text:
U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by state
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Minimum legal drinking age as of 1969 (two years before the 26th Amendment was passed):
Minimum age is 21
Minimum age is 20
Minimum age is 19 and 21
Minimum age is 19
Minimum age is 18 and 21
Minimum age is 18
Minimum legal drinking age as of 1975 (when almost all states had their lowest age limit):
Minimum age is 21
Minimum age is 20
Minimum age is 19 and 21; see below
Minimum age is 19
Minimum age is 18 and 21; see below
Minimum age is 18
show
Detail on dual age limits
Both age limits apply for following states:
Washington, D.C.: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Illinois: The legal drinking age is 19 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Kansas: The legal drinking age is 18 for 3.2% ABW beer, and 21 for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor.
Maryland: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
North Carolina: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Oklahoma: The legal drinking age is 18 for 3.2% ABW beer, and 21 for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor.
South Carolina: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
South Dakota: The legal drinking age is 18 for 3.2% ABW beer, and 21 for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor.
Virginia: The legal drinking age is 18 for beer and wine, and 21 for liquor.
Minimum legal drinking age as of 1983 (one year before the Drinking Age Act of 1984 was passed):
Minimum age is 21
Minimum age is 20
Minimum age is 19 and 21
Minimum age is 19
Minimum age is 18 and 21
Minimum age is 18
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18", not "21"). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973.[1][2][3] Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities.[citation needed] In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10% of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age,[4] while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.[5]
State
Pre-Prohibition
(prior to 1919)
Post-Prohibition
(after 1933)
1970s / 26th Amendment
(adopted in 1971)
1980s /
Drinking Age Act of 1984
21st century
Alabama
Pre 1881:
None
1881:
21 (none with consent of parent)[6] 21 1975:
Lowered to 19[7] 1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21 (no one underage is allowed consumption Section 28-1)
Alaska
? 21[7] 1970:
Lowered to 19[9] 1984:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause (if born before January 1, 1965)[10][11] 21
Arizona
? 21[11] 1972:
Lowered to 19[12][13] 1985:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Arkansas
Pre 1925:
None[7]
1925:
21[7] 21 21[14] 21 [8] 21
California
Pre 1891:
Regulated by municipality/county (common age was 16)[15][16][17]
1891:
18 (statewide)[18] 1933:
21[7] 21 21 [8] 21 (except small amounts for religious ceremonies)
Colorado
None[11] 1945:
18: for beer
21: for wine and liquor[7] 18 [19] Raised to 21 in 1987 [8] 21
Connecticut
? 21 [11] 1972:
Lowered to 18[20] 1982:
Raised to 19
1983:
Raised to 20
1985:
Raised to 21[21] 21 (exemptions: (1) a person over age eighteen who is an employee or permit holder under section 30-90a and who possesses alcoholic liquor in the course of such person’s employment or business, (2) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor on the order of a practicing physician, or (3) a minor who possesses alcoholic liquor while accompanied by a parent, guardian or spouse of the minor, who has attained the age of twenty-one. Nothing in this subsection shall be construed to burden a person’s exercise of religion under section 3 of article first of the Constitution of the state in violation of subsection (a) of section 52-571b.[22]
Delaware
? 21 [11] 1972:
Lowered to 20[13] 1984:
Raised to 21[8] 21
District of Columbia
? 18: for beer and wine[11]
21: for liquor[23][24] 18: for beer and wine[13][24]
21: for liquor 1986:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause.[25][26] 21
Florida
? 18[7] 1980:
19 [27] 1985:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause [27] 21 [28]
Georgia
? 21 [11] 1972:
Lowered to 18[12] 1984:
Raised to 19[14]
1985:
Raised to 20[14]
1986:
Raised to 21[14] 21
Hawaii
? 21[7] 1972:
Lowered to 18[13] 1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Idaho
? 20: for beer[29][30]
21: for wine and liquor[11][31] 1972:
Lowered to 19 (all)[13][32] 1987:
Raised to 21 in 1987 (Apr 11) with grandfather clause[8][33] 21
Illinois
1872:
Age of majority
(none with written consent of parent)[34] pre 1961: Age of majority 1961: Raised to 21 [35] 1973:
Lowered to 19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[36] 1980:
Raised to 21[37] 21
Indiana
? Post-1934:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
Iowa
? 21[7] 1972:
Lowered to 19 in 1972 (Jul 1)
1973:
Lowered to 18 in 1973 (Jul 1)
1978:
Raised to 19 in 1978 (Jul 1)[38] 1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Jul 1) with grandfather clause.[14][38] 21
Kansas
? 1949:
18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV
21: for liquor[7] 18: for beer and wine with less than 4% ABV[14]
21: for beer and wine with 4% ABV or more[14]
21: for liquor[14][19] 1985:
Raised to 21[8] 21 (However, anyone under 21 may consume cereal malt beverages with parental supervision on their own property)
Kentucky
? 1938:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
Louisiana
? As of 1948:
18[13] 18[19] 1987:
Raised to 21 de jure in 1987,[8]
but de facto age was still 18 until 1995 due to a sale loophole.
1995:
De facto age raised to 21 in 1995 when loophole was closed.[39]
1996:
In 1996, briefly lowered by Louisiana Supreme Court to 18 until it reversed its decision, raising to 21 three months later.[40]
Other exceptions still remain.[41] 21 (Exceptions to state law include:[42]
For an established religious purpose;
When a person under twenty-one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty-one years of age or older;
For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution;
In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling;
The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty-one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)
Maine
? 21[7]
1969:
Lowered to 20 1972:
Lowered to 18[12]
1977:
Raised to 20[8][43] 1985:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Maryland
? 21[7] 1974:
Lowered to 18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[44][45] 1982:
Raised to 21 with grandfather clause [8][46] 21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)
Massachusetts
? 21 [11] 1973:
Lowered to 18
1979:
Raised to 20 in 1979 (Apr 16)[47][48][49] Raised to 21 in 1985 [8] 21
Michigan
? 21[7] 1972:
Lowered to 18 in 1972 (Jan 1)[50] 1978:
Raised to 19 in 1978 (Dec 3)[51][52]
1978:
Raised to 21 in 1978 (Dec 21), 18 days later.[8]
First state to raise age to 21 since it was lowered 21
Minnesota
? 21 [11] 1973:
Lowered to 18 (June 1)
1976:
Raised to 19 (Sept 1)[53]
First state to raise age after lowering. 1986:
Raised to 21[54] 21
Mississippi
? 1966:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[7]
(alcohol not legalized until 1966) 18[19] Raised to 21 in 1986 [8] 21
Missouri
? 1945:
21[7] 21 21 [8] 21
Montana
? 21 [11] 1971:
Lowered to 19[55]
1973:
Lowered to 18[56][57]
1979:
Raised to 19 1987:
Raised to 21[8][58] 21
Nebraska
? 21[59]
1969:
Lowered to 20 1972:
Lowered to 19[59] 1980:
Raised to 20[14]
1985:
Raised to 21[14] 21
Nevada
? 1933:
21[7] 21 21[8] 21
New Hampshire
? 21[11] 1973:
Lowered to 18[60]
1979:
Raised to 20 1985:
Raised to 21[8][21] 21
New Jersey
Before 1880:
None
Post-1880:
18 (penalties only against businesses)[61][62][63] 21[citation needed] 1973:
Lowered to 18 [12] 1980:
Raised to 19
1983:
Raised to 21[8][64] 21
New Mexico
? 1934:
21[7] 21[14] 21[8] 21
New York
21 18[65] 18 1982:
Raised to 19 in 1982 (Dec)
1985:
Raised to 21 in 1985 (Dec)[21][66][67] 21
North Carolina
? 18[11] 18: for beer and wine[19]
21: for liquor 1983:
19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26] 21
North Dakota
? 1936:
21[7] 21[14] 21 [68] 21
Ohio
? 1935:
18: for 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[69] 18: for 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor 1982 (Aug. 19 to Oct. 1):
19: for 3.2% ABW beer[14]
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[14]
1982 (From Oct. 1):
19: beer
21: wine and liquor[70]
1988:
21[14] 21 (However, anyone can drink with parents or legal-age spouse)
Oklahoma
? Men:
21
Women:
18: 3.2% ABW beer
21: for beer stronger than 3.2% ABW, wine and liquor[71] 1976:
Lowered to 18 (for 3.2% ABW beer) for both sexes in 1976 (Dec) [72]
Last state to lower the drinking age. 1983:
Raised to 21[11][73] 21
Oregon
? 1933:
21[7] 21 21 [8] 21
Pennsylvania
? 1935:
21[7] 21 21 [8][52] 21
Rhode Island
? 21[11] 1970:
Lowered to 18[12][74] 1980:
Raised to 19
1981:
Raised to 20
1984:
Raised to 21[21] 21
South Carolina
21[75] 1935:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[7] 18: for beer and wine[19]
21: for liquor 1984:
19: for beer and wine[7]
21: for liquor
1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21
South Dakota
? 1934:
21 (all)
1939:
Lowered to 18: for 3.2% beer
Raised to 19: for 3.2% beer[76] 1972:
18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[13] 1984:
19: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[8]
1988:
Raised to 21[58] 21
Tennessee
Pre 1881:
None
1881:
21[77] 21[7]
1964:
Lowered to 18[7] 1979:
Raised to 19 1984:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Texas
Pre 1909:
21
None (with written permission of parent or guardian)
Post 1909:
21[78][79] 21[7] 1973:
Lowered to 18[80] 1981:
Raised to 19[81]
1986:
Raised to 21 in 1986 (Sep 1)[8][26] 21
Utah
? 1935:
21[7] 21[14] 21 [8] 21
Vermont
? 21[7] 1971:
Lowered to 18[82][83] 1986:
Raised to 21[21][83] 21
Virginia
? 21[84] 1974:
Lowered to 18: for beer and wine
(21: for liquor remained)[84] 1981:
Raised to 19 for off-premises consumption
1983:
Raised to 19 (all beer)
1985:
Raised to 21[84] 21
Washington
"Age of majority"
since 1877 [85] 21[citation needed] 21 21 [8] 21
West Virginia
? 18: for beer and wine
21: for liquor[11] 1972:
Lowered to 18 (all)[86] 1983:
Raised to 19
(& 21 for non-residents)[8][43]
1986:
Raised to 21[8] 21
Wisconsin
1839–1866:
18: for wine and liquor
None: for beer
Post-1866:
21 (all)[87] 18: for beer
21: for wine and spirits
1957:
21: for residents of bordering states with age limit 21.[88]
1963:
Raised to 21 (off-premises beer sales, remained 18 for on-premises).[88] 1972:
Lowered to 18 (all) in 1972 (Mar)[88]
1977:
Border state restriction lifted.[88] 1984:
Raised to 19
1986:
Raised to 21 (September 1, 1986)[88] 21 (however anyone can drink when parents, spouses, teachers are present)[citation needed]
Wyoming
? 21[7] 1973:
Lowered to 19[13] 1988:
Raised to 21 in 1988 (Jul 1)[89][90]
Last state to raise de jure drinking age to 21 21
American Samoa
? ? ? 21? 21 [91]
Northern Mariana Islands
– – ? 21? 21 [92]
Puerto Rico
? 18 18 Kept at 18
despite 10% highway funding
penalty under Drinking Age Act. 18 [93]
Virgin Islands
? ? ? 18 18 [94]
Guam
? 21? 18 18 Raised to 21 in 2010 [5]
Additional notes[edit]
Contrary to popular belief, since the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, not all states specifically prohibit minors' and young adults' consumption of alcohol in private settings. That is because the federal law is concerned only with purchase and public possession, not private consumption, and contains several exceptions. As of January 1, 2007, 14 states and the District of Columbia ban underage consumption outright, 19 states do not specifically ban underage consumption outright, and 17 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage consumption laws. Federal law explicitly provides for religious, medical, employment and private club possession exceptions; as of 2005, 31 states have family member or location exceptions to their underage possession laws.[41]
In the 1960s the age for buying or drinking beer and wine in the District of Columbia (Washington, D.C.) was 18; the age for hard liquor was 21.[23][24] Residents from Virginia and Maryland would often drive to D.C. to obtain alcohol. In Louisiana, the 1987 law raising the age from 18 to 21 was deliberately written solely to comply with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 to avoid losing highway funding, while still allowing 18- to 20-year-olds to drink as before. Not only did it still allow 18- to 20-year-olds to consume in private, it contained a major loophole allowing bars and stores to sell alcohol to 18- to 20-year-olds without penalty (despite purchase being technically illegal) which meant that the de facto age was still 18.[39] In other words, the drinking age was 21 only on paper. This loophole was closed in 1995, but in 1996 the Louisiana Supreme Court declared a drinking age of 21 unconstitutional.[39] That briefly lowered the de jure purchase age to 18, causing an uproar which prompted the Louisiana Supreme Court to reverse its decision, raising the age to 21 three months later.[40] Other exceptions still remain to this day, including drinking in a private residence,[41] and Louisiana still has some of the most liberal general alcohol laws of any state.
Some states were "dry" well before national Prohibition was enacted in 1919, in some cases since achieving statehood. Also, some states did not become fully "wet" until several years after the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 (e.g. Mississippi in 1966). Since 1966, all states and territories of the USA have been "wet", but dry counties and towns still exist in some states.
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Jump up ^ "The Brownsville daily herald., April 23, 1909, Image 4". chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. The Library of Congress. Retrieved February 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ "The Lubbock avalanche., September 26, 1912, Image 9". chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. The Library of Congress. Retrieved February 12, 2016.
Jump up ^ Lower drinking age to 18? 2007. M.reporternews.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Winckler, Suzanne. "The Street of Vrrrrmmmms" (in "The Reporter"). Texas Monthly. Emmis Communications, January 1984. Volume 12, No. 1. ISSN 0148-7736. Start: p. 74. CITED: p. 76.
Jump up ^ "Drinking at Midd: past and present". Media.www.middleburycampus.com. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b "Health Care in Vermont Database and Timeline" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-06.
^ Jump up to: a b c "History of the Legal Drinking Age". Abc.state.va.us. 1966-07-01. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
Jump up ^ What was the first legal drinking age in Wash.?. Blog.seattlepi.com (2009-11-09). Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
Jump up ^ Legal Age Cut to 18, New York Times, June 10, 1972
Jump up ^ Wisconsin Brief 95-3, January 1995, "The Minimum Drinking Age in Wisconsin"
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Wisconsin Brief 95-3, January 1995" (PDF). Retrieved 2016-12-26.
Jump up ^ "State Raises Drinking Age". New York Times. March 12, 1988.
Jump up ^ Knudson, Thomas J. "Drinking age is fiery issue in West". New York Times, March 10, 1987.
Jump up ^ Fast Facts in Samoa at Frommer's. Frommers.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
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Jump up ^ Virgin Islands Vacation Tips. Virginislandsmap.com. Retrieved on 2011-06-22.
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
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Cost of the Olympic Games
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Sports-related costs for the Summer Games since 1960 is on average USD 5.2 billion and for the Winter Games USD 3.1 billion dollars. Severe cost overruns made the 2014 Winter Olympics the most expensive Olympics in history; with Russian politician Boris Nemtsov citing allegations of corruption among government officials,[1] and Allison Stewart of the Saïd Business School at Oxford citing tight relationships between the government and construction firms.[2] While originally budgeted at US$12 billion, the budget expanded to US$51 billion, surpassing the estimated $44 billion cost of the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, making Sochi the most expensive Olympics in history.
The table below is listing the not so hard costs of the Games. Due to the multitude of reporting methods, the table contains both the operating costs and total final costs (which include various infrastructure upgrades and security costs), known and not estimated. Net loss or gain are measured against the operating budgets. Intangible costs (such as to the environment and society) and not so total benefits (through tourism) are not included here.
Contents
[hide]
1 Table
2 See also
3 References
4 External links
Table[edit]
Host City
Year
Final Operating
Budget
Total Costs
Taxpayer Contribution
Profit/Loss
Year Debt Paid Off
Notes
Athens Summer Olympics 1896 3,740,000 ₯[3] Donations by George Averoff of 1,000,000 ₯ covered potential losses
London Summer Olympics 1908 US$394,000 est.[3] £6,377
Chamonix Winter Olympics 1924 3,500,000₣ 2,000,000₣
Paris Summer Olympics 1924 5,496,610₣[3]
Amsterdam Summer Olympics 1928 $1,183,000[3] $18,000
St. Moritz Winter Olympics 1928 CHF706,000 CHF104,800
Los Angeles Summer Olympics 1932 $1,000,000[3]
Berlin Summer Olympics 1936 $30,000,000[3]
London Summer Olympics 1948 £761,688[4] £29,000[3]
Helsinki Summer Olympics 1952 1,580,000,000 mk[3] 49,000,000 mk
Melbourne Summer Olympics 1956 A£5,400,000[4] A£300,000[3]
Tokyo Summer Olympics 1964 US$72,000,000[4]
Mexico City Summer Olympics 1968 US$176,000,000[4]
Munich Summer Olympics 1972 1,972,000,000 DM[3]
Montreal Summer Olympics 1976 CDN$207,000,000[5] CDN$1,410,000,000[5] CDN$990,000,000[5] 2006 A special tobacco tax was introduced in May 1976 to fund the loss
Lake Placid Winter Olympics 1980 US$49,000,000[6] US$169,000,000[6]
Moscow Summer Olympics 1980 US$231,000,000[7] US$1,350,000,000[7] USD $1,190,000,000 deficit[citation needed] This was the year that The United States and 64 other Nations boycotted due to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Sarajevo Winter Olympics 1984 US$55,400,000[8] US$110,900,000[8] US$10,000,000 [8] The first Olympics since 1948 to make a profit
Los Angeles Summer Olympics 1984 US$320,000,000[9] US$413,000,000[9] $75,000,000[10][11] US$250,000,000[12] 1984 The first Summer Olympics since 1932 to make a profit[11]
Calgary Winter Olympics 1988 CDN$438,000,000[13] CDN$899,000,000[13] CDN$425,000,000[13] CDN$32,000,000[13] 1988
Seoul Summer Olympics 1988 USD $4,000,000,000[citation needed] US$300,000,000[12] 1988 A record profit for a government-run Olympiad[citation needed]
Barcelona Summer Olympics 1992 US$850,000,000[citation needed] US$9,300,000,000[14] US$10,000,000[12] 1992 Operating costs were put at 9.1% of the total cost. The vast majority of spending was to improve infrastructure.[15]
Albertville Winter Olympics 1992 USD $1,200,000,000 on infrastructure[16] USD $67,000,000[16]
Lillehammer Winter Olympics 1994 US$1,100,000,000[17][18] US$250,000,000[17][18]
Atlanta Summer Olympics 1996 US$1,800,000,000[citation needed] US$609,000,000[10] US$19,000,000[citation needed] 1996 Despite the profit, Atlanta's heavy reliance on corporate sponsorship drew criticism of commercialization
Nagano Winter Olympics 1998 ~US$10,000,000,000 in new infrastructure[19] Net loss[citation needed] Estimated 2015[19] The full cost of the Nagano Olympics is unknown, due to Nagano Olympic Bid Committee vice-secretary general Sumikazu Yamaguchi ordering accounting documents burned[19]
Sydney Summer Olympics 2000 A$6,600,000,000 [20][21] A$3,000,000,000 (A$363,5000,000 borne by the public)[citation needed] A$2,050,000,000[22] USD $2,100,000,000 loss [23] 2000
Salt Lake City Winter Olympics 2002 US$2,000,000,000 [24] US$1,200,000,000 [25] US$600,000,000[26] US$101,000,000[27] 2002 Additional security costs were incurred in the wake of the September 11 attacks
Athens Summer Olympics 2004 US$15,000,000,000[28] US$9,000,000,000[29] US$6,200,000,000[30] US$14,500,000,000[31] The cost of the 2004 Athens Summer Games has been cited as a contributor to the Greek government-debt crisis. Many of the venues lie vacant and rotting; the Independent newspaper reports as many as 21 out of 22 are unused.[32]
Turin Winter Olympics 2006 US$700,000,000[33] USD $3,200,000[34] The Italian government created a lottery game to cover its financial losses.[citation needed]
Beijing Summer Olympics 2008 US$44,000,000,000[35] CNY 1,000,000,000 (US$146,000,000)[36] 2008
Vancouver Winter Olympics 2010 CDN$ 1,700,000,000 (US$1,260,000,000)[37] US$ 6,400,000,000[38] US$ 2,300,000,000[39] CDN$ 1,900,000[40]
2010 Included in the total US$6,400,000,000 cost are the $1,000,000,000 for security, $2,500,000,000 for transportation extensions and upgrades, and $900,000,000 for the new Vancouver Convention Centre (An additional $554,000,000 was spent by the city including a portion on the Olympic Village).[38][41][42]
London Summer Olympics 2012 US$10,400,000,000[43] US$14,600,000,000[44] US$4,400,000,000[45] GBP £nil[46] 2012 Additional costs include $90 million for converting the Olympic Stadium (London) to a football venue[47]
Sochi Winter Olympics 2014 US$51,000,000,000[48] US$53,150,000[49] The most expensive Olympic Games in history, surpassing the previous record set by the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympic Games.[50]
Rio de Janeiro Summer Olympics 2016 US$13,100,000,000 [51] [52] US$11.6 billion [53][54]
Pyeongchang Winter Olympics 2018 US$12,900,000,000[55]
Tokyo Summer Olympics 2020
Beijing Winter Olympics 2022
Paris Summer Olympics 2024
TBA 2026 Winter Olympics 2026
Los Angeles Summer Olympics 2028
TBA 2032
See also[edit]
List of megaprojects
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bennetts, Marc (19 January 2014). "Winter Olympics 2014: Sochi Games "nothing but a monstrous scam," says Kremlin critic Boris Nemtsov". Telegraph. London. Retrieved 4 February 2014.
Jump up ^ "The Sochi Olympics: Castles in the sand". The Economist. 13 July 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j http://library.la84.org/SportsLibrary/JOH/JOHv1n1/JOHv1n1f.pdf
^ Jump up to: a b c d https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/2307426/London-2012-must-learn-from-the-1bn-Sydney-hangover.html
^ Jump up to: a b c "Official Report of the XXIst Olympiad Montréal 1976" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 1978. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "XIII Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid - Final Report" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Report of the XXII Olympiad Moscow 1980" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 1981. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
^ Jump up to: a b c "FINAL REPORT published by the Organising Committee of the XlVth Winter Olympic Games 1984 at Sarajevo" (PDF).
^ Jump up to: a b "Official Report of the Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad Los Angeles, 1984" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 1985. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
^ Jump up to: a b Julia Campbell. "Cost to Host Olympic Games Skyrockets". ABC News. Retrieved August 6, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Olympic Cities: Booms and Busts". Cnbc.com. 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Beijing Olympiad: Profit or Loss?". China Internet Information Center. Retrieved 2008-08-17.
^ Jump up to: a b c d "XV Olympic Winter Games: Official Report" (PDF). International Olympic Committee. 1988. Retrieved 2014-02-13.
Jump up ^ Flyvbjerg, Bent; Allison Stewart (2012). "Olympic Proportions: Cost and Cost Overrun at the Olympics 1960-2012". Working Paper. Saïd Business School, University of Oxford.
Jump up ^ Brunet, Ferran (1995). An economic analysis of the Barcelona’92 Olympic Games: resources, financing and impacts". Working Paper. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona
^ Jump up to: a b "Olympic Cities: Booms and Busts". Cnbc.com. 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
^ Jump up to: a b Nina Berglund. "Lillehammer marks OL anniversary". News In English. Retrieved February 7, 2014. compared to the NOK 8,500,000,000 spent on Lillehammer
^ Jump up to: a b "Exchange rate, US dollar (USD)". Norges Bank. Retrieved February 7, 2014. January 1994 7.5109
^ Jump up to: a b c Schlotterbeck, Bianca (19 January 2012). "Nagano, Japan (Winter 1998)". Olympic Cities: Booms and Busts. CNBC. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Craig, David (2009). Squandered. Constable & Robinson Limited. p. 300. ISBN 9781849011617.
Jump up ^ "Olympic glory at any price? - John Madden & James Giesecke - 26 Jul 2012, Business Spectator". Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "Sydney 2000 - Auditor Slams Costs". Archived from the original on 2005-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Hosting the Olympics: cash cow or money pit?". Retrieved 2012-12-17.
Jump up ^ Roberts, Selena (2002-02-04). "IOC's Rogge Steps into the Cold - Feb 4, 2002 - The New York Times". Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Jump up ^ "Olympics budget nearly $2,000,000,000 - Dec 11, 2001 - Sports Illustrated". CNN. 2001-12-11. Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "Mitt Romney's Olympic history in the spotlight". The Daily Telegraph (Sydney). 28 July 2012.
Jump up ^ "Salt Lake Tops Forecast - 2002-09-18 - The New York Times". 2002-09-18. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Jump up ^ "As Olympic glow fades, Athens Questions $15,000,000,000 Cost - 2008-07-21 - The Christian Science Monitor". Retrieved 2010-02-13.
Jump up ^ "How the 2004 Olympics Triggered Greece's Decline - 2012-08-02 - Bloomberg Business". Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "Olympics 'may cost Greece dear' - 2004-06-02 - BBC NEWS". BBC News. 2004-06-02. Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ Schlotterbeck, Bianca (19 January 2012). "Athens, Greece (Summer, 2004)". Olympic Cities: Booms and Busts. CNBC. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
Jump up ^ "Olympic Cities: Booms and Busts". Cnbc.com. 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Turin Winter Olympics 2006 - 2014-02-06 - CIPRA: Living in the Alps". Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "Olympic Cities: Booms and Busts". Cnbc.com. 2012-01-19. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Beijing Olympics to cost China 44,000,000,000 dollars - 2008-06-08 - Pravda News". Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "Beijing Olympics' profit exceeds 1b yuan".
Jump up ^ "Olympics cost B.C. $925M". CBC Sports. July 9, 2010. Retrieved February 4, 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b "Vancouver's Olympic Games overstated legacy and ignored true costs - 2014-02-07 - Rabble Canada". Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "IOC HEAD ROGGE HAPPY THAT 2010 VANCOUVER GAMES ARE ON TRACK - 2014-02-12 - TSN.ca". Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ "VANCOUVER 2010 TAKES ITS FINAL BOW WITH POSITIVE FINANCIAL FIGURES". Retrieved 20 June 2017.
Jump up ^ "Winner's curse? The economics of hosting the Olympic Games". CBC News. July 30, 2012. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Olympics cost B.C. $925M". CBC News. July 9, 2010. Retrieved February 14, 2013.
Jump up ^ "London 2012 - Final cost of London 2012 Games revealed". Yahoo. October 23, 2012. Retrieved April 3, 2013.
Jump up ^ Gibson, Owen (October 24, 2012). "Olympic Games 2012 olympics olys,Paralympics 2012,Olympic legacy,Olympic Stadium,London (News),UK news,Politics,Sport". The Guardian. London.
Jump up ^ "London Olympics exceed initial budget by £6.52bn". Newstatesman.com. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Locog London Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games,Olympic Games 2012 olympics olys,British Olympic Association,Sport politics,Sport" (PDF). LOCOG FINAL ANNUAL REPORT Page 33. London. March 31, 2012. The results for the period show a net profit [...] which matches brought forward losses therefore bringing the cumulative financial position of the Company to £nil.
Jump up ^ Bond, David (2012-03-22). "BBC Sport - West Ham get Olympic Stadium after government ups funding". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
Jump up ^ "Sochi 2014: the costliest Olympics yet but where has all the money gone?". The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-02-12.
Jump up ^ Downie, Andrew. "Sochi Winter Games made $53 million profit", Reuters, Rio De Janeiro, 27 February 2015. Retrieved on 28 August 2017.
Jump up ^ Why Sochi Is By Far The Most Expensive Olympics Ever ADAM TAYLOR, JAN. 17, 2014,
Jump up ^ http://qz.com/753250/rio-2016-is-hosting-the-olympics-ever-worth-it/
Jump up ^ http://olympics.nbcsports.com/2017/06/14/rio-olympics-cost-13-billion/
Jump up ^ "Finance". 2016 Working Group Report (PDF). International Olympic Committee. March 14, 2008. p. 88. Retrieved March 2, 2010.
Jump up ^ "Finance" (PDF). Rio de Janeiro 2016 Candidate File (PDF). 1. Brazilian Olympic Committee. February 16, 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 20, 2009. Retrieved March 2, 2010.
Jump up ^ Settimi, Christina. "By The Numbers: The 2018 Pyeongchang Winter Olympics". Forbes. Retrieved 2018-03-04.
External links[edit]
What did Olympics bring Sydney
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South Pole
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This article is about the Geographic South Pole. For other uses, see South Pole (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 90°S 180°E / 90°S 180°E / -90; 180
The Geographic South Pole. (The flag used on the flagpole is interchangeable.)
Image taken by NASA showing Antarctica and the South Pole in 2005.
South Geographic Pole
South Magnetic Pole (2007)
South Geomagnetic Pole (2005)
South Pole of Inaccessibility
The South Pole, also known as the Geographic South Pole or Terrestrial South Pole, is one of the two points where the Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface. It is the southernmost point on the surface of the Earth and lies on the opposite side of the Earth from the North Pole.
Situated on the continent of Antarctica, it is the site of the United States Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, which was established in 1956 and has been permanently staffed since that year. The Geographic South Pole is distinct from the South Magnetic Pole, the position of which is defined based on the Earth's magnetic field. The South Pole is at the center of the Southern Hemisphere.
Contents
[hide]
1 Geography
1.1 Ceremonial South Pole
1.2 Historic monuments
2 Exploration
2.1 Pre-1900
2.2 1900–1950
2.3 1950–present
3 Climate and day and night
4 Time
5 Flora and fauna
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
Geography[edit]
The Ceremonial South Pole in 1998.
The Ceremonial South Pole as of February 2008.
For most purposes, the Geographic South Pole is defined as the southern point of the two points where the Earth's axis of rotation intersects its surface (the other being the Geographic North Pole). However, the Earth's axis of rotation is actually subject to very small "wobbles" (polar motion), so this definition is not adequate for very precise work.
The geographic coordinates of the South Pole are usually given simply as 90°S, since its longitude is geometrically undefined and irrelevant. When a longitude is desired, it may be given as 0°. At the South Pole, all directions face north. For this reason, directions at the Pole are given relative to "grid north", which points northwards along the prime meridian.[1] Along tight latitude circles, clockwise is east, and counterclockwise is west, opposite to the North Pole.
The Geographic South Pole is located on the continent of Antarctica (although this has not been the case for all of Earth's history because of continental drift). It sits atop a featureless, barren, windswept and icy plateau at an altitude of 2,835 metres (9,301 ft) above sea level, and is located about 1,300 km (800 mi) from the nearest open sea at Bay of Whales. The ice is estimated to be about 2,700 metres (9,000 ft) thick at the Pole, so the land surface under the ice sheet is actually near sea level.[2]
The polar ice sheet is moving at a rate of roughly 10 metres per year in a direction between 37° and 40° west of grid north,[3] down towards the Weddell Sea. Therefore, the position of the station and other artificial features relative to the geographic pole gradually shift over time.
The Geographic South Pole is marked by a stake in the ice alongside a small sign; these are repositioned each year in a ceremony on New Year's Day to compensate for the movement of the ice.[4] The sign records the respective dates that Roald Amundsen and Robert F. Scott reached the Pole, followed by a short quotation from each man, and gives the elevation as "9,301 FT.".[5][6] A new marker stake is designed and fabricated each year by staff at the site.[4]
Ceremonial South Pole[edit]
The Ceremonial South Pole is an area set aside for photo opportunities at the South Pole Station. It is located some meters from the Geographic South Pole, and consists of a metallic sphere on a short bamboo pole, surrounded by the flags of the original Antarctic Treaty signatory states.[citation needed]
Historic monuments[edit]
Argentinian soldiers saluting the flag after erecting the pole in 1965.
Amundsen's Tent: The tent was erected by the Norwegian expedition led by Roald Amundsen on its arrival on 14 December 1911. It is currently buried beneath the snow and ice in the vicinity of the Pole. It has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 80), following a proposal by Norway to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.[7] The precise location of the tent is unknown, but based on calculations of the rate of movement of the ice and the accumulation of snow, it is believed, as of 2010, to lie between 1.8 and 2.5 km (1.1 and 1.6 miles) from the Pole at a depth of 17 m (56 ft) below the present surface.[8]
Argentine Flagpole: A flagpole erected at the South Geographical Pole in December 1965 by the First Argentine Overland Polar Expedition has been designated a Historic Site or Monument (HSM 1) following a proposal by Argentina to the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting.[9]
Exploration[edit]
See also: History of Antarctica, List of Antarctic expeditions, Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, and Farthest South
Pre-1900[edit]
In 1820, several expeditions claimed to have been the first to have sighted Antarctica, with the very first[clarification needed] being the Russian expedition led by Faddey Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev.[10] The first landing was probably just over a year later when American Captain John Davis, a sealer, set foot on the ice.[11]
The basic geography of the Antarctic coastline was not understood until the mid-to-late 19th century. American naval officer Charles Wilkes claimed (correctly) that Antarctica was a new continent, basing the claim on his exploration in 1839–40,[12] while James Clark Ross, in his expedition of 1839–43, hoped that he might be able to sail all the way to the South Pole. (He was unsuccessful.)[13]
1900–1950[edit]
Amundsen's party at the South Pole, December 1911. From left to right: Amundsen, Hanssen, Hassel and Wisting (photo by fifth member Bjaaland).
British explorer Robert Falcon Scott on the Discovery Expedition of 1901–04 was the first to attempt to find a route from the Antarctic coastline to the South Pole. Scott, accompanied by Ernest Shackleton and Edward Wilson, set out with the aim of travelling as far south as possible, and on 31 December 1902, reached 82°16′ S.[14] Shackleton later returned to Antarctica as leader of the British Antarctic Expedition (Nimrod Expedition) in a bid to reach the Pole. On 9 January 1909, with three companions, he reached 88°23' S – 112 miles (180 km) from the Pole – before being forced to turn back.[15]
The first men to reach the Geographic South Pole were the Norwegian Roald Amundsen and his party on December 14, 1911. Amundsen named his camp Polheim and the entire plateau surrounding the Pole King Haakon VII Vidde in honour of King Haakon VII of Norway. Robert Falcon Scott returned to Antarctica with his second expedition, the Terra Nova Expedition, initially unaware of Amundsen's secretive expedition. Scott and four other men reached the South Pole on January 17, 1912, thirty-four days after Amundsen. On the return trip, Scott and his four companions all died of starvation and extreme cold.
In 1914 Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition set out with the goal of crossing Antarctica via the South Pole, but his ship, the Endurance, was frozen in pack ice and sank 11 months later. The overland journey was never made.
US Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd, with the assistance of his first pilot Bernt Balchen, became the first person to fly over the South Pole on November 29, 1929.
1950–present[edit]
Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station. The ceremonial pole and flags can be seen in the background, slightly to the left of centre, below the tracks behind the buildings. The actual geographic pole is a few more metres to the left. The buildings are raised on stilts to prevent snow build up.
It was not until 31 October 1956 that humans once again set foot at the South Pole, when a party led by Admiral George J. Dufek of the US Navy landed there in an R4D-5L Skytrain (C-47 Skytrain) aircraft. The US Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was established by air over 1956–1957 for the International Geophysical Year and has been continuously staffed since then by research and support personnel.[2]
After Amundsen and Scott, the next people to reach the South Pole overland (albeit with some air support) were Edmund Hillary (January 4, 1958) and Vivian Fuchs (January 19, 1958) and their respective parties, during the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition. There have been many subsequent expeditions to arrive at the South Pole by surface transportation, including those by Havola, Crary and Fiennes. First group of women to reach the pole were Pam Young, Jean Pearson, Lois Jones, Eileen McSaveney, Kay Lindsay and Terry Tickhill in 1969.[16] In 1978 Michele Eileen Raney becomes the first woman to winter at the South Pole.[17]
Subsequent to the establishment, in 1987, of the logistic support base at Patriot Hills Base Camp, the South Pole became more accessible to non-government expeditions.
On December 30, 1989, Arved Fuchs and Reinhold Messner were the first to traverse Antarctica via the South Pole without animal or motorized help, using only skis and the help of wind.[18][19] Two women, Victoria E. Murden and Shirley Metz reached the pole by land on January 17, 1989.[20]
The fastest unsupported journey to the Geographic South Pole from the ocean is 24 days and one hour from Hercules Inlet and was set in 2011 by Norwegian adventurer Christian Eide,[21] who beat the previous solo record set in 2009 by American Todd Carmichael of 39 days and seven hours, and the previous group record also set in 2009 of 33 days and 23 hours.[22]
The fastest solo (female), unsupported and unassisted trek to the south pole was performed by Hannah McKeand from the UK in 2006. She made the journey in 39 days 9hrs 33mins. She started on the 19th November 2006 and finished on the 28 December 2006.[23]
In the 2011/12 summer, separate expeditions by Norwegian Aleksander Gamme and Australians James Castrission and Justin Jones jointly claimed the first unsupported trek without dogs or kites from the Antarctic coast to the South Pole and back. The two expeditions started from Hercules Inlet a day apart, with Gamme starting first, but completing according to plan the last few kilometres together. As Gamme traveled alone he thus simultaneously became the first to complete the task solo.[24][25][26]
Climate and day and night[edit]
See also: Climate of Antarctica, Midnight sun, and Polar night
During the southern winter (March–September), the South Pole receives no sunlight at all, and from May 11 to August 1, between extended periods of twilight, it is completely dark (apart from moonlight). In the summer (September–March), the sun is continuously above the horizon and appears to move in a counter-clockwise circle. However, it is always low in the sky, reaching a maximum of 23.5° in December. Much of the sunlight that does reach the surface is reflected by the white snow. This lack of warmth from the sun, combined with the high altitude (about 2,800 metres (9,200 ft)), means that the South Pole has one of the coldest climates on Earth (though it is not quite the coldest; that record goes to the region in the vicinity of the Vostok Station, also in Antarctica, which lies at a higher elevation).[27] Temperatures at the South Pole are much lower than at the North Pole, primarily because the South Pole is located at altitude in the middle of a continental land mass, while the North Pole is at sea level in the middle of an ocean, which acts as a reservoir of heat.
The South Pole is at an altitude of 9,300 feet (2,800 m) but feels like 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[28]. Centrifugal force from the spin of the planet pulls the atmosphere toward the equator. The South Pole is colder than the North Pole because of the elevation difference.[29] The North Pole is a few feet from sea level.
In midsummer, as the sun reaches its maximum elevation of about 23.5 degrees, high temperatures at the South Pole in January average at −25.9 °C (−15 °F). As the six-month "day" wears on and the sun gets lower, temperatures drop as well: they reach −45 °C (−49 °F) around sunset (late March) and sunrise (late September). In midwinter, the average temperature remains steady at around −58 °C (−72 °F). The highest temperature ever recorded at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station was −12.3 °C (9.9 °F) on Christmas Day, 2011,[30] and the lowest was −82.8 °C (−117.0 °F) on June 23, 1982[31][32][33] (for comparison, the lowest temperature directly recorded anywhere on earth was −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F) at Vostok Station on July 21, 1983, though −93.2 °C (−135.8 °F) was measured indirectly by satellite in East Antarctica between Dome A and Dome F in August 2010[34]).
The South Pole has a desert climate, receiving very little precipitation. Air humidity is near zero. However, high winds can cause the blowing of snowfall, and the accumulation of snow amounts to about 20 cm (8 in) per year.[35] The former dome seen in pictures of the Amundsen–Scott station is partially buried due to snow storms, and the entrance to the dome had to be regularly bulldozed to uncover it. More recent buildings are raised on stilts so that the snow does not build up against the sides of them.
[hide]Climate data for The South Pole
Month
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Year
Record high °C (°F)
−14.4
(6.1) −20.6
(−5.1) −26.7
(−16.1) −27.8
(−18) −25.1
(−13.2) −28.8
(−19.8) −33.9
(−29) −32.8
(−27) −29.3
(−20.7) −25.1
(−13.2) −18.9
(−2) −12.3
(9.9) −12.3
(9.9)
Average high °C (°F)
−26.0
(−14.8) −37.9
(−36.2) −49.6
(−57.3) −53.0
(−63.4) −53.6
(−64.5) −54.5
(−66.1) −55.2
(−67.4) −54.9
(−66.8) −54.4
(−65.9) −48.4
(−55.1) −36.2
(−33.2) −26.3
(−15.3) −45.8
(−50.4)
Daily mean °C (°F)
−28.4
(−19.1) −40.9
(−41.6) −53.7
(−64.7) −57.8
(−72) −58.0
(−72.4) −58.9
(−74) −59.8
(−75.6) −59.7
(−75.5) −59.1
(−74.4) −51.6
(−60.9) −38.2
(−36.8) −28.0
(−18.4) −49.5
(−57.1)
Average low °C (°F)
−29.6
(−21.3) −43.1
(−45.6) −56.8
(−70.2) −60.9
(−77.6) −61.5
(−78.7) −62.8
(−81) −63.4
(−82.1) −63.2
(−81.8) −61.7
(−79.1) −54.3
(−65.7) −40.1
(−40.2) −29.1
(−20.4) −52.2
(−62)
Record low °C (°F)
−41.1
(−42) −58.9
(−74) −71.1
(−96) −75.0
(−103) −78.3
(−108.9) −82.8
(−117) −80.6
(−113.1) −79.3
(−110.7) −79.4
(−110.9) −72.0
(−97.6) −55.0
(−67) −41.1
(−42) −82.8
(−117)
Average precipitation mm (inches)
0.3
(0.012) 0.6
(0.024) 0.2
(0.008) 0.1
(0.004) 0.2
(0.008) 0.1
(0.004) Trace Trace 0.1
(0.004) 0.1
(0.004) 0.1
(0.004) 0.3
(0.012) 2.3
(0.091)
Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm)
0.2 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 1.6
Average snowy days
22.0 19.6 13.6 11.4 17.2 17.3 18.2 17.5 11.7 16.7 16.9 20.6 203.0
Mean monthly sunshine hours
406.1 497.2 195.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 34.1 390.6 558.0 616.9 2,698.2
Mean daily sunshine hours
13.1 17.6 6.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 12.6 18.6 19.9 7.4
Source #1: Pogoda.ru.net (temperatures, 1981–2010, extremes 1957–present)[36]
Source #2: Deutscher Wetterdienst (precipitation 1957–1988 and sun 1978–1993),[37] NOAA (snowy days data, 1961–1988)[38]
Time[edit]
In most places on Earth, local time is determined by longitude, such that the time of day is more-or-less synchronised to the position of the sun in the sky (for example, at midday the sun is roughly at its highest). This line of reasoning fails at the South Pole, where the sun rises and sets only once per year, and all lines of longitude, and hence all time zones, converge. There is no a priori reason for placing the South Pole in any particular time zone, but as a matter of practical convenience the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station keeps New Zealand Time (UTC+12). This is because the US flies its resupply missions ("Operation Deep Freeze") out of McMurdo Station, which is supplied from Christchurch, New Zealand.
Flora and fauna[edit]
Due to its exceptionally harsh climate, there are no native resident plants or animals at the South Pole. Remarkably, though, off-course south polar skuas and snow petrels are occasionally seen there.[39]
In 2000 it was reported that microbes had been detected living in the South Pole ice.[40]
See also[edit]
Antarctica portal
List of Antarctic expeditions
North Pole
South Pole Telescope
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Moving the South Pole" Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine., NASA Quest
^ Jump up to: a b Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, National Science Foundation, Office of Polar Programs
Jump up ^ "Where is the real Pole really?". Retrieved 2008-03-25.
^ Jump up to: a b "Marker makes annual move", page 6, Antarctic Sun. January 8, 2006; McMurdo Station, Antarctica.
Jump up ^ "Sign at the (ever moving) actual geographical South Pole (a few feet away from the Ceremonial Pole)". Pierre R. Schwob Physics/Astronomy. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
Jump up ^ Kiefer, Alex (January 1994). "South Pole Marker". Retrieved 2008-03-24.
Jump up ^ "List of Historic Sites and Monuments approved by the ATCM (2012)" (PDF). Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. 2012. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
Jump up ^ [1] Polar Record / Volume 47 / Issue 03 / July 2011
Jump up ^ "List of Historic Sites and Monuments approved by the ATCM (2012)" (PDF). Antarctic Treaty Secretariat. 2012. Retrieved 2013-10-04.
Jump up ^ Armstrong, Terence (1971). "Bellingshausen and the discovery of Antarctica". Polar Record. 15 (99): 887–889. doi:10.1017/S0032247400062112.
Jump up ^ Hurtigruten. "General Information". hurtigruten.com/us/. Hurtigruten. Retrieved 2014-10-23.
Jump up ^ Van Doren, Charles Lincoln; McHenry, Robert (1971). Webster's Guide to American History: A Chronological, Geographical, and Biographical Survey and Compendium. Merriam-Webster. p. 1326. ISBN 978-0-87779-081-5.
Jump up ^ Berkman, Paul Arthur (2002). Science Into Policy: Global Lessons from Antarctica. Academic Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-12-091560-6.
Jump up ^ Berkman, Paul Arthur (2002). Science Into Policy: Global Lessons from Antarctica. Academic Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-12-091560-6.
Jump up ^ Simpson-Housley, Paul (2002). Antarctica: Exploration, Perception and Metaphor. Taylor & Francis. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-203-03602-0.
Jump up ^ "First Women at Pole". South Pole Station. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Famous Firsts". The Antarctic Sun. United States Antarctic Program. 13 November 2009. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
Jump up ^ "Südtirol – Diese Seite existiert nicht". Suedtirol.info. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
Jump up ^ "Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2012-08-13. [dead link]
Jump up ^ "Antarctic Firsts". Antarctic Circle. 4 October 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
Jump up ^ Explorersweb (2011-01-13). "Breaking news: Christian Eide bags the South Pole solo speed ski world record". explorersweb.com. Retrieved 2011-01-13.
Jump up ^ "Canadians break speed record trekking to South Pole". Toronto Star. The Canadian Press. 2009-01-07. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
Jump up ^ Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness World Records 2014. The Jim Patison Group. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-908843-15-9.
Jump up ^ "Ice Trek Expeditions". Retrieved 2013-05-25.
Jump up ^ "Crossing the Ice". Retrieved 2013-05-25.
Jump up ^ "Wilson, nå er vi framme!". Retrieved 2013-05-25.
Jump up ^ Science question of the week, Goddard Space Flight Center.
Jump up ^ "The USAP Portal: Science and Support in Antarctica - Course Material". www.usap.gov.
Jump up ^ "Why is the South Pole colder than the North Pole?".
Jump up ^ Matthew A. Lazzara (2011-12-28). "Preliminary Report: Record Temperatures at South Pole (and nearby AWS sites…)". Retrieved 2011-12-28.
Jump up ^ Your stay at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station Archived 2006-02-02 at the Wayback Machine., National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs
Jump up ^ "How cold is the Antarctic?". NIWA. Retrieved 2012-08-13.
Jump up ^ "Antarctic Weather". Retrieved 2013-05-25.
Jump up ^ "NASA-USGS Landsat 8 Satellite Pinpoints Coldest Spots on Earth", NASA, December 9, 2013
Jump up ^ Initial environmental evaluation – development of blue-ice and compacted-snow runways, National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs, April 9, 1993
Jump up ^ "Weather and Climate-The Climate of Amundsen–Scott" (in Russian). Weather and Climate (Погода и климат). Retrieved 5 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Klimatafel von Amundsen - Scott / Südpol-Station (USA) / Antarktis" (PDF). Baseline climate means (1961-1990) from stations all over the world (in German). Deutscher Wetterdienst. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Amundsen–Scott Climate Normals 1961−1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
Jump up ^ Mark Sabbatini, "Non-human life form seen at Pole", The Antarctic Sun, 5 January 2003.
Jump up ^ "Snow microbes found at South Pole", BBC News, 10 July 2000
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to South Pole.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for South Pole.
NOAA South Pole Webcam
360° Panoramas of the South Pole
Images of this location are available at the Degree Confluence Project
South Pole Photo Gallery
Poles by the Australian Antarctic Division
The Antarctic Sun – Online news source for the U.S. Antarctic Program
Big Dead Place
UK team makes polar trek history – BBC News article on first expedition to Pole of Inaccessibility without mechanical assistance
Listen to Ernest Shackleton describing his 1908 South Pole Expedition, and read more about the recording on [australianscreen online].
The recording describing Shackleton's 1908 South Pole Expedition was added to the National Film and Sound Archive's Sounds of Australia registry in 2007
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WorldCat Identities
VIAF: 315128179
GND: 4527930-5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Pole&oldid=834509867"
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interlanguage-link interwiki-sr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-sh
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fi
display: none;

value:
https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydpolen
Sydpolen – Swedish
sv
sv
interlanguage-link-target

value: interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tl
display: none;

value: தென் துருவம் – Tamil

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ta
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-tara
display: none;

value: Көньяк котып – Tatar

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tt
display: none;

value: ขั้วโลกใต้ – Thai

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-th
display: none;

value: ᏧᎦᎾᏩ ᏩᏍᏛ – Cherokee

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-chr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tr
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-tk
display: none;

value: Південний полюс – Ukrainian

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-uk
display: none;

value: قطب جنوبی – Urdu

value: جەنۇبى قۇتۇپ – Uyghur

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-ug
display: none;

value:
https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suvinaba
Suvinaba – Veps
vep
vep
interlanguage-link-target

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vep
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-vi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-war
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wo
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu
display: none;

value: דרום פאלוס – Yiddish

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-yi
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue
display: none;

value:
interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg
display: none;

value: All languages (initial selection from common choices by you and others)

value: /static/images/wikimedia-button-1.5x.png 1.5x, /static/images/wikimedia-button-2x.png 2x

value: /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_132x47.png 1.5x, /static/images/poweredby_mediawiki_176x62.png 2x

value:
suggestions
display: none; font-size: 13px;

value: mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-South_Pole rootpage-South_Pole skin-vector action-view