump up ^ "US Patent # 5,584,174. Power turbine flywheel assembly for a dual shaft turbine engine - Patents.com". patents.com.
Jump up ^ Patent application number: JP2004293387.
Jump up ^ "1883: High-speed engine with hot-tube ignition".
Further reading[edit]
Sloss, Robert (January 1911). "The Children Of The Gas-Engine: The Revolution In Speed And In Convenience In Transportation - Automobiles, Motor-Cycles, Motor-Boats, Aeroplanes And Other Queer Craft That Ten Years Have Brought". The World's Work: A History of Our Time. XXI: 13869–13877. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
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Pirsig's metaphysics of Quality
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
The Metaphysics of Quality (MoQ) is a theory of reality introduced in Robert Pirsig's philosophical novel, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (1974) and expanded in Lila: An Inquiry into Morals (1991). The MoQ incorporates facets of East Asian philosophy, pragmatism, the work of F. S. C. Northrop, and indigenous American philosophy. Pirsig argues that the MoQ is a better lens through which to view reality than the traditional Dvaita/dualistic subjective/objective mindset found in the West and originated in the East. The book talks about the Indian concept of Tat Tvam Asi as opposed to Dvaita.
Contents
[hide]
1 Development
2 Quality
2.1 Static quality patterns and dynamic quality
2.1.1 Dynamic quality
2.1.2 Static quality patterns
3 See also
4 References
5 Books
6 External links
Development[edit]
The Metaphysics of Quality originated with Pirsig's college studies as a biochemistry student at the University of Minnesota. He describes in Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance that as he studied, he found the number of rational hypotheses for any given phenomenon appeared to be unlimited. It seemed to him this would seriously undermine the validity of the scientific method. His studies began to suffer as he pondered the question and eventually he was expelled from the university.
After spending some time in Korea as a soldier, Pirsig concluded that Oriental philosophy was a better place to search for ultimate answers. On his return home from Korea, Pirsig read F. S. C. Northrop's book The Meeting of East and West which related Western culture to the culture of East Asia in a systematic way. In 1950, Pirsig continued his philosophical studies at Banaras Hindu University, where he came across the Sanskrit doctrine of Tat Tvam Asi —in his words, "Thou art that, which asserts that everything you think you are (Subjective), and everything you think you perceive (Objective), are undivided. To fully realize this lack of division is to become enlightened." The nature of mystical experience plays an underlying role throughout his work.
In the late 1950s, Pirsig taught rhetoric at Montana State College – Bozeman and, with the encouragement of an older colleague, decided to explore what exactly was meant by the term quality. He assigned his students the task of defining the word. This, coupled with a Native American Church peyote ceremony he attended with an anthropologist friend, James Verne Dusenberry, led Pirsig into what he called "a mushroom cloud of thought."[citation needed] Pirsig began developing his ideas about quality in his first book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, and expanded and codified his ideas into the MoQ in Lila.
Quality[edit]
"Dynamic Quality cannot be defined. It can only be understood intellectually through the use of analogy."
Dan Glover, Lila's Child: An Inquiry Into Quality
"Quality," or "value," as described by Pirsig, cannot be defined because it empirically precedes any intellectual construction of it, namely due to the fact that quality (as Pirsig explicitly defines it) exists always as a perceptual experience before it is ever thought of descriptively or academically. Quality is the "knife-edge" of experience, found only in the present, known or at least potentially accessible to all of "us". (Plato's Phaedrus, 258d). Equating it with the Tao, Pirsig postulates that Quality is the fundamental force in the universe stimulating everything from atoms to animals to evolve and incorporate ever greater levels of Quality. According to the MoQ, everything (including ideas, and matter) is a product and a result of Quality.
Static quality patterns and dynamic quality[edit]
The MoQ maintains that quality itself is undefinable (Tao), but to better understand it, Pirsig breaks quality down into two ("knife-edge") forms: static quality patterns (patterned) and dynamic quality (unpatterned). The four patterns of static value as well as dynamic quality account exhaustively for all of ("knife-edged") reality. As the initial (cutting edge) dynamic quality becomes habituated, it turns into static patterns (viz. data, expectations). It is important to note that Pirsig is not proposing a duality: quality is one, "every last bit of it", yet manifests itself differently. Rather than dualism, this manifestation of quality in terms of dynamic and static aspects represents a dialectical monism.
Dynamic quality[edit]
Dynamic quality cannot be defined. It can only be understood intellectually through the use of analogy. It can be described as the force of change in the universe; when an aspect of quality becomes habitual or customary, it becomes static. Pirsig calls dynamic quality "the pre-intellectual cutting edge of reality" because it can be recognized before it can be conceptualized. This is why the dynamic beauty of a piece of music can be recognized before a static analysis explaining why the music is beautiful can be constructed.
Static quality patterns[edit]
Pirsig defines static quality as everything which can be defined. Everything found in a dictionary, for instance, is static quality. These static forms, if they have enough high or low quality, are given names and are interchanged with other "people", building the base of knowledge for a culture. So some cultures divide between things other cultures perceive as equal (Pirsig gave as example the sounds of the Indian syllables "dha" and "da," which are absolutely equal to western ears), and some cultures haven't any words for a specific meaning at all (for example, Spanish has no word for "accountability"). Pirsig divides static quality into inorganic, biological, social, and intellectual patterns, in ascending order of morality.
Inorganic patterns: non-living things
Biological patterns: living things
Social patterns: behaviors, habits, rituals, institutions.
Intellectual patterns: ideas
Pirsig describes evolution as the moral progression of these patterns of value. For example, a biological pattern overcoming an inorganic pattern (e.g. bird flight which overcomes gravity) is a moral thing because a biological pattern is a higher form of evolution. Likewise, an intellectual pattern of value overcoming a social one (e.g. civil rights) is a moral development because intellect is a higher form of evolution than society. Therefore, decisions about one's conduct during any given day can be made using the Metaphysics of Quality. It is important to note that Pirsig is not proposing criticism or responsibility, but acceptance, and pure absorption:
"When he wrote it he felt momentary fright and was about to strike out the words "All of it. Every last bit of it." Madness there. I think he saw it. But he couldn’t see any logical reason to strike these words out and it was too late now for faintheartedness. He ignored his warning and let the words stand."-ZMM, Ch.20
"Good is a noun. That was it. That was what Phaedrus had been looking for. That was the homer, over the fence, that ended the ball game. Good as a noun rather than as an adjective is all the Metaphysics of Quality is about. Of course, the ultimate Quality isn't a noun or an adjective or anything else definable, but if you had to reduce the whole Metaphysics of Quality to a single sentence, that would be it."-Lila, The End
"The language we've inherited confuses this. We say "my" body and "your" body and "his" body and "her" body, but it isn't that way. … This Cartesian "Me," this autonomous little homunculus who sits behind our eyeballs looking out through them in order to pass judgment on the affairs of the world, is just completely ridiculous. This self-appointed little editor of reality is just an impossible fiction that collapses the moment one examines it."-ZMM, Ch.15
"Another immoral way of killing the static patterns is to pass the patterns to someone else, in what Phaedrus called a 'karma dump.' ... If you take all this karmic garbage and make yourself feel better by passing it on to others that's normal. That's the way the world works. But if you manage to absorb it and not pass [editor's emboldening] it on, that's the highest moral conduct of all."-Lila, Ch.32
See also[edit]
Charles Sanders Peirce
Platonism, Plato
Pragmatism
Taoism, Tao
William James
Energy quality
Flow (psychology)
C. S. Lewis (esp. The Abolition of Man)
John Dewey
Alfred North Whitehead and process philosophy
References[edit]
Books[edit]
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values (1974) ISBN 0-06-095832-4
Lila: An Inquiry into Morals (1991) ISBN 0-553-29961-1
Guidebook to Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by R. DiSanto and T. J. Steele (1990) ISBN 0-688-06069-2
"Lila's Child: An Inquiry into Quality (2002) OCLC 59259846
Granger, David A.: John Dewey, Robert Pirsig, and the Art of Living: Revisioning Aesthetic Education. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
"The Truth About Art: Reclaiming Quality" by Patrick Doorly (2013) ISBN 978-1780998411
External links[edit]
moq.org Essays, interviews and reviews pertaining to Pirsig's Metaphysics of Quality
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