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Apostles
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For the general concept meaning a messenger and ambassador, see Apostle. For other uses, see Apostle (disambiguation).
"Twelve Apostles" redirects here. For other uses, see Twelve Apostles (disambiguation).
The Last Supper, a late 1490s mural painting by Leonardo da Vinci, is a depiction of the last supper of Jesus and his twelve apostles on the eve of his crucifixion.
Jesus and his twelve apostles, fresco with the Chi-Rho symbol ☧, Catacombs of Domitilla, Rome.
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In Christian theology and ecclesiology, the apostles (Greek: ἀπόστολος, translit. apóstolos, lit. 'one who is sent away'), particularly the Twelve Apostles, were the primary disciples of Jesus, the central figure in Christianity. During the life and ministry of Jesus in the 1st century AD, the apostles were his closest followers and became the primary teachers of the gospel message of Jesus. The word disciple is sometimes used interchangeably with apostle; for instance, the Gospel of John makes no distinction between the two terms[citation needed]. In modern usage, prominent missionaries are often called apostles, a practice which stems from the Latin equivalent of apostle, i.e. missio, the source of the English word missionary. For example, Saint Patrick (AD 373–463) was the "Apostle of Ireland", and Saint Boniface (680–755) was the "Apostle to the Germans".[1]
While Christian tradition often refers to the apostles as being 12 in number, different gospel writers give different names for the same individual, and apostles mentioned in one gospel are not mentioned in others. The commissioning of the Twelve Apostles during the ministry of Jesus is recorded in the Synoptic Gospels. After his resurrection, Jesus sent 11 of them (minus Judas Iscariot, who by then had died) by the Great Commission to spread his teachings to all nations. This event is commonly called the Dispersion of the Apostles. There is also an Eastern Christian tradition derived from the Gospel of Luke of there having been as many as 70 apostles during the time of Jesus' ministry. Prominent figures in early Christianity, notably Paul, were often called apostles, even though their ministry or mission came after the life of Jesus.
The period of early Christianity during the lifetimes of the apostles is called the Apostolic Age.[1] During the 1st century AD, the apostles established churches throughout the territories of the Roman Empire and, according to tradition, through the Middle East, Africa, and India.
Although not one of the apostles commissioned during the life of Jesus, Paul, a Jew named Saul of Tarsus, claimed a special commission from the resurrected Jesus and is considered "the apostle of the Gentiles",[Romans 11:13] for his missions to spread the gospel message after his conversion. In his writings, the epistles to Christian churches throughout the Levant, Paul did not restrict the term "apostle" to the Twelve, and often refers to his mentor Barnabas as an apostle.[1] The restricted usage appears in the Revelation to John.[2]
By the 2nd century AD, association with the apostles was esteemed as an evidence of authority. Churches which are believed to have been founded by one of the apostles are known as apostolic sees. Paul's epistles were accepted as scripture, and two of the four canonical gospels were associated with apostles, as were other New Testament works. Various Christian texts, such as the Didache and the Apostolic Constitutions, were attributed to the apostles. Bishops traced their lines of succession back to individual apostles, who were said to have dispersed from Jerusalem and established churches across great territories. Christian bishops have traditionally claimed authority deriving, by apostolic succession, from the Twelve.[1] Early Church Fathers who came to be associated with apostles, such as Pope Clement I with St. Peter, are referred to as the Apostolic Fathers. The Apostles' Creed, popular in the West, was said to have been composed by the apostles themselves.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 List of the Twelve Apostles
3 List of the Twelve Apostles as identified by the Bible
4 Background
5 Calling by Jesus
6 Replacement of Judas
7 Paul, Apostle of the Gentiles
8 Other apostles mentioned in the New Testament
9 Tombs of the Apostles
10 See also
11 References
12 Further reading
13 External links
Etymology[edit]
The Synaxis of the Twelve Apostles. Russian, 14th century, Moscow Museum.
The word "apostle" comes from the Greek word ἀπόστολος (apóstolos), formed from the prefix ἀπό- (apó-, "from") and root στέλλω (stéllō, "I send", "I depart") and originally meaning "messenger, envoy". It has, however, a stronger sense than the word messenger, and is closer to a "delegate".[3] The Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament argues that its Christian use translated a Jewish position known in Hebrew as the sheliach (שליח). This ecclesiastical meaning of the word was later translated into Latin as missio, the source of the English "missionary".
List of the Twelve Apostles[edit]
Jesus and the 12 apostles in Domus Galilaeae, Israel.
The following is a list of the Twelve Apostles, named as they are most commonly referred to.[citation needed]
Peter (born Simon)
Andrew, brother of Peter
James, son of Zebedee
John, brother of James, son of Zebedee
Philip
Bartholomew
Thomas
Matthew
James, son of Alphaeus
Judas Thaddeus, also known as Jude
Simon the Zealot, also known as Simon the Canaanite
Judas Iscariot
Matthias is not an original apostle and is a replacement for Judas Iscariot after the betrayal of Jesus.
Paul is also not one of the original apostles, but is referred to and treated like one. He played a large role in composing the Bible and listing the lives of Jesus Christ and the Twelve Apostles.
List of the Twelve Apostles as identified by the Bible[edit]
Each of the four listings of apostles in the New Testament (Mark 3:13–19, Matthew 10:1–4, Luke 6:12–16, and Acts 1:13) indicate that all the apostles were men. The canonical gospels and the book of Acts give varying names of the twelve apostles. The list in the Gospel of Luke differs from Matthew and Mark at two points. It lists "Judas the son of James" instead of "Thaddeus". (For more information, see Jude the Apostle.) Unlike the Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John does not offer a formal list of apostles. Although it refers to "the Twelve" (John 6:67–71), the gospel does not present any elaboration of who these twelve actually were, and the author of the Gospel of John does not mention them all by name. There is also no separation of the terms "apostles" and "disciples" in John.
Gospel of Matthew[4]
Gospel of Mark[5]
Gospel of Luke[6]
Gospel of John
Acts of the Apostles[7]
Simon ("who is called Peter") Simon Simon Simon Peter[8] Peter
Andrew ("his [Peter's] brother") Andrew Andrew Andrew Andrew
James ("son of Zebedee") James James one of the "sons of Zebedee" James
John ("his [James's] brother") John / one of the "Boanerges" John one of the "sons of Zebedee" John
Philip Philip Philip Philip Philip
Bartholomew Bartholomew Bartholomew Nathanael Bartholomew
Thomas Thomas Thomas Thomas ("also called Didymus")[9] Thomas
Matthew ("the publican") Matthew Matthew not mentioned Matthew
James ("son of Alphaeus") James James not mentioned James
Lebbaeus ("whose surname was Thaddaeus") Thaddaeus Judas ("son of James") Jude ("not Iscariot")[10] Judas son of James
Simon ("the Canaanite") Simon ("the Cananaean") Simon ("who was called the Zealot") not mentioned Simon the Zealot
Judas Iscariot Judas Iscariot Judas Iscariot Judas ("son of Simon Iscariot")[11] (Judas replaced by Matthias)
Background[edit]
In the New Testament, the names of the majority of the apostles are Hebrew names, although some had Greek names.[12] Even Paul, the "apostle of the Gentiles", who said that Jesus revealed himself to him only after his ascension and appointed him to his mission,[13] was a Jew by birth and proud of it, although after his conversion he adopted the Roman cognomen Paulus, rendered in English as Paul, as his name.[Acts 13:9] Paul claimed with much insistency this title and its rights,[3] and made the case to the Corinthian Church that he was an apostle by the evidence of the fruits of his ministry, of which they themselves were.[1Cor 9:1–2]
Mark 6:7–13 states that Jesus initially sent out these twelve in pairs (cf. Mt 10:5–42, Lk 9:1–6) to towns in Galilee. The text states that their initial instructions were to heal the sick and drive out demons.[3] They are also instructed to "take nothing for their journey, except a staff only: no bread, no wallet, no money in their purse, but to wear sandals, and not put on two tunics", and that if any town rejects them they ought to shake the dust off their feet as they leave, a gesture which some scholars think was meant as a contemptuous threat (Miller 26). Their carrying of just a staff (Matthew and Luke say not even a staff) is sometimes given as the reason for the use by Christian bishops of a staff of office in those denominations that believe they maintain an apostolic succession.
Later in the Gospel narratives the twelve apostles are described as having been commissioned to preach the Gospel to "all the nations",[14] regardless of whether Jew or Gentile.[15] Paul emphasized the important role of the apostles in the church of God when he said that the household of God is "built upon the foundation of apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the cornerstone".[Ephesians 2:19–20]
Calling by Jesus[edit]
James Tissot, The Exhortation to the Apostles.
Main article: Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles
The three Synoptic Gospels record the circumstances in which some of the disciples were recruited, Matthew only describing the recruitment of Simon, Andrew, James, and John. All three Synoptic Gospels state that these four were recruited fairly soon after Jesus returned from being tempted by the devil.
Despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, they are all described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets to do so. Traditionally the immediacy of their consent was viewed as an example of divine power, although this statement is not made in the text itself. The alternative and much more ordinary solution is that Jesus was simply friends with the individuals beforehand, as implied by the Gospel of John, which states that Peter (Simon) and Andrew are the disciples of John the Baptist, and started following Jesus as soon as Jesus had been baptized. The Bible identifies Jesus as a tekton,[Mk 6:3] a Greek word meaning builder or artisan,[16] traditionally translated as carpenter. Considering this profession, it is plausible that Jesus had been employed to build and repair fishing vessels, thus having many opportunities to interact with and befriend such fishermen.
Albright and Mann extrapolate from Simon's and Andrew's abandonment of their nets that Matthew is emphasizing the importance of renunciation by converting to Christianity, since fishing was profitable, although required large start-up costs, and abandoning everything would have been an important sacrifice. Regardless, Simon and Andrew's abandonment of what were effectively their most important worldly possessions was taken as a model by later Christian ascetics.
Adriaen van de Venne's Fishers of Men. Oil on panel, 1614
Matthew describes Jesus meeting James and John, also fishermen and brothers, very shortly after recruiting Simon and Andrew. Matthew and Mark identify James and John as sons of Zebedee. Luke adds to Matthew and Mark that James and John worked as a team with Simon and Andrew. Matthew states that at the time of the encounter, James and John were repairing their nets, but readily joined Jesus without hesitation.
This parallels the accounts of Mark and Luke, but Matthew implies that the men have also abandoned their father (since he is present in the ship they abandon behind them), and Carter feels this should be interpreted to mean that Matthew's view of Jesus is one of a figure rejecting the traditional patriarchal structure of society, where the father had command over his children; most scholars, however, just interpret it to mean that Matthew intended these two to be seen as even more devoted than the other pair.
The Synoptic Gospels go on to describe that much later, after Jesus had later begun his ministry, he noticed, while teaching, a tax collector in his booth. The tax collector, 'Levi' according to some Gospels, 'Matthew' according to others, is asked by Jesus to become one of his disciples. Matthew/Levi is stated to have accepted and then invited Jesus for a meal with his friends. Tax collectors were seen as villains in Jewish society, and the Pharisees are described as asking Jesus why he is having a meal with such disreputable people. The reply Jesus gives to this is now well known: "it is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners".[Mk 2:17]
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Replacement of Judas[edit]
Main article: Saint Matthias
After Judas Iscariot betrayed Christ and then in guilt committed suicide before Christ's resurrection (in one Gospel account), the apostles numbered eleven. When Jesus had been taken up from them, in preparation for the coming of the Holy Spirit that he had promised them, Peter advised the brethren:
Judas, who was guide to those who took Jesus... For he was numbered with us, and received his portion in this ministry... For it is written in the book of Psalms, "Let his habitation be made desolate, Let no one dwell therein", and, "Let another take his office"... So one of the men who have accompanied us during all the time that the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of John until the day he was taken up from us, must become with us a witness to his resurrection
—  Acts 1:15–26
So, between the ascension of Christ and the day of Pentecost, the remaining apostles elected a twelfth apostle by casting lots, a traditional Israelite way to determine the will of God (see Proverbs 16:33). The lot fell upon Matthias.[17]
Paul the Apostle in his First Epistle to the Corinthians, appears to give the first historical reference to the twelve apostles:
For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.
—  1 Corinthians 15:3–8
Paul, Apostle of the Gentiles[edit]
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Main article: Paul the Apostle
In his writings, Paul the Apostle, although not one of the original twelve, described himself as an apostle, one "born out of due time" (e.g., Romans 1:1, 1 Corinthians 15:8 and other letters). He was called by the resurrected Jesus himself during his Road to Damascus vision and given the name "Paul".[Acts 9:1–9] With Barnabas, he was allotted the role of apostle in the church.[Acts 13:2] He referred to himself as the apostle of the Gentiles.[Rom 11:13]
As the Catholic Encyclopedia states, "It is at once evident that in a Christian sense, everyone who had received a mission from God, or Christ, to man could be called 'Apostle'"; thus extending the original sense beyond the twelve.[citation needed]
Since Paul claimed to have received the gospel through a revelation of Jesus Christ[18] after the latter's death and resurrection (rather than before like the twelve), he was often obliged to defend his apostolic authority (1 Cor. 9:1 "Am I not an apostle?") and proclaim that he had seen and was anointed by Jesus while on the road to Damascus.
James, Peter and John in Jerusalem accepted his calling to the apostleship from the Lord to the Gentiles (specifically those not circumcised) as of equal authority as Peter's to the Jews (specifically those circumcised) according to Paul.[Gal 2:7–9] "James, Peter and John, those reputed to be pillars ... agreed that we [Paul and Barnabas] should go to the Gentiles, and they to the Jews."[Gal 2:9]
Paul, despite his divine calling as an apostle, considered himself perhaps inferior to the other apostles because he had originally persecuted Christ's followers.[1 Cor. 15:9] In addition, despite the Little Commission of Matthew 10, the twelve did not limit their mission to solely Jews as Cornelius the Centurion is widely considered the first Gentile convert and he was converted by Peter, and the Great Commission of the Resurrected Jesus is specifically to "all nations".
Other apostles mentioned in the New Testament[edit]
Person called apostle
Where in Scripture
Notes
Barnabas Acts 14:14 —
Andronicus and Junia Rom 16:7 Paul states that Andronicus and Junia were "of note among the apostles." This has been traditionally interpreted in one of two ways:
That Andronicus and Junia were "of note among the apostles," that is, distinguished apostles.[19]
That Andronicus and Junia were "well known among the apostles" meaning "well known to the apostles"
If the first view is correct then Paul may be referring to a female apostle[20][21] - the Greek name (Iounian) is in the accusative and could be either Junia (a woman) or Junias (a man)[22]. Later manuscripts add accents to make it unamibiously Junias, however while "Junia" was a common name, "Junias" was not[21], and both options are favoured by different Bible translations.
In the second view, it is believed that Paul is simply making mention of the outstanding character of these two people which was acknowledged by the apostles.
Historically it has been virtually impossible to tell which of the two views were correct. The second view, in recent years, has been defended from a scholarly perspective by Daniel Wallace and Michael Burer.[23]
Silas 1 Thes. 1:1, 2:6 Referred to as one along with Timothy and Paul, he also performs the functioning of an apostle as Paul's companion in Paul's second missionary journey in Acts 15:40ff.
Timothy 1 Thes. 1:1, 2:6 Timothy is referred to as an apostle along with Silas and Paul. However, in 2 Cor. 1:1 he is only called a "brother" when Paul refers to himself as "an apostle of Christ". Timothy performs many of the functions of an apostle in the commissioning of Paul in 1st and 2nd Timothy, though in those epistles Paul refers to him as his "son" in the faith.
Apollos 1 Cor. 4:9 Included among "us apostles" along with Paul and Cephas (Peter). (see also: 4:6, 3:22, and 3:4–6)
Deaths
Of the twelve Apostles to hold the title after Matthias' selection, Christian tradition has generally passed down that all but one were martyred, with John surviving into old age. Only the death of James, son of Zebedee is described in the New Testament.[24]
Matthew 27:5 says that Judas Iscariot threw the silver he received for betraying Jesus down in the Temple, then went and hanged himself. Acts 1:18 says that he purchased a field, then "falling headlong he burst open in the middle and all his bowels gushed out".
According to Edward Gibbon, early Christians (second half of the second century and first half of the third century) believed that only Peter, Paul, and James, son of Zebedee, were martyred.[25] The remainder of the claims of martyred apostles do not rely upon historical or biblical evidence.[26][27]
Tombs of the Apostles[edit]
Basilica of St John Lateran (Rome)[28]
The relics of the Apostles are claimed by various Churches, many in Italy.[29]
Peter: buried in St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, Rome, Italy
Andrew: buried in St Andrew's Cathedral, Patras, Greece
James, son of Zebedee: buried in Santiago de Compostela Cathedral in Galicia (Spain)
John: buried in the Basilica of St. John in Ephesus Turkey
Philip: buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles in Rome or possibly Hierapolis, near Denizli, Turkey[30]
Bartholomew: buried in the Basilica of Benevento, Italy, or Basilica of St. Bartholomew on the Island, Rome, Italy
Matthew: buried in the Salerno Cathedral, Salerno, Italy
James, son of Alpheus: buried in the Cathedral of St. James in Jerusalem or the Church of the Holy Apostles in Rome
Thomas: buried in the Basilica of St. Thomas the Apostle in Ortona, Abruzzo, Italy or in the San Thome Basilica in Madras, India
Simon: buried in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome under the St. Joseph altar with St. Jude
Jude Thaddeus: buried in St. Peter's Basilica under the St. Joseph altar with St. Simon; two bones (relics) located at National Shrine of St Jude in Chicago, Illinois
Matthias: buried in the Saint Matthias Benedictine Abbey in Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
Paul: relics located in the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome
Judas Iscariot: remains located in Akeldama, near the Valley of Hinnom, in Jerusalem, Israel
See also[edit]
Book: Apostle (Christian)
Apostles' Fast
Council of Jerusalem
Disciples of Jesus in Islam
Female disciples of Jesus
Great Commission
New Apostolic Church
Old Apostolic Church
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)
Seventy disciples
The Twelve Imams
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d "Apostle." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005. ISBN 0-19-280290-9
Jump up ^ Revelation 21:14.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Catholic Encyclopedia: Apostles".
Jump up ^ Matt 10:1–4
Jump up ^ Mark 3:13–19
Jump up ^ Luke 6:12–16
Jump up ^ Acts 1:13
Jump up ^ John 6:67-71
Jump up ^ John 11:16John 20:24John 21:2
Jump up ^ John 14:22
Jump up ^ John 6:67-71
Jump up ^ As was not uncommon for Jews at the time, some of them had two names, one Hebrew/Aramaic and the other Greek. Hence the lists of Jesus' twelve apostles contains 14 names not 12; the 4 Greek names are Andrew, Philip, Thaddaeus and Lebbaeus. Reference: John P. Meier's A Marginal Jew.
Jump up ^ Acts 9:1–19 Gal 1:11–12
Jump up ^ Mt 28:19, Mk 13:10, and 16:15
Jump up ^ Cf. also Acts 15:1–31, Galatians 2:7–9, Acts 1:4–8, and Acts 10:1–11:18.
Jump up ^ An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon. The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Clarendon Press: Oxford, p. 797.
Jump up ^ "Who were the 12 disciples?". Retrieved 2017-09-19.
Jump up ^ cf. Gal 1:12; Acts 9:3–19, 9:26–27, 22:6–21, 26:12–23
Jump up ^ May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977.
Jump up ^ Crossan, J. D. and Reed, J. L., In Search of Paul, Harper San Francisco (2004), pp. 115–116. ISBN 978-0-06-051457-0.
^ Jump up to: a b Ehrman, Bart. Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend. Oxford University Press, US. 2006. ISBN 978-0-19-530013-0.
Jump up ^ CBMW "A Female Apostle?", June 26, 2007
Jump up ^ See Daniel B. Wallace and Michael H. Burer, "Was Junia Really an Apostle?" NTS 47 (2001): 76–91.
Jump up ^ "Who were the 12 disciples?".
Jump up ^ Gibbon, Edward (1826). "Chapter XVI. The Conduct of the Roman Government toward the Christians, from the Reign of Nero to that of Constantine". The history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. II. New York: J. & J. Harper for Collins & Hanney. p. 20. 27. In the time of Tertullian and Clemens of Alexandria the glory of martyrdom was confined to St. Peter, St. Paul and St. James. It was gradually bestowed on the rest of the apostles by the more recent Greeks, who prudently selected for the theatre of their preaching and sufferings some remote country beyond the limits of the Roman empire. See Mosheim, p. 81. and Tillemont, Memoires Ecclesiastiques, tom. i. part 3.
Jump up ^ (behind paywall).
Jump up ^ Wills, Garry (10 March 2015). The Future of the Catholic Church with Pope Francis. Penguin Publishing Group. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-698-15765-1. (Candida Moss marshals the historical evidence to prove that "we simply don't know how any of the apostles died, much less whether they were martyred.")6 Citing Moss, Candida (5 March 2013). The Myth of Persecution: How Early Christians Invented a Story of Martyrdom. HarperCollins. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-06-210454-0.
Jump up ^ Many of the alternate locations of relics are sourced from this page http://www.saintsinrome.com/?m=0
Jump up ^ "Welcome".
Jump up ^ As stated in St. Philips wiki article
Further reading[edit]
The Navarre Bible. (RSV, Catholic Edition), Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1999.
Albright, W.F. and C.S. Mann. "Matthew." The Anchor Bible Series. New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971.
Pope Benedict XVI, The Apostles. Full title is The Origins of the Church – The Apostles and Their Co-Workers. published 2007, in the US: ISBN 978-1-59276-405-1; different edition published in the UK under the title: Christ and His Church – Seeing the face of Jesus in the Church of the Apostles, ISBN 978-1-86082-441-8.
Carson, D.A. "The Limits of Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation – and other Limits Too." in The Challenge of Bible Translation: Communicating God's Word to the World. edited by Glen G Scorgie, Mark L. Strauss, Steven M. Voth.
Carter, Warren. "Matthew 4:18–22 and Matthean Discipleship: An Audience-Oriented Perspective." Catholic Bible Quarterly. Vol. 59. No. 1. 1997.
Clarke, Howard W. The Gospel of Matthew and its Readers: A Historical Introduction to the First Gospel. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
"Fishers of Men." A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. David Lyle Jeffrey, general editor. Grand Rapids: W.B. Eerdmans, 1992.
France, R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 1985.
Karrer, Martin. "Apostle, Apostolate." In The Encyclopedia of Christianity, edited by Erwin Fahlbusch and Geoffrey William Bromiley, 107–08. Vol. 1. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1999. ISBN 0-8028-2413-7
Mack, Burton L., The Lost Gospel – The Book of Q & Christian Origins. HarperCollins 1994.
Manek, Jindrich. "Fishers of Men." Novum Testamentum. 1958 p. 138
Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975.
Wuellner, Wilhelm H. The Meaning of "Fishers of Men". Westminster Press, 1967.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Apostles.
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Apostles
Apostle article from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge
Texts on Wikisource:
"Apostle". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Apostle". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 196–199.
"Apostles". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
Coppieters, Honoré-Joseph (1913). "Apostles". Catholic Encyclopedia.
"Apostle". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Apostle". Easton's Bible Dictionary. 1897.
Liddell & Scott
Strong's G652[permanent dead link]
Apostle and Apostleship article from Jewish Encyclopedia
The Twelve Apostles The Biographies of The Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, the son of God.
Apostles.com Biographies of Christ's Apostles
Cast Your Nets: Fishing at the Time of Jesus
The Fishing Economy in Galilee
The Twelve Apostles an Eastern Orthodox perspective by Rev. George Mastrantonis
Apostle article from OrthodoxWiki
Christian History: The Twelve Apostles
Quorum of the Twelve Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
"The Twelve Apostles" at the Christian Iconography website
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GND: 4002455-6
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Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apostles&oldid=819462772"
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Abostol – Breton
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Lineweaver–Burk plot
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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An example of a Lineweaver-Burk plot.
In biochemistry, the Lineweaver–Burk plot (or double reciprocal plot) is a graphical representation of the Lineweaver–Burk equation of enzyme kinetics, described by Hans Lineweaver and Dean Burk in 1934.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Derivation
2 Use
3 Problems with the method
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Derivation[edit]
The plot provides a useful graphical method for analysis of the Michaelis–Menten equation:
V = V max [ S ] K m + [ S ] {\displaystyle V={\frac {V_{\max }[S]}{K_{m}+[S]}}}
Taking the reciprocal gives
1 V = K m + [ S ] V max [ S ] = K m V max 1 [ S ] + 1 V max {\displaystyle {1 \over V}={{K_{m}+[S]} \over V_{\max }[S]}={K_{m} \over V_{\max }}{1 \over [S]}+{1 \over V_{\max }}}
where V is the reaction velocity (the reaction rate), Km is the Michaelis–Menten constant, Vmax is the maximum reaction velocity, and [S] is the substrate concentration.
Use[edit]
Enzyme Inhibition displayed using Lineweaver-Burk (double reciprocal plots)
The Lineweaver–Burk plot was widely used to determine important terms in enzyme kinetics, such as Km and Vmax, before the wide availability of powerful computers and non-linear regression software. The y-intercept of such a graph is equivalent to the inverse of Vmax; the x-intercept of the graph represents −1/Km. It also gives a quick, visual impression of the different forms of enzyme inhibition.
The double reciprocal plot distorts the error structure of the data, and it is therefore unreliable for the determination of enzyme kinetic parameters. Although it is still used for representation of kinetic data,[2] non-linear regression or alternative linear forms of the Michaelis–Menten equation such as the Hanes-Woolf plot or Eadie–Hofstee plot are generally used for the calculation of parameters.[3]
When used for determining the type of enzyme inhibition, the Lineweaver–Burk plot can distinguish competitive, non-competitive and uncompetitive inhibitors. Competitive inhibitors have the same y-intercept as uninhibited enzyme (since Vmax is unaffected by competitive inhibitors the inverse of Vmax also doesn't change) but there are different slopes and x-intercepts between the two data sets. Non-competitive inhibition produces plots with the same x-intercept as uninhibited enzyme (Km is unaffected) but different slopes and y-intercepts. Uncompetitive inhibition causes different intercepts on both the y- and x-axes .
Problems with the method[edit]
The Lineweaver–Burk plot is classically used in older texts, but is prone to error, as the y-axis takes the reciprocal of the rate of reaction – in turn increasing any small errors in measurement. Also, most points on the plot are found far to the right of the y-axis (due to limiting solubility) not allowing for large values of [S] and hence no small values for 1/[S]), calling for a large extrapolation back to obtain x- and y-intercepts.[4]
See also[edit]
Michaelis–Menten kinetics
Eadie–Hofstee diagram
Hanes–Woolf plot
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Lineweaver, H; Burk, D. (1934). "The determination of enzyme dissociation constants". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 56 (3): 658–666. doi:10.1021/ja01318a036.
Jump up ^ Hayakawa, K.; Guo, L.; Terentyeva, E.A.; Li, X.K.; Kimura, H.; Hirano, M.; Yoshikawa, K.; Nagamine, T.; et al. (2006). "Determination of specific activities and kinetic constants of biotinidase and lipoamidase in LEW rat and Lactobacillus casei (Shirota)". Journal of Chromatography B. 844 (2): 240–50. doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2006.07.006. PMID 16876490.
Jump up ^ Greco, W.R.; Hakala, M.T. (1979). "Evaluation of methods for estimating the dissociation constant of tight binding enzyme inhibitors" (PDF). Journal of Biological Chemistry. 254 (23): 12104–12109. PMID 500698.
Jump up ^ Dowd, John E.; Riggs, Douglas S. (1965). "A comparison of estimates of Michaelis–Menten kinetic constants from various linear transformations" (pdf). Journal of Biological Chemistry. 240 (2): 863–869.
External links[edit]
NIH guide, enzyme assay development and analysis
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Atmospheric pressure
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Static pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere
"Air pressure" redirects here. For the pressure of air in other systems, see Pressure.
Atmospheric pressure, sometimes also called barometric pressure, is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth (or that of another planet). In most circumstances atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Pressure measures force per unit area, with SI units of Pascals (1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre, 1 N/m2). On average, a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre (cm2), measured from mean (average) sea level to the top of Earth's atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilogram and exerts a force or "weight" of about 10.1 newtons or 2.37 lbf, resulting in a pressure at sea level of about 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2 (101 kilopascals, kPa). A column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 in2 (6.45 cm2) would have a mass of about 6.65 kg and a weight of about 65.4 N or 14.7 lbf, resulting in a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 14.7 lbf/in2. In the United States, atmospheric pressure near sea level is commonly rounded to 15 lbf/in2, and expressed as "15 psi" (15 pounds per square inch.)
Contents
[hide]
1 Mechanism
2 Standard atmosphere
3 Mean sea level pressure
4 Altitude variation
5 Local variation
6 Records
7 Measurement based on depth of water
8 Boiling point of water
9 Measurement and maps
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
12.1 Experiments
Mechanism[edit]
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface, and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount of gas and its vertical distribution in the atmosphere.[1][2] It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition.[citation needed]
Standard atmosphere[edit]
The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa (1.01325 bar), equivalent to 760 mmHg (torr), 29.92 inches Hg and 14.696 psi.[3]
Mean sea level pressure[edit]
15 year average mean sea level pressure for June, July, and August (top) and December, January, and February (bottom). ERA-15 re-analysis.
Kollsman-type barometric aircraft altimeter (as used in North America) displaying an altitude of 80 ft (24 m).
The mean sea level pressure (MSLP) is the average atmospheric pressure at sea level. This is the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or on the Internet. When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports, they measure pressure adjusted to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric pressure.
The altimeter setting in aviation is an atmospheric pressure adjustment.
Average sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mbar (101.325 kPa; 29.921 inHg; 760.00 mmHg). In aviation weather reports (METAR), QNH is transmitted around the world in millibars or hectopascals (1 hectopascal = 1 millibar), except in the United States, Canada, and Colombia where it is reported in inches (to two decimal places) of mercury. The United States and Canada also report sea level pressure SLP, which is adjusted to sea level by a different method, in the remarks section, not in the internationally transmitted part of the code, in hectopascals or millibars.[4] However, in Canada's public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals.[5]
In the US weather code remarks, three digits are all that are transmitted; decimal points and the one or two most significant digits are omitted: 1013.2 mbar (101.32 kPa) is transmitted as 132; 1000.0 mbar (100.00 kPa) is transmitted as 000; 998.7 mbar is transmitted as 987; etc. The highest sea-level pressure on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a sea-level pressure above 1050 mbar (105 kPa; 31 inHg), with record highs close to 1085 mbar (108.5 kPa; 32.0 inHg). The lowest measurable sea-level pressure is found at the centers of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 mbar (87 kPa; 26 inHg) (see Atmospheric pressure records).
Altitude variation[edit]
A very local storm above Snæfellsjökull, showing clouds formed on the mountain by orographic lift
Variation in atmospheric pressure with altitude, computed for 15 °C and 0% relative humidity.
This plastic bottle was sealed at approximately 14,000 feet (4,300 m) altitude, and was crushed by the increase in atmospheric pressure —at 9,000 feet (2,700 m) and 1,000 feet (300 m)— as it was brought down towards sea level.
Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude.[6] Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure, and it is necessary to know these to compute an accurate figure. The graph at right was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%.
At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 metres. For higher altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure p to altitude h
p = p 0 ⋅ ( 1 − L ⋅ h T 0 ) g ⋅ M R 0 ⋅ L ≈ p 0 ⋅ ( 1 − g ⋅ h c p ⋅ T 0 ) c p ⋅ M R 0 , {\displaystyle p=p_{0}\cdot \left(1-{\frac {L\cdot h}{T_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {g\cdot M}{R_{0}\cdot L}}\approx p_{0}\cdot \left(1-{\frac {g\cdot h}{c_{p}\cdot T_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {c_{p}\cdot M}{R_{0}}},}
p ≈ p 0 ⋅ exp  ( − g ⋅ M ⋅ h R 0 ⋅ T 0 ) {\displaystyle p\approx p_{0}\cdot \exp \left(-{\frac {g\cdot M\cdot h}{R_{0}\cdot T_{0}}}\right)}
where the constant parameters are as described below:
Parameter
Description
Value
p0 sea level standard atmospheric pressure 101325 Pa
L temperature lapse rate, = g/cp for dry air 0.0065 K/m
cp constant pressure specific heat ~ 1007 J/(kg•K)
T0 sea level standard temperature 288.15 K
g Earth-surface gravitational acceleration 9.80665 m/s2
M molar mass of dry air 0.0289644 kg/mol
R0 universal gas constant 8.31447 J/(mol•K)
Local variation[edit]
Hurricane Wilma on 19 October 2005; 882 hPa (12.79 psi) in the storm's eye
Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these changes are important in studying weather and climate. See pressure system for the effects of air pressure variations on weather.
Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal (twice-daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few millibars, and almost zero in polar areas. These variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h) cycle and semi-circadian (12 h) cycle.
Records[edit]
The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750 meters) was 1084.8 hPa (32.03 inHg) measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001.[7] The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded (below 750 meters) was at Agata in Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Russia (66°53’N, 93°28’E, elevation: 261 m, 856 ft) on 31 December 1968 of 1083.8 hPa (32.005 inHg).[8] The discrimination is due to the problematic assumptions (assuming a standard lapse rate) associated with reduction of sea level from high elevations.[7]
The Dead Sea, the lowest place on Earth at 430 metres (1,410 ft) below sea level, has a correspondingly high typical atmospheric pressure of 1065 hPa.[9]
The lowest non-tornadic atmospheric pressure ever measured was 870 hPa (0.858 atm; 25.69 inHg), set on 12 October 1979, during Typhoon Tip in the western Pacific Ocean. The measurement was based on an instrumental observation made from a reconnaissance aircraft.[10]
Measurement based on depth of water[edit]
One atmosphere (101.325 kPa or 14.7 psi) is also the pressure caused by the weight of a column of fresh water of approximately 10.3 m (33.8 ft). Thus, a diver 10.3 m underwater experiences a pressure of about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). Conversely, 10.3 m is the maximum height to which water can be raised using suction under standard atmospheric conditions.
Low pressures such as natural gas lines are sometimes specified in inches of water, typically written as w.c. (water column) or w.g. (inches water gauge). A typical gas-using residential appliance in the US is rated for a maximum of 14 w.c., which is approximately 35 hPa. Similar metric units with a wide variety of names and notation based on millimetres, centimetres or metres are now less commonly used.
Boiling point of water[edit]
Boiling water
Pure water boils at 100 °C (212 °F) at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the water.[11] Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes.[12] A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers.[13]
Measurement and maps[edit]
An important application of the knowledge that atmospheric pressure varies directly with altitude was in determining the height of hills and mountains thanks to the availability of reliable pressure measurement devices. While in 1774 Maskelyne was confirming Newton's theory of gravitation at and on Schiehallion in Scotland (using plumb bob deviation to show the effect of "gravity") and accurately measure elevation, William Roy using barometric pressure was able to confirm his height determinations, the agreement being to within one meter (3.28 feet). This method became and continues to be useful for survey work and map making. This early “application of science” gave people insight into how science could easily be put to practical use.[14]
See also[edit]
Underwater diving portal
Atmosphere (unit)
Barometric formula
Barotrauma – physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between an air space inside or beside the body and the surrounding gas or liquid.
Cabin pressurization
Effects of high altitude on humans
High-pressure area
Atmosphere of Earth
International Standard Atmosphere - a tabulation of typical variation of principal thermodynamic variables of the atmosphere (pressure, density, temperature, etc.) with altitude, at middle latitudes.
Low-pressure area
NRLMSISE-00
Plenum chamber
Pressure
Subtropical ridge
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "atmospheric pressure (encyclopedic entry)". National Geographic. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Q & A: Pressure - Gravity Matters?". Department of Physics. University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
Jump up ^ International Civil Aviation Organization. Manual of the ICAO Standard Atmosphere, Doc 7488-CD, Third Edition, 1993. ISBN 92-9194-004-6.
Jump up ^ Sample METAR of CYVR Nav Canada
Jump up ^ Montreal Current Weather, CBC Montreal, Canada, retrieved 2014-03-30
Jump up ^ A quick derivation relating altitude to air pressure Archived 2011-09-28 at the Wayback Machine. by Portland State Aerospace Society, 2004, accessed 05032011
^ Jump up to: a b World: Highest Sea Level Air Pressure Above 750 m, Wmo.asu.edu, 2001-12-19, archived from the original on 2012-10-17, retrieved 2013-04-15
Jump up ^ World: Highest Sea Level Air Pressure Below 750 m, Wmo.asu.edu, 1968-12-31, archived from the original on 2013-05-14, retrieved 2013-04-15
Jump up ^ Kramer, MR; Springer C; Berkman N; Glazer M; Bublil M; Bar-Yishay E; Godfrey S (March 1998). "Rehabilitation of hypoxemic patients with COPD at low altitude at the Dead Sea, the lowest place on earth" (PDF). Chest. 113 (3): 571–575. doi:10.1378/chest.113.3.571. PMID 9515826. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-29. PMID 9515826
Jump up ^ Chris Landsea (2010-04-21). "Subject: E1), Which is the most intense tropical cyclone on record?". Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory. Archived from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 2010-11-23.
Jump up ^ Vapour Pressure, Hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu, retrieved 2012-10-17
Jump up ^ High Altitude Cooking, Crisco.com, 2010-09-30, archived from the original on 2012-09-07, retrieved 2012-10-17
Jump up ^ Berberan-Santos, M. N.; Bodunov, E. N.; Pogliani, L. (1997). "On the barometric formula". American Journal of Physics. 65 (5): 404–412. Bibcode:1997AmJPh..65..404B. doi:10.1119/1.18555.
Jump up ^ Hewitt, Rachel, Map of a Nation – a Biography of the Ordnance Survey ISBN 1-84708-098-7
External links[edit]
1976 Standard Atmosphere from NASA
Source code and equations for the 1976 Standard Atmosphere
A mathematical model of the 1976 U.S. Standard Atmosphere
Calculator using multiple units and properties for the 1976 Standard Atmosphere
Calculator giving standard air pressure at a specified altitude, or altitude at which a pressure would be standard
Current map of global mean sea-level pressure
Atmospheric calculator and Geometric to Pressure altitude converter
Experiments[edit]
Movies on atmospheric pressure experiments from Georgia State University's HyperPhysics website – requires QuickTime
Test showing a can being crushed after boiling water inside it, then moving it into a tub of ice cold water.
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