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Fructose
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D-Fructose
D-Fructofuranose
D-Fructose (open-chain form)
Haworth projection of β-D-Fructofuranose
Ball-and-stick model of D-fructose
Names
IUPAC name
(3S,4R,5R)-1,3,4,5,6-Pentahydroxyhexan-2-one
Other names
Fruit sugar,[1] levulose,[2] D-fructofuranose, D-fructose, D-arabino-hexulose
Identifiers
CAS Number
57-48-7 Y
3D model (JSmol)
Interactive image
ChEBI
CHEBI:28645 Y
ChEMBL
ChEMBL604608 Y
ChemSpider
388775 Y
ECHA InfoCard 100.000.303
EC Number 200-333-3
KEGG
C02336 Y
PubChem CID
5984
UNII
6YSS42VSEV Y
InChI[show]
InChI=1S/C6H12O6/c7-1-3-4(9)5(10)6(11,2-8)12-3/h3-5,7-11H,1-2H2/t3-,4-,5+,6-/m1/s1 Y
Key: RFSUNEUAIZKAJO-ARQDHWQXSA-N Y
SMILES[show]
O[C@H]1[C@H](O)[C@H](O[C@]1(O)CO)CO
Properties
Chemical formula
C6H12O6
Molar mass 180.16 g·mol−1
Density 1.694 g/cm3
Melting point 103 °C (217 °F; 376 K)
Solubility in water
~4000 g/L (25 °C)
Magnetic susceptibility (χ)
−102.60×10−6 cm3/mol
Pharmacology
ATC code
V06DC02 (WHO)
Hazards
Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC):
LD50 (median dose)
15000 mg/kg (intravenous, rabbit)[3]
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).
N verify (what is Y N ?)
Infobox references
Fructose, or fruit sugar, is a simple ketonic monosaccharide found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed directly into blood during digestion. Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847.[4][5] The name "fructose" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Allen Miller.[6] Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars.[7] Fructose is found in honey, tree and vine fruits, flowers, berries, and most root vegetables.
Commercially, fructose is derived from sugar cane, sugar beets, and maize. Crystalline fructose is the monosaccharide, dried, ground, and of high purity. High-fructose corn syrup is a mixture of glucose and fructose as monosaccharides. Sucrose is a compound with one molecule of glucose covalently linked to one molecule of fructose. All forms of fructose, including fruits and juices, are commonly added to foods and drinks for palatability and taste enhancement, and for browning of some foods, such as baked goods. About 240,000 tonnes of crystalline fructose are produced annually.[8]
As for any sugar, excessive consumption of fructose may contribute to insulin resistance, obesity, elevated LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, leading to metabolic syndrome,[9] type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.[10] The European Food Safety Authority stated that fructose is preferable over sucrose and glucose in sugar-sweetened foods and beverages because of its lower effect on postprandial blood sugar levels, and also noted that "high intakes of fructose may lead to metabolic complications such as dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance, and increased visceral adiposity".[11] Further, the UK’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition in 2015 disputed the claims of fructose causing metabolic disorders, stating that "there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate that fructose intake leads to adverse health outcomes independent of any effects related to its presence as a component of total and free sugars."[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Chemical properties
2.1 Reactions
2.1.1 Fructose and fermentation
2.1.2 Fructose and Maillard reaction
2.1.3 Dehydration
3 Physical and functional properties
3.1 Sweetness of fructose
3.2 Fructose solubility and crystallization
3.3 Fructose hygroscopicity and humectancy
3.4 Freezing point
3.5 Fructose and starch functionality in food systems
4 Food sources
4.1 Carbohydrate content of commercial sweeteners (percent on dry basis)
4.2 Nutritional information
5 Fructose digestion and absorption in humans
5.1 Capacity and rate of absorption
5.2 Malabsorption
6 Fructose metabolism
6.1 Fructolysis
6.2 Metabolism of fructose to DHAP and glyceraldehyde
6.3 Synthesis of glycogen from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
6.4 Synthesis of triglyceride from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
7 Potential health effects
7.1 Weight gain
7.2 Cardiometabolic diseases
7.3 Compared with sucrose
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Etymology[edit]
The word "fructose" was coined in 1857 from the Latin for fructus (fruit) and the generic chemical suffix for sugars, -ose.[6][13] It is also called fruit sugar and levulose.[13]
Chemical properties[edit]
Figure 1: Relationship between the acyclic and the cyclic (hemiketal) isomers of fructose
D- and L-isomers of fructose (open-chain form)
Fructose is a 6-carbon polyhydroxyketone. Crystalline fructose adopts a cyclic six-membered structure owing to the stability of its hemiketal and internal hydrogen-bonding. This form is formally called D-fructopyranose. In solution, fructose exists as an equilibrium mixture of 70% fructopyranose and about 22% fructofuranose, as well as small amounts of three other forms, including the acyclic structure.[14]
Reactions[edit]
Fructose and fermentation[edit]
Fructose may be anaerobically fermented by yeast or bacteria.[15] Yeast enzymes convert sugar (glucose, or fructose) to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide released during fermentation will remain dissolved in water, where it will reach equilibrium with carbonic acid, unless the fermentation chamber is left open to the air. The dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid produce the carbonation in bottled fermented beverages.[16]
Fructose and Maillard reaction[edit]
Fructose undergoes the Maillard reaction, non-enzymatic browning, with amino acids. Because fructose exists to a greater extent in the open-chain form than does glucose, the initial stages of the Maillard reaction occur more rapidly than with glucose. Therefore, fructose has potential to contribute to changes in food palatability, as well as other nutritional effects, such as excessive browning, volume and tenderness reduction during cake preparation, and formation of mutagenic compounds.[17]
Dehydration[edit]
Fructose readily dehydrates to give hydroxymethylfurfural ("HMF"). This process, in the future, may become part of a low-cost, carbon-neutral system to produce replacements for petrol and diesel from plants.[18]
Physical and functional properties[edit]
Sweetness of fructose[edit]
See also: Sweetness § Examples of sweet substances
The primary reason that fructose is used commercially in foods and beverages, besides its low cost, is its high relative sweetness. It is the sweetest of all naturally occurring carbohydrates. The relative sweetness of fructose has been reported in the range of 1.2–1.8 times that of sucrose.[19][20][21][22] However, it is the 6-membered ring form of fructose that is sweeter; the 5-membered ring form tastes about the same as usual table sugar. Warming fructose leads to formation of the 5-membered ring form.[23] Therefore, the relative sweetness decreases with increasing temperature. However it has been observed that the absolute sweetness of fructose is identical at 5 °C as 50 °C and thus the relative sweetness to sucrose is not due to anomeric distribution but a decrease in the absolute sweetness of sucrose at lower temperatures.[21]
Figure 2: Relative sweetness of sugars and sweeteners
The sweetness of fructose is perceived earlier than that of sucrose or glucose, and the taste sensation reaches a peak (higher than that of sucrose) and diminishes more quickly than that of sucrose. Fructose can also enhance other flavors in the system.[19][21]
Fructose exhibits a sweetness synergy effect when used in combination with other sweeteners. The relative sweetness of fructose blended with sucrose, aspartame, or saccharin is perceived to be greater than the sweetness calculated from individual components.[24][21]
Fructose solubility and crystallization[edit]
Fructose has higher solubility than other sugars as well as other sugar alcohols. Fructose is, therefore, difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution.[19] Sugar mixes containing fructose, such as candies, are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of fructose.[25]
Fructose hygroscopicity and humectancy[edit]
Fructose is quicker to absorb moisture and slower to release it to the environment than sucrose, glucose, or other nutritive sweeteners.[24] Fructose is an excellent humectant and retains moisture for a long period of time even at low relative humidity (RH). Therefore, fructose can contribute a more palatable texture, and longer shelf life to the food products in which it is used.[19]
Freezing point[edit]
Fructose has a greater effect on freezing point depression than disaccharides or oligosaccharides, which may protect the integrity of cell walls of fruit by reducing ice crystal formation. However, this characteristic may be undesirable in soft-serve or hard-frozen dairy desserts.[19]
Fructose and starch functionality in food systems[edit]
Fructose increases starch viscosity more rapidly and achieves a higher final viscosity than sucrose because fructose lowers the temperature required during gelatinizing of starch, causing a greater final viscosity.[26]
Although some artificial sweeteners are not suitable for home-baking, many traditional recipes use fructose.[27]
Food sources[edit]
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Crystalline fructose
Natural sources of fructose include fruits, vegetables (including sugar cane), and honey.[28] Fructose is often further concentrated from these sources. The highest dietary sources of fructose, besides pure crystalline fructose, are foods containing table sugar (sucrose), high-fructose corn syrup, agave nectar, honey, molasses, maple syrup, fruit and fruit juices, as these have the highest percentages of fructose (including fructose in sucrose) per serving compared to other common foods and ingredients. Fructose exists in foods either as a free monosaccharide or bound to glucose as sucrose, a disaccharide. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose may all be present in a food; however, different foods will have varying levels of each of these three sugars.
The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1. In general, in foods that contain free fructose, the ratio of fructose to glucose is approximately 1:1; that is, foods with fructose usually contain about an equal amount of free glucose. A value that is above 1 indicates a higher proportion of fructose to glucose, and below 1 a lower proportion. Some fruits have larger proportions of fructose to glucose compared to others. For example, apples and pears contain more than twice as much free fructose as glucose, while for apricots the proportion is less than half as much fructose as glucose.
Apple and pear juices are of particular interest to pediatricians because the high concentrations of free fructose in these juices can cause diarrhea in children. The cells (enterocytes) that line children's small intestines have less affinity for fructose absorption than for glucose and sucrose.[29] Unabsorbed fructose creates higher osmolarity in the small intestine, which draws water into the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in osmotic diarrhea. This phenomenon is discussed in greater detail in the Health Effects section.
Table 1 also shows the amount of sucrose found in common fruits and vegetables. Sugarcane and sugar beet have a high concentration of sucrose, and are used for commercial preparation of pure sucrose. Extracted cane or beet juice is clarified, removing impurities; and concentrated by removing excess water. The end-product is 99.9%-pure sucrose. Sucrose-containing sugars include common table white granulated sugar and powdered sugar, as well as brown sugar.[30]
Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)[31]
Food Item
Total
CarbohydrateA
including
"dietary fiber"
Total
Sugars
Free
Fructose
Free
Glucose
Sucrose
Fructose/
Glucose
Ratio
Sucrose
as a % of
Total Sugars
Fruits
Apple 13.8 10.4 5.9 2.4 2.1 2.0 19.9
Apricot 11.1 9.2 0.9 2.4 5.9 0.7 63.5
Banana 22.8 12.2 4.9 5.0 2.4 1.0 20.0
Fig, dried 63.9 47.9 22.9 24.8 0.9 0.93 0.15
Grapes 18.1 15.5 8.1 7.2 0.2 1.1 1
Navel orange 12.5 8.5 2.25 2.0 4.3 1.1 50.4
Peach 9.5 8.4 1.5 2.0 4.8 0.9 56.7
Pear 15.5 9.8 6.2 2.8 0.8 2.1 8.0
Pineapple 13.1 9.9 2.1 1.7 6.0 1.1 60.8
Plum 11.4 9.9 3.1 5.1 1.6 0.66 16.2
Vegetables
Beet, Red 9.6 6.8 0.1 0.1 6.5 1.0 96.2
Carrot 9.6 4.7 0.6 0.6 3.6 1.0 77
Red Pepper, Sweet 6.0 4.2 2.3 1.9 0.0 1.2 0.0
Onion, Sweet 7.6 5.0 2.0 2.3 0.7 0.9 14.3
Sweet Potato 20.1 4.2 0.7 1.0 2.5 0.9 60.3
Yam 27.9 0.5 tr tr tr na tr
Sugar Cane 13–18 0.2 – 1.0 0.2 – 1.0 11–16 1.0 high
Sugar Beet 17–18 0.1 – 0.5 0.1 – 0.5 16–17 1.0 high
Grains
Corn, Sweet 19.0 6.2 1.9 3.4 0.9 0.61 15.0
^A The carbohydrate figure is calculated in the USDA database and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber".
All data with a unit of g (gram) are based on 100 g of a food item. The fructose/glucose ratio is calculated by dividing the sum of free fructose plus half sucrose by the sum of free glucose plus half sucrose.
Fructose is also found in the manufactured sweetener, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), which is produced by treating corn syrup with enzymes, converting glucose into fructose.[32] The common designations for fructose content, HFCS-42 and HFCS-55, indicate the percentage of fructose present in HFCS.[32] HFCS-55 is commonly used as a sweetener for soft drinks, whereas HFCS-42 is used to sweeten processed foods, breakfast cereals, bakery foods, and some soft drinks.[32]
Carbohydrate content of commercial sweeteners (percent on dry basis)[edit]
Sugar
Fructose
Glucose
Sucrose
(Fructose+Glucose)
Other
sugars
Granulated sugar 0 0 100 0
Caramel 1 1 97 1
HFCS-42 42 53 0 5
HFCS-55 55 41 0 4
HFCS-90 90 5 0 5
Honey 50 44 1 5
Maple syrup 1 4 95 0
Molasses 23 21 53 3
Tapioca Syrup 55 45 0 0
Corn syrup 0 35 0 0
Data obtained from Kretchmer, N. & Hollenbeck, CB (1991). Sugars and Sweeteners, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc.[30] for HFCS, and USDA for fruits and vegetables and the other refined sugars.[31]
Cane and beet sugars have been used as the major sweetener in food manufacturing for centuries. However, with the development of HFCS, a significant shift occurred in the type of sweetener consumption in certain countries, particularly the United States.[33] Contrary to the popular belief, however, with the increase of HFCS consumption, the total fructose intake relative to the total glucose intake has not dramatically changed. Granulated sugar is 99.9%-pure sucrose, which means that it has equal ratio of fructose to glucose. The most commonly used forms of HFCS, HFCS-42, and HFCS-55, have a roughly equal ratio of fructose to glucose, with minor differences. HFCS has simply replaced sucrose as a sweetener. Therefore, despite the changes in the sweetener consumption, the ratio of glucose to fructose intake has remained relatively constant.[34]
Figure 3: Adjusted consumption of refined sugar per capita in the US
Nutritional information[edit]
Providing 368 kcal per 100 grams of dry powder (table), fructose has 95% the caloric value of sucrose by weight.[35][36] Fructose powder is 100% carbohydrates and supplies no nutrients in significant content (table).
Fructose, dry powdered
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
368 kcal (1,540 kJ)
Carbohydrates
100 g
Fat
0 g
Protein
0 g
Minerals
Calcium
(0%)
0 mg
Iron
(1%)
0.1 mg
Phosphorus
(0%)
0 mg
Potassium
(0%)
0 mg
Sodium
(1%)
12 mg
Full Link to USDA Database entry
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Fructose digestion and absorption in humans[edit]
Figure 4: Hydrolysis of sucrose to glucose and fructose by sucrase
Figure 5: Intestinal sugar transport proteins
Fructose exists in foods either as a monosaccharide (free fructose) or as a unit of a disaccharide (sucrose). Free fructose is absorbed directly by the intestine. When fructose is consumed in the form of sucrose, it is digested (broken down) and then absorbed as free fructose. As sucrose comes into contact with the membrane of the small intestine, the enzyme sucrase catalyzes the cleavage of sucrose to yield one glucose unit and one fructose unit, which are then each absorbed. After absorption, it enters the hepatic portal vein and is directed toward the liver.
The mechanism of fructose absorption in the small intestine is not completely understood. Some evidence suggests active transport, because fructose uptake has been shown to occur against a concentration gradient.[37] However, the majority of research supports the claim that fructose absorption occurs on the mucosal membrane via facilitated transport involving GLUT5 transport proteins. Since the concentration of fructose is higher in the lumen, fructose is able to flow down a concentration gradient into the enterocytes, assisted by transport proteins. Fructose may be transported out of the enterocyte across the basolateral membrane by either GLUT2 or GLUT5, although the GLUT2 transporter has a greater capacity for transporting fructose, and, therefore, the majority of fructose is transported out of the enterocyte through GLUT2.
Capacity and rate of absorption[edit]
The absorption capacity for fructose in monosaccharide form ranges from less than 5 g to 50 g (per individual serving) and adapts with changes in dietary fructose intake.[38] Studies show the greatest absorption rate occurs when glucose and fructose are administered in equal quantities.[38] When fructose is ingested as part of the disaccharide sucrose, absorption capacity is much higher because fructose exists in a 1:1 ratio with glucose. It appears that the GLUT5 transfer rate may be saturated at low levels, and absorption is increased through joint absorption with glucose.[39] One proposed mechanism for this phenomenon is a glucose-dependent cotransport of fructose. In addition, fructose transfer activity increases with dietary fructose intake. The presence of fructose in the lumen causes increased mRNA transcription of GLUT5, leading to increased transport proteins. High-fructose diets (>2.4 g/kg body wt) increase transport proteins within three days of intake.[40]
Malabsorption[edit]
Main article: Fructose malabsorption
Several studies have measured the intestinal absorption of fructose using the hydrogen breath test.[41][42][43][44] These studies indicate that fructose is not completely absorbed in the small intestine. When fructose is not absorbed in the small intestine, it is transported into the large intestine, where it is fermented by the colonic flora. Hydrogen is produced during the fermentation process and dissolves into the blood of the portal vein. This hydrogen is transported to the lungs, where it is exchanged across the lungs and is measurable by the hydrogen breath test. The colonic flora also produces carbon dioxide, short-chain fatty acids, organic acids, and trace gases in the presence of unabsorbed fructose.[45] The presence of gases and organic acids in the large intestine causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, diarrhea, flatulence, and gastrointestial pain[41] Exercise immediately after consumption can exacerbate these symptoms by decreasing transit time in the small intestine, resulting in a greater amount of fructose emptied into the large intestine.[46]
Fructose metabolism[edit]
All three dietary monosaccharides are transported into the liver by the GLUT2 transporter.[47] Fructose and galactose are phosphorylated in the liver by fructokinase (Km= 0.5 mM) and galactokinase (Km = 0.8 mM). By contrast, glucose tends to pass through the liver (Km of hepatic glucokinase = 10 mM) and can be metabolised anywhere in the body. Uptake of fructose by the liver is not regulated by insulin. However, insulin is capable of increasing the abundance and functional activity of GLUT5 in skeletal muscle cells.[48]
Fructolysis[edit]
Main article: Fructolysis
The initial catabolism of fructose is sometimes referred to as fructolysis, in analogy with glycolysis, the catabolism of glucose. In fructolysis, the enzyme fructokinase initially produces fructose 1-phosphate, which is split by aldolase B to produce the trioses dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde [1]. Unlike glycolysis, in fructolysis the triose glyceraldehyde lacks a phosphate group. A third enzyme, triokinase, is therefore required to phosphorylate glyceraldehyde, producing glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The resulting trioses are identical to those obtained in glycolysis and can enter the gluconeogenic pathway for glucose or glycogen synthesis, or be further catabolized through the lower glycolytic pathway to pyruvate.
Metabolism of fructose to DHAP and glyceraldehyde[edit]
The first step in the metabolism of fructose is the phosphorylation of fructose to fructose 1-phosphate by fructokinase, thus trapping fructose for metabolism in the liver. Fructose 1-phosphate then undergoes hydrolysis by aldolase B to form DHAP and glyceraldehydes; DHAP can either be isomerized to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by triosephosphate isomerase or undergo reduction to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The glyceraldehyde produced may also be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by glyceraldehyde kinase or further converted to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The metabolism of fructose at this point yields intermediates in the gluconeogenic pathway leading to glycogen synthesis as well as fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis.
Synthesis of glycogen from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate[edit]
The resultant glyceraldehyde formed by aldolase B then undergoes phosphorylation to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Increased concentrations of DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in the liver drive the gluconeogenic pathway toward glucose and subsequent glycogen synthesis.[49] It appears that fructose is a better substrate for glycogen synthesis than glucose and that glycogen replenishment takes precedence over triglyceride formation.[citation needed] Once liver glycogen is replenished, the intermediates of fructose metabolism are primarily directed toward triglyceride synthesis.[citation needed]
Figure 6: Metabolic conversion of fructose to glycogen in the liver
Synthesis of triglyceride from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate[edit]
Carbons from dietary fructose are found in both the free fatty acid and glycerol moieties of plasma triglycerides. High fructose consumption can lead to excess pyruvate production, causing a buildup of Krebs cycle intermediates.[50] Accumulated citrate can be transported from the mitochondria into the cytosol of hepatocytes, converted to acetyl CoA by citrate lyase and directed toward fatty acid synthesis.[50][51] In addition, DHAP can be converted to glycerol 3-phosphate, providing the glycerol backbone for the triglyceride molecule.[51] Triglycerides are incorporated into very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), which are released from the liver destined toward peripheral tissues for storage in both fat and muscle cells.
Figure 7: Metabolic conversion of fructose to triglyceride in the liver
Potential health effects[edit]
Weight gain[edit]
In a meta-analysis of clinical trials with controlled feeding — where test subjects were fed a fixed amount of energy rather than being allowed to choose the amount they ate — fructose was not an independent factor for weight gain; however, fructose consumption was associated with weight gain when the fructose provided excess calories.[52]
Cardiometabolic diseases[edit]
An expert panel of the European Food Safety Authority concluded that fructose is preferred in food and beverage manufacturing to replace sucrose and glucose due to the lower effect of fructose on blood glucose levels following a meal.[11] However, as a common sweetening agent for foods and beverages, fructose has been associated with increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders that are part of metabolic syndrome.[9] Clinical research has provided no or only limited direct evidence that fructose itself is associated with elevated LDL cholesterol and triglycerides leading to metabolic syndrome,[53] but rather indicates that excessive consumption of sugar-sweetened foods and beverages, and the concurrent increase in calorie intake, underlies metabolic syndrome.[9] Similarly, increased consumption of sweetened foods and beverages raises risk of cardiovascular disease, including hypertension,[54][55] but there is no direct cause and effect relationship in humans showing that fructose is the causative factor.[9]
Compared with sucrose[edit]
Fructose is often recommended for diabetics because it does not trigger the production of insulin by pancreatic β cells, probably because β cells have low levels of GLUT5,[56][57][58] For a 50 gram reference amount, fructose has a glycemic index of 23, compared with 100 for glucose and 60 for sucrose.[59] Fructose is also 73% sweeter than sucrose at room temperature, allowing diabetics to use less of it per serving. Fructose consumed before a meal may reduce the glycemic response of the meal.[60] Fructose-sweetened food and beverage products cause less of a rise in blood glucose levels than do those manufactured with sucrose or glucose.[11]
See also[edit]
Hereditary fructose intolerance
Inverted sugar syrup
References[edit]
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External links[edit]
[show]
v
t
e
Fructose and galactose metabolic intermediates
Fructose
Fructose-1-phosphate → DHAP/Glyceraldehyde → Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
Galactose
Galactose-1-phosphate → Glucose 1-phosphate → Glucose 6-phosphate → Fructose 6-phosphate
Uridine diphosphate galactose
Uridine diphosphate glucose
Galactitol
Iditol
Mannose
Mannose-6-phosphate → Fructose 6-phosphate
[show]
v
t
e
Inborn error of carbohydrate metabolism: monosaccharide metabolism disorders (E73–E74, 271)
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(extracellular)
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Fructose:
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GALK deficiency
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GSD type III (Cori's disease, debranching enzyme deficiency)
GSD type VI (Hers' disease, liver glycogen phosphorylase deficiency)
GSD type V (McArdle's disease, myophosphorylase deficiency)
GSD type IX (phosphorylase kinase deficiency)
Lysosomal (LSD):
GSD type II (Pompe's disease, glucosidase deficiency)
Glucose ⇄ CAC
Glycolysis
MODY 2/HHF3
GSD type VII (Tarui's disease, phosphofructokinase deficiency)
Triosephosphate isomerase deficiency
Pyruvate kinase deficiency
Gluconeogenesis
PCD
Fructose bisphosphatase deficiency
GSD type I (von Gierke's disease, glucose 6-phosphatase deficiency)
Pentose phosphate pathway
Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency
Transaldolase deficiency
6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase deficiency
Other
Hyperoxaluria
Primary hyperoxaluria
Pentosuria
Aldolase A deficiency
[show]
v
t
e
Metabolism: carbohydrate metabolism
fructose and galactose enzymes
Fructose / Fructolysis
Hepatic fructokinase
Aldolase B
Triokinase
Sorbitol
Sorbitol dehydrogenase
Aldose reductase
Galactose / Galactolysis
Galactokinase
Galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase/UDP-glucose 4-epimerase
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Lactose
Lactose synthase
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Mannose
Mannose phosphate isomerase
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[show]
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e
Sugar (as food commodity)
List of sugars and sugar products
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GND: 4155521-1
NDL: 01214659
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text:
Continental Divide of the Americas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Continental Divide in North America in red, among other major hydrological divides
The Continental Divide in Central America and South America
The Continental Divide of the Americas (also known as the Great Divide, the Continental Gulf of Division, or merely the Continental Divide) is the principal, and largely mountainous, hydrological divide of the Americas. The Continental Divide extends from the Bering Strait to the Strait of Magellan, and separates the watersheds that drain into the Pacific Ocean from those river systems that drain into the Atlantic Ocean (including those that drain into the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea) and, along the northernmost reaches of the Divide, those river systems that drain into the Arctic Ocean.
Though there are many other hydrological divides in the Americas, the primary Continental Divide (Great Divide) is by far the most prominent of these because it tends to follow a line of high peaks along the main ranges of the Rocky Mountains and Andes, at a generally much higher elevation than the other hydrological divisions.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
1.1 Triple points
1.2 Hiking trail
2 Exceptions
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
Geography[edit]
The Continental Divide in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains of north central Colorado, taken from the International Space Station on October 28, 2008
The Continental Divide of the Americas begins at Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, the westernmost point on the mainland of the Americas. The Divide crosses northern Alaska into the Yukon, then zig-zags south into British Columbia via the Cassiar Mountains and Omineca Mountains and northern Nechako Plateau to Summit Lake, north of the city of Prince George and just south of the community of McLeod Lake. From there the Divide traverses the McGregor Plateau to the spine of the Rockies, following the crest of the Canadian Rockies southeast to the 120th meridian west, from there forming the boundary between southern British Columbia and southern Alberta.
Grays Peak, here in mid-June 2007, at 14,278 ft it is the highest point of the Continental Divide in North America.
Historically, the Continental Divide was the line between British and US land possession and the disputed Oregon Country.
The Divide crosses into the United States in northwestern Montana, at the boundary between Waterton Lakes National Park and Glacier National Park. In Canada, it forms the western boundary of Waterton Lakes National Park, and in the US bisects Glacier National Park. Further south, the Divide forms the backbone of the Rocky Mountain Front (Front Range) in the Bob Marshall Wilderness, heads south towards Helena and Butte, then west past the namesake community of Divide, Montana through the Anaconda-Pintler Wilderness to the Bitterroot Range, where it forms the eastern third of the state boundary between Idaho and Montana. The Divide crosses into Wyoming within Yellowstone National Park and continues southeast into Colorado where it reaches its highest point in North America at the summit of Grays Peak at 4,352 m (14,278 feet)[citation needed] . It crosses US Hwy 160 in southern Colorado at Wolf Creek Pass, where a line symbolizes the division. The Divide then proceeds south into western New Mexico, passing along the western boundary of the endorheic Plains of San Agustin. Although the Divide represents the height of land between watersheds, it does not always follow the highest ranges/peaks within each state or province.
In Mexico, it passes through Chihuahua, Durango, Zacatecas, Aguascalientes, Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, México, the Federal District, Morelos, Puebla, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. In Central America, it continues through southern Guatemala, southwestern Honduras, western Nicaragua, western/southwestern Costa Rica, and southern Panama. The divide reaches its lowest point in Central America at the Isthmus of Rivas at 47 m (154 feet) in Nicaragua.
The Divide continues into South America, where it follows the peaks of the Andes Mountains, traversing western Colombia, central Ecuador, western and southwestern Peru, and eastern Chile (essentially conforming to the Chile-Bolivia and Chile-Argentina boundaries), southward to the southern end of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego.
In North America, another, mainly non-mountainous divide, the Laurentian Divide (or Northern Divide), further separates the Hudson Bay-Arctic Ocean drainage region from the Atlantic watershed region. Secondary divides separate the watersheds that flow into the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River (ultimately into the Atlantic) from watersheds that flow to the Atlantic via the Missouri-Mississippi complex. Another secondary divide follows the Appalachian chain, which separates those streams and rivers that flow directly into the Atlantic Ocean from those that exit via the Mississippi River.
Triple points[edit]
Triple Divide Peak in Glacier National Park, Montana, is the point where two of the principal continental divides in North America converge, the primary Continental Divide and the Northern or Laurentian Divide. From this point, waters flow to the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico, and the Arctic Ocean via Hudson Bay. Most geographers, geologists, meteorologists, and oceanographers consider this point the hydrological apex of North America, as Hudson Bay is generally considered part of the Arctic. For example, the International Hydrographic Organization (in its current unapproved working edition only [1] of Limits of Oceans and Seas) defines the Hudson Bay, with its outlet extending from 62.5 to 66.5 degrees north (just a few miles south of the Arctic Circle) as being part of the Arctic Ocean, specifically "Arctic Ocean Subdivision 9.11."
This hydrological apex of North America status of Triple Divide Peak is the main reason behind the designation of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park as the "Crown of the Continent" of North America.[2] The summit of the peak is the world's only oceanic triple divide point.[3] Discounting Antarctica and its ice sheets, only one other continent (Asia) borders three oceans, but the inward-draining Endorheic basin area of Central Asia from western China to the Aral and Caspian Seas is so vast that any Arctic and Indian Ocean tributaries are never within proximity of each other.[3] Thus, North America's status of having a single location draining into three oceans is unique in the world.
Sources differ, however, on whether Hudson Bay, entirely south of the Arctic Circle, is part of the Atlantic or Arctic Ocean.[4] Hudson Bay's water budget connects to the Atlantic more than to the Arctic Ocean.[5] The channels to the north of Hudson Bay are largely cut off by Baffin Island from the Arctic, so much of the water that enters it mixes with the Atlantic to the east via Hudson Strait rather than north into the Arctic. The result is that most of the ice flowing down the Saskatchewan Glacier eventually ends up as water in the Atlantic Ocean.[6][7]
If Hudson Bay is considered part of the Atlantic, then the triple point is at an unimportant-looking, permanently snow and ice covered hump on the border between Alberta and British Columbia, on the southern slope of Snow Dome at 3,456 metres (11,300 ft). The exact location of this potential triple point is somewhat indeterminate because the Columbia Icefield and the snow on top of it shifts from year to year. The snow that falls on it (about 10 metres (33 ft) per year) doesn't actually flow downhill as water, but creeps downhill in the form of glacial ice.
That ice flows down the Athabasca Glacier to the Arctic Ocean via the Athabasca and Mackenzie Rivers. Ice flowing west goes to the Pacific Ocean via Bryce Creek and the Bush and Columbia Rivers. Ice flowing down the Saskatchewan Glacier goes via the North Saskatchewan, Saskatchewan, and Nelson Rivers into Hudson Bay.[8]
While Triple Divide Peak (or, alternatively, Snow Dome) is the world's only oceanic triple divide, there are secondary triple divide points wherever any two continental divides meet. North America could be considered to have five major drainage systems: into the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, plus Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Other sources such as the International Hydrographic Organization add a sixth: Canada's Northwest Passage basin. Using just the five, there are four secondary continental divides and three secondary triple points, the two mentioned previously and a third near Hibbing, Minnesota where the Northern Divide intersects the Saint Lawrence Seaway divide.[9] Since there is no true consensus on what a continental divide is, there is no real agreement on where the secondary triple points are located.[10] However, the main Continental Divide described in this article is a far more distinctive geological feature than the others and its two main triple points are much more prominent.
Hiking trail[edit]
The Continental Divide Trail often remains above the treeline and on the Divide, providing spectacular vistas along its route.
The Continental Divide Trail (CDT) follows the Divide through the U.S. from the Mexico–US border to the Canada–US border. The trail itself is a corridor of pathways - i.e. dedicated footpaths or back roads, either on or near the Continental Divide. A less-developed Canadian extension called the Great Divide Trail continues through five national parks and six provincial parks, ending at Kakwa Lake in east-central British Columbia.[11]
Exceptions[edit]
Many endorheic regions in North and South America complicate the simple view of east or west, "ocean-bound" water flow. Several endorheic basins straddle or adjoin the Continental Divide, notably the Great Divide Basin in Wyoming, the Plains of San Agustin and the Animas Valley in New Mexico, the Guzmán Basin in New Mexico and Chihuahua, Mexico, and both the Bolsón de Mapimí and the Llanos el Salado in Mexico. Such basins can be, and routinely are, assigned to one side of the Divide or the other by their lowest perimeter pass; in other words, an assignment is made by determining how the drainage would occur if the basin were to be progressively filled with water until it overflowed. Large-scale maps, such as those on this page, often show double divide lines when endorheic basins are involved. However, the detailed USGS topographic maps of the United States generally show only the main Divide as determined by the overflow rule. Among other things, this eliminates the need to trace out the boundary for a basin that is very shallow and has a nebulous rim, such as the San Luis Closed Basin in Colorado and the sink of the lost streams of Idaho.
Another rare exception occurs when a stream near a divide splits and flows in both directions, or a lake straddling the divide overflows in both directions. Examples of these are, respectively, North Two Ocean Creek and Isa Lake, both located on the Continental Divide in Wyoming. The Panama Canal has this same feature, but is man-made. Both the Chagres and Gatun rivers flow into Gatun Lake, which empties to both oceans.
Several small lakes along the Divide in the Rocky Mountains between Alberta and British Columbia flow into both provinces and thus into both Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. An example is the "Committee Punch Bowl", a small lake located in the Athabasca Pass named by Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, while touring his vast Canadian fur-trading empire in 1825. According to historical sources, "The small circular basin of water at the summit, twenty yards in diameter, is dignified with the name of the 'Committee's Punch Bowl' in honour of which the Governor treated them (his fur traders) to a bottle of wine as they had 'neither time nor convenience to make a bowl of punch, although a glass of it would have been acceptable.'" The reference is to the governing committee of the Hudson's Bay Company in London, England.[12]
The Alpine Club of Canada's Abbot Pass Hut sits directly astride the Divide in Abbot Pass on the boundary between Banff National Park and Yoho National Park, and thus rainwater falling on the eastern half of the roof flows via Lake Louise into Hudson Bay, while rain falling on the western half flows via Lake O'Hara into the Pacific Ocean.
See also[edit]
Geography portal
Continental divide
Eastern Continental Divide
Great Divide Trail
Great Divide Mountain Bike Route
Laurentia
Laurentian Divide (Northern Divide)
List of railroad crossings of the North American continental divide
Cromwell Dixon
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "IHO Publication S-23 Limits of Oceans and Seas; Chapter 9: Arctic Ocean". International Hydrographic Organization. 2002. Retrieved 2017-07-01.
Jump up ^ "State of Flathead Lake". University of Montana Flathead Lake Biological Station. Retrieved 2015-09-28.
^ Jump up to: a b "Ocean Triple Divide Points". Peakbagger.com. Retrieved 2017-07-01.
Jump up ^ Sanford, Robert W. (2010). Our World's Heritage: Creating a Culture Worthy of Place in Canada's Western Mountain Parks. Athabasca University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-1-897425-57-2.
Jump up ^ Lewis, Edward Lyn; Jones, E. Peter; et al., eds. (2000). The Freshwater Budget of the Arctic Ocean. Springer. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-7923-6439-9. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
Jump up ^ Timmer, Henry (2006). "Snow Dome - The Hydrological Apex of North America". Snow Dome. climbwild.net. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
Jump up ^ Timmer, Henry. "The Columbia Icefield". climbwild.net. Retrieved 2014-07-30.
Jump up ^ "Snow Dome-South Slope, British Columbia". Peakbagger. Retrieved 2015-09-28.
Jump up ^ monica driscollian rivers atlas (2006). "Minnesota Rivers Map". Minnesota State Map Collection. Geology.com. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
Jump up ^ Gonzalez, Mark A. (2002). "Continental Divides in North Dakota and North America" (PDF). NGDS Newsletter. North Dakota Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-17. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
Jump up ^ Lynx, Dustin (2000). Hiking Canada's Great Divide Trail. Rocky Mountain Books. ISBN 0-921102-79-8.
Jump up ^ GeoBC (2013). "Committee Punch Bowl". http://www2.gov.bc.ca/. Copyright © 2013, Province of British Columbia. Retrieved 2014-09-29. External link in |website= (help)
External links[edit]
Find more aboutContinental Divideat Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Wikimedia Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
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Learning resources from Wikiversity
A detailed map of watersheds in North America
A detailed overview of isolated wetlands from the USFWS
Detailed article, maps, and boundary data from The National Atlas of the United States
Parting of the Waters: a creek that flows to two oceans
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Continental Divide (New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, Montana)
U.S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System: Continental Divide (Alaska)
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