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Pulmonary circulation
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Pulmonary circulation
Human pulmonary circulation. Oxygen-rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-depleted blood in blue
Pulmonary circulation in the heart
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The pulmonary circulation is the portion of the circulatory system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle of the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium and ventricle of the heart.[1] The term pulmonary circulation is readily paired and contrasted with the systemic circulation. The vessels of the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary veins.
A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
Contents
[hide]
1 Route
1.1 Arteries
1.2 Lungs
1.3 Veins
1.4 Arteries
2 History
3 Embryonic
4 See also
5 External links
6 References
Route[edit]
3D rendering of a high resolution computed tomography of the thorax. The anterior thoracic wall, the airways and the pulmonary vessels anterior to the root of the lung have been digitally removed in order to visualize the different levels of the pulmonary circulation.
Image showing main pulmonary artery coursing ventrally to the aortic root and trachea, and the right pulmonary artery passes dorsally to the ascending aorta, while the left pulmonary artery passes ventrally to the descending aorta.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, and then re-enters the heart; Deoxygenated blood leaves through the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery. From the right atrium, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve (or right atrioventricular valve), into the right ventricle. Blood is then pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve and into the main pulmonary artery.
Arteries[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary artery
From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the semilunar pulmonary valve into the left and right main pulmonary arteries (one for each lung), which branch into smaller pulmonary arteries that spread throughout the lungs.
Lungs[edit]
The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is picked up during respiration. Arteries are further divided into very fine capillaries which are extremely thin-walled. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
Veins[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary vein
The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins, which return it to the left heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. This blood then enters the left atrium, which pumps it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From the left ventricle, the blood passes through the aortic valve to the aorta. The blood is then distributed to the body through the systemic circulation before returning again to the pulmonary circulation.
Arteries[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary artery
From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the semilunar pulmonary valve into the left and right main pulmonary arteries (one for each lung), which branch into smaller pulmonary arteries that spread throughout the lungs.
History[edit]
Pulmonary circulation was first described by the Arab physician Ibn al-Nafis in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon (1242). Ibn al-Nafis described pulmonary circulation as:[2][3]
"the blood from the right chamber of the heart must arrive at the left chamber but there is no direct pathway between them. The thick septum of the heart is not perforated and does not have visible pores as some people thought or invisible pores as Galen thought. The blood from the right chamber must flow through the vena arteriosa (pulmonary artery) to the lungs, spread through its substances, be mingled there with air, pass through the arteria venosa (pulmonary vein) to reach the left chamber of the heart and there form the vital spirit..."
It was later described by Michael Servetus in the "Manuscript of Paris"[4] (near 1546, never published) and later published in his Christianismi Restitutio (1553). Since it was a theology work condemned by most of the Christian factions of his time, the discovery remained mostly unknown until the dissections of William Harvey in 1616.
In 1559, Realdo Colombo explained the Pulmonary function. Prior to Colombo’s work, anatomists such as Galen and Vesalius examined blood vessels separately from the organs of the body. Colombo instead considered these vessels together with the organs they support, and from this was able to conceptualize the flow of blood to and from each organ, supporting his discovery of pulmonary transition of the blood. Colombo also viewed the lungs separately from the heart, and assigned it as having a special role in respiration.[5]
Embryonic[edit]
The pulmonary circulation loop is virtually bypassed in fetal circulation. The fetal lungs are collapsed, and blood passes from the right atrium directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale: an open conduit between the paired atria, or through the ductus arteriosus: a shunt between the pulmonary artery and the aorta. When the lungs expand at birth, the pulmonary pressure drops and blood is drawn from the right atrium into the right ventricle and through the pulmonary circuit. Over the course of several months, the foramen ovale closes, leaving a shallow depression known as the fossa ovalis.
See also[edit]
Underwater diving portal
Pulmonary hypertension
Pulmonary embolus
Pulmonary shunt
Cardiac shunt
Vascular resistance
External links[edit]
Official Journal of the Pulmonary Vascular Research Institute
Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris with the description of the Pulmonary Circulation, and more works by Servetus.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulmonary circulation.
Jump up ^ Hine, Robert (2008). A dictionary of biology (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 540. ISBN 978-0-19-920462-5.
Jump up ^ The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World, 610-2003 By Hunt Janin, Pg99
Jump up ^ Saints and saviours of Islam, By Hamid Naseem Rafiabadi, Pg295
Jump up ^ 2011 “The love for truth. Life and work of Michael Servetus”, (El amor a la verdad. Vida y obra de Miguel Servet.), printed by Navarro y Navarro, Zaragoza, collaboration with the Government of Navarra, Department of Institutional Relations and Education of the Government of Navarra, 607 pp, 64 of them illustrations, p 215-228 & 62nd illustration (XLVII)
Jump up ^ Cunningham, Andrew (1997). The Anatomical Renaissance: The Resurrection of the Anatomical Projects of the Ancients. Scholar Press. p. 143. ISBN 1-85928-338-1.
[hide]
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text:
Pitch Perfect 3
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Pitch Perfect 3
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Trish Sie
Produced by
Elizabeth Banks
Paul Brooks
Max Handelman
Screenplay by
Kay Cannon
Mike White
Story by
Kay Cannon
Starring
Anna Kendrick
Rebel Wilson
Hailee Steinfeld
Brittany Snow
Anna Camp
Hana Mae Lee
Alexis Knapp
John Michael Higgins
Elizabeth Banks
Music by
Christopher Lennertz
Cinematography
Matthew Clark
Edited by
Craig Alpert
Colin Patton
Production
company
Gold Circle Films
Brownstone Productions
Distributed by
Universal Pictures
Release date
November 30, 2017 (2017-11-30) (Sydney)
December 22, 2017 (2017-12-22) (United States)
Running time
93 minutes[1]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$45 million[2]
Box office
$183.9 million[2]
Pitch Perfect 3 is a 2017 American musical comedy film directed by Trish Sie and written by Kay Cannon and Mike White. A sequel to Pitch Perfect 2 (2015), and the third and final installment in the Pitch Perfect series, the film stars Anna Kendrick, Anna Camp, Rebel Wilson, Brittany Snow, Hailee Steinfeld, Hana Mae Lee, Ester Dean, Chrissie Fit, Alexis Knapp, John Lithgow, Matt Lanter, Ruby Rose, Kelley Jakle, Shelley Regner, Elizabeth Banks, and John Michael Higgins. The film follows the Bellas, now graduated from college, reuniting for one final performance together during an overseas USO tour.
Principal photography on the film began in January 2017 in Atlanta, Georgia and ended in April 2017. The film was released in the United States on December 22, 2017, received mixed reviews from critics, and has grossed $183 million worldwide.[3][4] It became the second highest-grossing musical comedy film of all time, behind only its predecessor.[5]
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
2.1 The Bellas
2.2 Additional characters
3 Production
3.1 Filming
4 Release
4.1 Box office
4.2 Critical response
5 Music
6 References
7 External links
Plot[edit]
Three years after the events of the second movie, the Bellas have graduated college, but have jobs which they all hate. Desperate to see each other again to sing once more, Beca (Anna Kendrick), Fat Amy (Rebel Wilson), Chloe (Brittany Snow), Aubrey (Anna Camp), Lilly (Hana Mae Lee), Stacie (Alexis Knapp), Cynthia-Rose (Ester Dean), Florencia (Chrissie Fit), Jessica (Kelley Jakle), and Ashley (Shelley Regner) are all thrilled to learn that Emily (Hailee Steinfeld), now a senior at Barden and leader of the Barden Bellas, has seemingly asked for the Bellas to reunite at an event in New York Aquarium to sing with each other once more. Upon arriving at the reunion they are told that the reunion was not for the Bellas to sing together, but to watch Emily sing with the new Bellas.
They later gather at a bar in disappointment and Emily apologizes as she thought it would be the only way for them to see each other again. They all express how much they miss each other. Suddenly, Aubrey convinces them to join a USO performance accessed by her Army officer father. If they win the competition, they get to open for DJ Khaled. The Bellas gladly accept, all except for Stacie who is eight months pregnant at the moment and is unable to go with them. The Bellas later arrive at a hangar where two soldiers, Chicago (Matt Lanter) and Zeke (Troy Ian Hall) introduce them to their competition, revealed to be three other groups who use instruments, unlike the Bellas. When the band Evermoist, led by their leader Calamity (Ruby Rose) begin to mock and belittle the Bellas, the competitors are challenged to a riff-off by the Bellas, who leave defeated when the other groups compete using their musical instruments.
The Bellas are taken to a fancy hotel in Spain, where Chloe begins to catch an eye for Chicago. Fat Amy finds an old stuffed bunny sitting in her bed, which she recognizes as an old toy she used to hold when she was very little as her father Fergus (John Lithgow) sang her to sleep every night. Amy then realizes that her father is staying in the same hotel she is in and is shocked upon the discovery, seeing as how Fergus is an international criminal. Later that night, the Bellas are invited to a party at DJ Khaled's suite at the hotel, where Fat Amy splits with the group when she is called to be at a poker tournament. The tournament was set up by Fergus, who promptly begs for Amy to be back in his life. A hesitant Amy finally agrees to do so after seeing how much he has changed. Beca, after having her breasts grabbed by Chloe, who develops a friendship with DJ Khaled's music producer Theo (Guy Burnet), is taken to DJ Khaled's music editing room. Beca produces a mix which impresses Theo who is prompted to send the mix to DJ Khaled. Moments later, the party is thrown into chaos when Aubrey accidentally sets the suite on fire.
The Bellas are left in disgrace after the incident with no hopes of winning the competition until Stacie calls the girls to inform she has given birth to a baby girl and named her Bella. This motivates the Bellas to just perform their hearts out without trying to win. Back at the USO competition, the Bellas perform tremendously to adoring crowds through different performances, repairing their reputation and chances to win in the process. Fergus is accepted by Amy, who believes he came to one of their performances to see her. He accidentally reveals that he has not seen her perform at all, while confessing that he is only trying to acquire an offshore account Amy's mother set up which contains US$180 million. After Amy shuts out Fergus again, Chicago and Zeke escort her away from her father, who swears revenge on her. Meanwhile, only Beca is asked personally by DJ Khaled to open for him, disregarding the other Bellas. Beca politely declines the offer and leaves to her room. Later, the Bellas are taken away by a Frenchman in a dark grey van out onto a yacht in a nearby harbor. The yacht belongs to Fergus, who is using the Bellas as a means to get Amy to come for him. Amy and Beca hear of the kidnapping and decide to rescue the Bellas. Beca distracts Fergus by having the Bellas perform "Toxic" for him and two of his men, just as Amy sets the yacht to explode. The Bellas escape the yacht just before it blows. Fergus survives the explosion and is arrested for his crimes.
After the Bellas are rescued by the military, Fat Amy reveals DJ Khaled's proposition to Beca to the others. They encourage her to take the chance, and they all agree that now it's time to move on with their lives, with Amy using her bank account for multiple tributes to singers named Amy, Aubrey trying to be a birthing coach, Flo's juice cart becoming part of an international brand, Chloe getting accepted into vet school, Cynthia-Rose staying at the base to get into flight school, Emily going back to Barden to prepare for her upcoming abnormal psychology test while continuing her songwriting, and Lilly revealing that the reason she was quiet was because she was possessed by Satan and the yacht incident snapped her out of it, and that her real name is Ester. They know very well they'll be separated, but still be connected to each other as a family. Later at the USO's final performance, Beca opens for DJ Khaled and sings on stage, and afterwards brings up the Bellas onstage for the girls to sing their final performance with the other competitors gladly watching the Bellas sing "Freedom! '90" to their hearts content.
Gail (Elizabeth Banks) and John (John Michael Higgins) (who were the Bellas' public announcers in the previous installments) finish filming the Bellas as part of a documentary they have been making about the girls throughout the whole film, only to be appalled when John realizes they didn't record the Bellas' final performance, which was supposed to be the documentary's big ending. A series of mid credit scenes reveal the Bellas' separate story arcs closed out to their mostly happy endings, with Lilly hanging around with DJ Dragon Nutz, whom she flirted with earlier, Aubrey reconnects with her father and Chloe and Chicago share a passionate kiss, much to the amusement of Beca, who is now the boss of Theo.
Cast[edit]
The Bellas[edit]
Anna Kendrick as Beca Mitchell, an alumna and the former leader of The Barden Bellas, who works as a producer but quits due to creative differences, before joining the tour. She has been sharing an apartment in New York City with her best friends Chloe and Fat Amy for the last three years.
Rebel Wilson as Patricia "Fat Amy" Hobart, a comedic alumna of The Barden Bellas, from Australia. She held a one-woman show, "Fat Amy Winehouse", before joining the tour.
Brittany Snow as Chloe Beale, a Barden Bellas alumna and former co-leader, who longs for glory days with the Bellas. She applied to attend a vet school before joining the tour.
Anna Camp as Aubrey Posen, a Barden Bellas alumna and former leader, before Beca, who worked at the Lodge of Fallen Leaves. Through her father, The Bellas were invited to the USO tour.
Hailee Steinfeld as Emily Junk, a senior student at Barden University and the current leader of the new Barden Bellas, who joins her former seniors for the tour.
Ester Dean as Cynthia Rose Adams, a lesbian Barden Bellas alumna, who failed the Flight School simulation before joining the tour.
Hana Mae Lee as Lilly Onakuramara / Esther, a Barden Bellas alumna known for her quiet speaking voice and odd remarks. She worked as a tailor before joining the tour.
Kelley Jakle as Jessica Smith, a Barden Bellas alumna.
Shelley Regner as Ashley Jones, a Barden Bellas alumna.
Chrissie Fit as Florencia "Flo" Fuentes, a Barden Bellas alumna, from Guatemala. She worked at a juice truck before joining the tour.
Alexis Knapp as Stacie Conrad, a Barden Bellas alumna, known for being overly sexual. She works as a pilates instructor and despite wanting to, could not join the tour due to her pregnancy
Additional characters[edit]
Elizabeth Banks as Gail Abernathy-McKadden-Feinberger, an a cappella commentator making an insulting documentary about The Bellas
John Michael Higgins as John Smith, an a cappella commentator making an insulting documentary about The Bellas
John Lithgow as Fergus Hobart, Fat Amy's estranged criminal father
Matt Lanter as Chicago Walp, a U.S. soldier guiding the Bellas during the tour, and Chloe's love interest.
Guy Burnet as Theo, DJ Khaled's music producer, who takes a liking to Beca
DJ Khaled as himself
Troy Ian Hall as Zeke, a U.S. soldier, partners with Chicago
Michael Rose as Aubrey's father
Jessica Chaffin as Evan
Moises Arias as Pimp-Lo
Ruby Rose, Andy Allo, Venzella Joy Williams, and Hannah Fairlight as Calamity, Serenity, Charity, and Veracity, respectively, members of the band Evermoist
Whiskey Shivers as Saddle Up, a country-bluegrass-based band competing against the Bellas
Trinidad James and D.J. Looney as Young Sparrow and DJ Dragon Nutz, respectively
Production[edit]
On April 11, 2015, a month before the release of the second film, it was announced that Rebel Wilson would return for a third film, although she stated that she did not know if Anna Kendrick or other cast members would also reprise their roles. She added that she would be "up for a Fat Amy spin-off."[6] Director, star, and producer of the second film Elizabeth Banks acknowledged the possibility of a third film during promotion of Pitch Perfect 2, saying, "I will say, it would be disingenuous to say that no one’s talking about a Pitch Perfect 3; the possibility of it."[7]
On June 10, 2015, a third film was officially confirmed, and Kay Cannon was set to return to write the script.[8] On June 15, 2015, it was announced that Kendrick and Wilson would both reprise their roles,[9] and on July 28, 2015, Brittany Snow signed on to return. Paul Brooks again produced for Gold Circle Films, along with Max Handelman and Banks for Brownstone Productions.[10] On October 27, 2015, Banks was officially announced to return as director for the film, though she exited in that capacity on June 3, 2016.[11][12] On September 1, 2016, Trish Sie was confirmed to direct the film.[13] On December 13, 2016, it was reported that Ruby Rose was in talks to join the film, while Anna Camp also signed on to return for the sequel.[14][15] Cannon wrote the script with later drafts by Mike White and Dana Fox; White would eventually receive screenwriting credits alongside Cannon.[14] On January 5, 2017, a table read occurred, with Ester Dean, Hana Mae Lee, Chrissie Fit, Kelley Jakle, and Shelley Regner also being confirmed to reprise their roles,[16] and singer Andy Allo joining as Charity, a rival in a group opposing the Bellas.[17] While it was revealed by vocal director Deke Sharon that Alexis Knapp is returning, she wasn't spotted during the first month of filming, leading fans to show concerns that she might not be returning at all. However, on February 6, she posted a photo on Instagram, confirming her return, and was on set the following day.[18][19]
Filming[edit]
Principal photography on the film began on January 5, 2017, and took place in Atlanta, Georgia, and Cádiz, Spain and wrapped on April 3, 2017.[20][21][22]
Release[edit]
Pitch Perfect 3 was initially scheduled for July 21, and August 4, 2017. It had its world premiere in Sydney, Australia, on November 29, 2017,[23] and was released in the United States on December 22, 2017.[24]
Box office[edit]
Pitch Perfect 3 has grossed $104.9 million in the United States and Canada and $79 million in other territories, for a total of $183.9 million, against a production budget of $45 million.[2]
In the United States and Canada, Pitch Perfect 3 was released alongside the openings of Downsizing and Father Figures, and the wide expansions of The Shape of Water and Darkest Hour, and was projected to gross $27–35 million from 3,447 theaters in its opening weekend.[25][26] The film took in $2.1 million from Thursday night previews, about half of the $4.6 million earned by its predecessor. Over the three-day weekend, which included Christmas Eve, it grossed $19.9 million (down nearly 70% from the second film's $69.2 million debut), finishing third at the box office, behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi and Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle. It grossed an additional $6.5 million on Christmas Day, for a four-day total of $26.4 million.[27] It dropped 15% the following weekend, grossing $16.8 million, and a total of $21.7 million over the four-day New Year's frame.[28]
Critical response[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 31% based on 118 reviews and an average rating of 4.7/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Pitch Perfect 3 strains to recapture the magic that helped the original spawn a franchise, but ends up sending this increasingly unnecessary trilogy out on a low note."[29] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 40 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[30] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by its predecessor.[27]
Owen Gleiberman of Variety praised the cast and said, "The new film doesn't add anything revolutionary to the Pitch Perfect formula. It still sounds like we're in middle-period Glee written by someone who finds Ryan Murphy too solemn. But as directed by Trish Sie, the movie is bubbly, it's fast, it's hella synthetic-clever, and it's an avid showcase for the personalities of its stars."[31]
In a review for The Hollywood Reporter, Frank Scheck wrote "...what started out as a charmingly offbeat comic premise has inevitably degenerated into the sort of crass commercialism that probably would make the Bellas themselves turn up their noses."[32]
Music[edit]
The official soundtrack was released on December 15, 2017.[33]
No.
Title
Music
Length
1. "Universal Fanfare"
The Bellas
0:38
2. "Toxic" The Bellas 3:21
3. "Sit Still, Look Pretty" The New Bellas 3:06
4. "Riff Off (Get the Party Started/Shut Up and Dance/Ignition/Let Me Ride/Fly Away/One More Night/Call Me/Love Me Harder/If I Were a Boy/Zombie/Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)/Human/Wake Me Up/Grenade)" The Bellas, Evermoist, Saddle Up, Young Sparrow and DJ Dragon Nutz & Soldiers 4:48
5. "You Got It" Young Sparrow and DJ Dragon Nutz 3:16
6. "Ex's & Oh's" Saddle Up 2:49
7. "How a Heart Unbreaks" Evermoist 3:44
8. "Cheap Thrills" The Bellas 3:40
9. "I Don't Like It, I Love It" The Bellas 3:59
10. "Cake by the Ocean" The Bellas 3:14
11. "Freedom! '90" The Bellas 5:16
12. "Soy Yo" Bomba Estéreo 2:41
13. "Boom Boom (feat. Zedd)" Iggy Azalea 3:08
14. "Tribe" Kim Viera 3:09
15. "Score Suite From Pitch Perfect 3" Christopher Lennertz 3:46
16. "Silent Night (feat. 80fitz)" Hana Mae Lee 1:50
17. "Baby, It's Cold Outside" Kelley Jakle & Shelley Regner 2:52
18. "Feliz Navidad" Chrissie Fit 2:37
19. "Freedom! '90 x Cups" The Bellas & The Voice Season 13 Top 12 Contestants 2:27
Total length: 60:30[34][35]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Pitch Perfect 3". AMC Theatres. Retrieved November 22, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Pitch Perfect 3 (2017)". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved March 3, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Pitch Perfect 3' is...fine, and you can't have expected more than that". Mashable. December 19, 2017. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Jeff Giles (December 21, 2017). "Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle is Certified Fresh". Retrieved December 21, 2017.
Jump up ^ "List of Top Grossing Music Comedy Films, 1984-Present". Box Office Mojo. Retrieved December 13, 2014.
Jump up ^ "'Pitch Perfect 3' in the Works; Rebel Wilson to Return". Collider.com. Complex Media. April 11, 2015. Retrieved May 17, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Elizabeth Banks Talks PITCH PERFECT 2 (and 3), WET HOT AMERICAN SUMMER and THE LEGO MOVIE Sequel". Collider.com. May 16, 2015. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Kit, Borys (June 10, 2015). "'Pitch Perfect 3' Moving Forward at Universal With Writer Kay Cannon (Exclusive)". hollywoodreporter.com. Retrieved June 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (June 15, 2015). "'Pitch Perfect 3′ Chimes In With Summer 2017 Date; Anna Kendrick, Rebel Wilson Back". deadline.com. Retrieved June 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (July 28, 2015). "Brittany Snow Set to Return for 'Pitch Perfect 3' (EXCLUSIVE)". variety.com. Retrieved October 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (October 27, 2015). "Elizabeth Banks to Direct 'Pitch Perfect 3' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety.com. Retrieved October 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (June 3, 2016). "Elizabeth Banks Exits as Director of 'Pitch Perfect 3' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved June 6, 2016.
Jump up ^ Kroll, Justin (September 1, 2016). "'Pitch Perfect 3' Finds New Director in Trish Sie". Variety. Retrieved September 2, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Kroll, Justin (December 14, 2016). "Ruby Rose in Talks to Join 'Pitch Perfect 3' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ Ford, Rebecca (December 18, 2016). "Anna Camp Returning for 'Pitch Perfect 3' (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Instagram photo by @kelleyjakle • Jan 5, 2017". Instagram.com. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Prince Protege Andy Allo Joins 'Pitch Perfect 3'". Ew.com. January 5, 2017. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Deke Sharon - Music rehearsal, day one! #PitchPerfect3". Facebook.com. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Instagram photo by @alexisknapp • Feb 6, 2017". Instagram.com. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Wilson, Rebel. "And that's a wrap on @PitchPerfect 3! All day today I'm sleeping and eating chocolate xpic.twitter.com/KhW9nkvKCB". Twitter. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Lesnick, Silas (January 5, 2017). "Pitch Perfect 3 Filming Begins!". ComingSoon.net. Retrieved January 6, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Pitch Perfect 3' is now casting extras in Atlanta". On Location Vacations. December 9, 2016. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Pitch Perfect 3 Australian Premiere". Facebook.com. Retrieved December 8, 2017.
Jump up ^ Busch, Anita (May 9, 2016). "'Pitch Perfect 3' Moves Up To Middle Of Summer 2017". Deadline. Retrieved May 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ D'Alessandro, Anthony (November 28, 2017). "Does 2017's Domestic Box Office Stand A Chance To Eclipse Last Year's All-Time $11.4B Record?". Deadline.com. Retrieved November 29, 2017.
Jump up ^ Dave McNary (December 19, 2017). "'Jumanji,' 'Greatest Showman,' 'Pitch Perfect' to Challenge the 'Star Wars' Box Office Force". Variety. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b Anthony D'Alessandro (December 24, 2017). "Last Jedi' Lords Over Christmas Weekend B.O. With $100M+ As 'Jumanji' Roars $65M+ & 'Pitch Perfect 3' Sings $27M". Deadline.com. Retrieved December 24, 2017.
Jump up ^ Anthony D'Alessandro (December 31, 2017). "'Last Jedi' Has Upper Hand Over 'Jumanji' In New Year's Weekend Duel As 2017 B.O. Closes With $11.1B – Monday Update". Deadline.com. Retrieved January 1, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Pitch Perfect 3 (2017)". Rotten Tomatoes. Fandango. Retrieved March 22, 2018.
Jump up ^ "Pitch Perfect 3 Reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved December 30, 2017.
Jump up ^ Gleiberman, Owen (December 19, 2017). "Film Review: 'Pitch Perfect 3'". Variety. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ "'Pitch Perfect 3': Film Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Prometheus Global Media, LLC. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
Jump up ^ Last Call Pitches -- Pitch Perfect 3 Soundtrack Available Today
Jump up ^ "Spotify". spotify.com.
Jump up ^ Pitch Perfect 3 [Original Motion Picture Soundtrack - Original Soundtrack _ Songs, Reviews, Credits _ AllMusic]
External links[edit]
Official website
Pitch Perfect 3 on IMDb
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text:
Post–World War II economic expansion
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In the United States and several other countries, the boom was manifested in suburban development and urban sprawl, aided by automobile ownership.
The post–World War II economic expansion, also known as the postwar economic boom, the long boom, and the Golden Age of Capitalism, was a period of strong economic growth beginning after World War II and ending with the 1973–75 recession.[1] The United States, Soviet Union, Western European and East Asian countries in particular experienced unusually high and sustained growth, together with full employment. Contrary to early predictions, this high growth also included many countries that had been devastated by the war, such as Japan (Japanese post-war economic miracle), West Germany and Austria (Wirtschaftswunder), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle), Greece (Greek economic miracle), Taiwan (Taiwan Miracle) and South Korea (Miracle of the Han River).
Contents
[hide]
1 Terminology
2 Timeline
3 Global economic climate
4 Causes
4.1 Productivity
4.1.1 New products and services
4.2 Economic aftermath of war
4.3 Keynesian economics
4.3.1 Infrastructure spending
4.3.2 Military spending
4.4 Financial repression
4.5 Deregulation
4.6 Low oil prices
4.7 International cooperation
4.7.1 Institutional arrangements
4.7.1.1 US Council of Economic Advisers
5 Specific countries
5.1 United States
5.2 Canada
5.3 United Kingdom
5.4 Belgium
5.5 West Germany
5.6 France
5.7 Italy
5.8 Japan
5.9 Soviet Union
5.10 Sweden
6 Effects
7 Decline
8 See also
9 Notes and references
10 Further reading
Terminology[edit]
In academic literature, the period is frequently referred to as the post–World War II economic boom, though this term can refer to much shorter booms in particular markets. It is also known as the Long Boom, though this term is generic and can refer to other periods. The golden age of Capitalism is a common name for this period in both academic and economics books.
The term is also used in other contexts. In older sources and occasionally in contemporary ones, Golden age of Capitalism can refer to the period of the Second Industrial Revolution from approximately 1870 to 1914, which also saw rapid economic expansion. Yet another name for the quarter century following the end of World War II is the Age of Marx, though the Soviet Union's economic statistics were not reliable during this period.[2][3]
Timeline[edit]
Economist Roger Middleton states that economic historians generally agree on 1950 as the start date for the golden age,[4] while Robert Skidelsky states 1951 is the most recognized start date.[5] Both Skidelsky and Middleton have 1973 as the generally recognized end date, though sometimes the golden age is considered to have ended as early as 1970.
This long term business cycle ended with a number of events in the early 1970s:
the collapse of the Bretton Woods monetary system in 1971
the growing international trade in manufactured goods, such as automobiles and electronics
the 1973 oil crisis,
the 1973–1974 stock market crash,
the ensuing 1973–75 recession, and
May Day 1975 the deregulation of fixed fees for trading stocks and market based commissions
While this is the global period, specific countries experienced business expansions for different periods; in Taiwan, the Taiwan Miracle lasted into the late 1990s, for instance, while in France the period is referred to as Trente Glorieuses (30 glorious [years]) and is considered to extend for the 30-year period from 1945 to 1975.
Global economic climate[edit]
In the United States, unemployment fluctuated during the 1950s, but dropped steadily during the 1960s.
Real income in the United States by percentile, normalized to 2007 costs. All social classes grew wealthier during the 1950s and 1960s, but the lower percentiles have only seen marginal improvement since then.
OECD members enjoyed real GDP growth averaging over 4% per year in the 1950s, and nearly 5% per year in the 1960s, compared with 3% in the 1970s and 2% in the 1980s.[6]
Skidelsky devotes ten pages of his 2009 book Keynes: The Return of the Master to a comparison of the golden age to what he calls the Washington Consensus period, which he dates as spanning 1980–2009 (1973–1980 being a transitional period):[5]
Metric
Golden Age
Washington Consensus
Average global growth 4.8% 3.2%
Unemployment (US) 4.8% 6.1%
Unemployment (France) 1.2% 9.5%
Unemployment (Germany) 3.1% 7.5%
Unemployment (Great Britain) 1.6% 7.4%
Skidelsky suggests the high global growth during the golden age was especially impressive as during that period Japan was the only major Asian economy enjoying high growth (Taiwan and South Korea at the time being small economies). It was not until later that the world had the exceptional growth of China raising the global average. Skidelsky also reports that inequality was generally decreasing during the golden age, whereas since the Washington Consensus was formed it has been increasing.
Globally, the golden age was a time of unusual financial stability, with crises far less frequent and intense than before or after. Martin Wolf reports that between 1945–71 (27 years) the world saw only 38 financial crises, whereas from 1973–97 (24 years) there were 139.[7]
Causes[edit]
Productivity[edit]
See also: Agricultural productivity
High productivity growth from before the war continued after the war and until the early 1970s. Manufacturing was aided by automation technologies such as feedback controllers, which appeared in the late 1930s were a fast-growing area of investment following the war. Wholesale and retail trade benefited from new highway systems, distribution warehouses, and material handling equipment such as forklifts and intermodal containers.[8][9] Oil displaced coal in many applications, particularly in locomotives and ships.[10] In agriculture, the post WW II period saw the widespread introduction of the following:
Chemical fertilizers
Tractors
Combine harvesters
High-yielding variety
Pesticides
New products and services[edit]
Industries that were created or expanded during the post war period included television, commercial aviation and particularly in the US, computer technology.
Economic aftermath of war[edit]
Economists employing Marxian economic analysis and Crisis theory argue that the period of prosperity was a temporary phase in capitalist development fueled by a revival of capital stock, large pools of labor and raw materials, and technological innovation emerging from the end of the Second World War and the scale of defeats of the international working class.[11] This era of prosperity helped prop up the perspective that the crises and business cycles inherent to capitalism could be solved through macroeconomic Keynesian policies, when in actuality the fundamental instabilities of capitalism had not been resolved.[12]
Keynesian economics[edit]
Keynesian economists argue that the post war expansion was caused by adoption of Keynesian economic policies. Naomi Klein has argued the high growth enjoyed by Europe and America was the result of Keynesian economic policies and in the case of rapidly rising prosperity that this post war period saw in parts of South America, by the influence of developmentalist economics led by Raúl Prebisch.[13]
Infrastructure spending[edit]
Many Western governments funded large infrastructure projects during this period. Here the redevelopment of Norrmalm and the Stockholm Metro, Sweden.
One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.[14] He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.
Military spending[edit]
Another explanation for this period is the theory of the permanent war economy, which suggests that the large spending on the military helped stabilize the global economy; this has also been referred to as "Military Keynesianism".
Financial repression[edit]
This period also saw financial repression—low nominal interest rates and low or negative real interest rates (nominal rates lower than inflation plus taxation), via government policy—resulting respectively in debt servicing costs being low (low nominal rates) and in liquidation of existing debt (via inflation and taxation).[15] This allowed countries (such as the US and UK) to both deal with their existing government debt level and reduce the level of debt without needing to direct a high portion of government spending to debt service.
Deregulation[edit]
Historical federal marginal tax rates for income for the lowest and highest income earners in the US[16]
When World War II ended, Congress lowered taxes and ended economic controls that were enacted prior to and during the Second World War. Some argue that these policies made the economy grow faster in 1946 and 1947 than government experts had expected and stabilized U.S. unemployment at 3.9%.[17]
Low oil prices[edit]
The real oil price was low during the post-war decades, with this ending in the 1973 oil crisis.
In the 1940s, the price of oil was about $17, rising to just over $20 during the Korean War (1951–1953). During the Vietnam War (1950s – 1970s) the price of oil slowly declined to under $20. During the Arab oil embargo of 1973—the first oil shock—the price of oil rapidly rose to double in price.
International cooperation[edit]
Poster for the Marshall Plan
See also: Aftermath of World War II
Among the causes can be mentioned the rapid normalization of political relations between former Axis powers and the western Allies. After the war, the major powers were determined not to repeat the mistakes of the Great Depression, some of which were ascribed to post–World War I policy errors. The Marshall Plan for the rebuilding of Europe is most credited for reconciliation, though the immediate post-war situations was more complicated. In 1948 the Marshall Plan pumped over $12 billion to rebuild and modernize Western Europe. The European Coal and Steel Community formed the foundation of what was to become the European Union in later years.
Institutional arrangements[edit]
Institutional economists point to the international institutions established in the post-war period. Structurally, the victorious Allies established the United Nations and the Bretton Woods monetary system, international institutions designed to promote stability. This was achieved through a number of policies, including promoting free trade, instituting the Marshall Plan, and the use of Keynesian economics.
US Council of Economic Advisers[edit]
In the United States, the Employment Act of 1946 set the goals of achieving full employment, full production, and stable prices. It also created the Council of Economic Advisers to provide objective economic analysis and advice on the development and implementation of a wide range of domestic and international economic policy issues. In its first 7 years the CEA made five technical advances in policy making:[18]
The replacement of a "cyclical model" of the economy by a "growth model,"
The setting of quantitative targets for the economy,
Use of the theories of fiscal drag and full-employment budget,
Recognition of the need for greater flexibility in taxation, and
Replacement of the notion of unemployment as a structural problem by a realization of low aggregate demand.
Specific countries[edit]
The economies of the United States, Japan, West Germany, France, and Italy did particularly well. Japan and West Germany caught up to and exceeded the GDP of the United Kingdom during these years, even as the UK itself was experiencing the greatest absolute prosperity in its history. In France, this period is often looked back to with nostalgia as the Trente Glorieuses, or "Glorious Thirty", while the economies of West Germany and Austria were characterized by Wirtschaftswunder (economic miracle), and in Italy it is called Miracolo economico (economic miracle). Most developing countries also did well in this period.
United States[edit]
Main article: Economic history of the United States § Postwar prosperity: 1945–1973
See also: Economic stagnation § End of stagnation in the U.S. after the Great Depression
The period from the end of World War II to the early 1970s was one of the greatest eras of economic expansion in world history. In the US, Gross Domestic Product increased from $228 billion in 1945 to just under $1.7 trillion in 1975. By 1975, the US economy represented some 35% of the entire world industrial output, and the US economy was over 3 times larger than that of Japan, the next largest economy.[19]
$200 billion in war bonds matured, and the G.I. Bill financed a well-educated work force. The middle class swelled, as did GDP and productivity. The US underwent its own golden age of economic growth. This growth was distributed fairly evenly across the economic classes, which some attribute to the strength of labor unions in this period—labor union membership peaked during the 1950s. Much of the growth came from the movement of low-income farm workers into better-paying jobs in the towns and cities—a process largely completed by 1960.[20]
Canada[edit]
Allied war bonds matured during these years, transferring cash from governments to private households.
United Kingdom[edit]
The national debt of the United Kingdom was at a record high percentage of the GDP as the war ended, but was largely repaid by 1975.
A 1957 speech by UK Prime Minister Harold Macmillan[21] captures what the golden age felt like, even before the brightest years which were to come in the 1960s.
"Let us be frank about it: most of our people have never had it so good. Go round the country, go to the industrial towns, go to the farms and you will see a state of prosperity such as we have never had in my lifetime – nor indeed in the history of this country."
Unemployment figures[22] show that unemployment was significantly lower during the Golden Age than before or after:
Epoch
Date range
Percentage of British labour force unemployed.
Pre Golden Age 1921–1938 13.4
Golden Age 1950–1969 1.6
Post Golden Age 1970–1993 6.7
In addition to superior economic performance, other social indexes were higher in the golden age; for example the proportion of Britain's population saying they are "very happy" has fallen from 52% in 1957 to just 36% in 2005.[23][24]
Belgium[edit]
Main article: Belgian economic miracle
Belgium experienced a brief but very rapid economic recovery in the aftermath of World War II. The comparatively light damage sustained by Belgium's heavy industry during the German occupation and the Europe-wide need for the country's traditional exports (steel and coal, textiles, and railway infrastructure) meant that Belgium became the first European country to regain its pre-war level of output in 1947. Economic growth in the period was accompanied by low inflation and sharp increases in real living standards.
However, lack of capital investment meant that Belgium's heavy industry was ill-equipped to compete with other European industries in the 1950s. This contributed to the start of deindustrialisation in Wallonia and the emergence of regional economic disparities.
West Germany[edit]
Main article: Wirtschaftswunder
Assembly of the Volkswagen Beetle in West Germany
West Germany, under Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and economic minister Ludwig Ehrhard, saw prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s. Journalists dubbed it the Wirtschaftswunder or "Economic Miracle".[25] Industrial production doubled from 1950 to 1957, and gross national product grew at a rate of 9 or 10% per year, providing the engine for economic growth of all of Western Europe. Labor union's support of the new policies, postponed wage increases, minimized strikes, supported technological modernization, and a policy of co-determination (Mitbestimmung), which involved a satisfactory grievance resolution system and required the representation of workers on the boards of large corporations,[26] all contributed to such a prolonged economic growth. The recovery was accelerated by the currency reform of June 1948, US gifts of $1.4 billion Marshall Plan aid, the breaking down of old trade barriers and traditional practices, and the opening of the global market.[27] West Germany gained legitimacy and respect, as it shed the horrible reputation Germany had gained under the Nazis. West Germany played a central role in the creation of European cooperation; it joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1958.
France[edit]
Main article: Trente Glorieuses
Between 1947 and 1973, France went through a boom period (5% growth per year on average) dubbed by Jean Fourastié Trente Glorieuses - the title of a book published in 1979. The economic growth occurred mainly due to productivity gains and to an increase in the number of working hours. Indeed, the working population grew very slowly, the "baby boom" being offset by the extension of the time dedicated to study. Productivity gains came from catching up with the United States. In 1950, the average income in France was 55% of that of an American; it reached 80% in 1973. Among the "major" nations, only Japan had faster growth in this era than France.[28]
The extended period of transformation and modernization also involved an increasing internationalization of the French economy. France by the 1980s had become a leading world economic power and the world's fourth-largest exporter of manufactured products. It became Europe's largest agricultural producer and exporter, accounting for more than 10 percent of world trade in such goods by the 1980s. The service sector grew rapidly and became the largest sector, generating a large foreign-trade surplus, chiefly from the earnings from tourism.[29]
Italy[edit]
Main article: Italian economic miracle
The Italian economy experienced very variable growth. In the 1950s and early 1960s the Italian economy boomed, with record high growth-rates, including 6.4% in 1959, 5.8% in 1960, 6.8% in 1961, and 6.1% in 1962. This rapid and sustained growth was due to the ambitions of several[quantify] Italian businesspeople, the opening of new industries (helped by the discovery of hydrocarbons, made for iron and steel, in the Po valley), re-construction and the modernisation of most Italian cities, such as Milan, Rome and Turin, and the aid given to the country after World War II (notably through the Marshall Plan).[30][page needed][31][need quotation to verify]
Japan[edit]
Main article: Japanese economic miracle
A transistor radio made by Sanyo in 1959. Japan manufactured much of the world's consumer electronics during this period.
After 1950 Japan's economy recovered from the war damage and began to boom, with the fastest growth rates in the world.[32] Given a boost by the Korean War, in which it acted as a major supplier to the UN force, Japan's economy embarked on a prolonged period of extremely rapid growth, led by the manufacturing sectors. Japan emerged as a significant power in many economic spheres, including steel working, car manufacturing and the manufacturing of electronics. Japan rapidly caught up with the West in foreign trade, GNP, and general quality of life. The high economic growth and political tranquility of the mid to late 1960s were slowed by the quadrupling of oil prices in 1973. Almost completely dependent on imports for petroleum, Japan experienced its first recession since World War II. Another serious problem was Japan's growing trade surplus, which reached record heights. The United States pressured Japan to remedy the imbalance, demanding that Tokyo raise the value of the yen and open its markets further to facilitate more imports from the United States.[33]
Soviet Union[edit]
In the 1950s the Soviet Union, having reconstructed the ruins left by the war, experienced a decade of prosperous, undisturbed, and rapid economic growth, with significant technological achievements most notably the first earth satellite. The nation ranked in the top 15 most prosperous countries. However, the growth slowed and ended by 1960, as the Khrushchev regime poured resources into large military and space projects, and the civilian sector languished. While every other major nation greatly expanded its service sector, that sector in the Soviet Union (medicine, for example) was given low priority.[34] Following Khrushchev's ouster, and the appointment of a collective leadership led by Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin, the economy was revitalised.[35] The economy continued to grow apace during the mid-to-late 1960s, during the Eighth Five-Year Plan.[36] However, economic growth began to falter during the early to mid-1970s,[35] beginning the Era of Stagnation.
Sweden[edit]
Main article: Record years
Sweden emerged almost unharmed from World War II, and experienced tremendous economic growth until the early 1970s, as Social Democratic Prime Minister Tage Erlander held his office from 1946 to 1969. Sweden used to be a country of emigrants until the 1930s, but the demand for labor spurred immigration to Sweden, especially from Finland and countries like Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia. Urbanization was fast, and housing shortage in urban areas was imminent until the Million Programme was launched in the 1960s.
Effects[edit]
The increased free time of adolescents caused the rise of youth subcultures such as Mods.
The post-war economic boom had many social, cultural, and political effects (not least of which was the demographic bulge termed the baby boom). Movements and phenomena associated with this period include the height of the Cold War, postmodernism, decolonisation, a marked increase in consumerism, the welfare state, the space race, the Non-Aligned Movement, import substitution, counterculture of the 1960s, opposition to the Vietnam War, the Civil Rights Movement, the sexual revolution, the beginning of second-wave feminism, and a nuclear arms race. In the United States, the middle-class began a mass migration away from the cities and towards the suburbs. Thus, it can be summed up as a period of prosperity in which most people could enjoy a job for life, a house and a family.
In the West, there emerged a near-complete consensus against strong ideology and a belief that technocratic and scientific solutions could be found to most of humanity's problems, a view advanced by US President John F. Kennedy in 1962. This optimism was symbolized through such events as the 1964 New York World's Fair, and Lyndon B. Johnson's Great Society programs, which aimed at eliminating poverty in the United States.
Decline[edit]
The sharp rise in oil prices (due to the 1973 oil crisis) hastened the transition to the post-industrial economy, and a multitude of social problems began to emerge. During the 1970s steel crisis, demand for steel declined, and the Western world faced competition from newly industrialized countries. This was especially harsh for mining and steel districts such as the North American Rust Belt and the West German Ruhr area.
See also[edit]
Post-war consensus
Four Asian Tigers
Mexican miracle
Spanish miracle
Nixon shock
Notes and references[edit]
Jump up ^ http://m.oxfordscholarship.com/mobile/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198287414.001.0001/acprof-9780198287414
Jump up ^ Desai, Meghnad (2002). Marx's Revenge: The Resurgence of Capitalism and the Death of Statist Socialism,. Verso. p. 216. ISBN 1-85984-429-4.
Jump up ^ Ball, Terence; Bellamy, Richard Paul (2002). The Cambridge history of twentieth-century political thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 1-85984-429-4.
Jump up ^ Middleton, Roger (2000). The British Economy Since 1945. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3. ISBN 0-333-68483-4.
^ Jump up to: a b Skidelsky, Robert (2009). Keynes: The Return of the Master. Allen Lane. pp. 116, 126. ISBN 978-1-84614-258-1.
Jump up ^ Marglin, Stephen A.; Schor, Juliet B. The Golden Age of Capitalism. Clarendon Press. p. 1. Retrieved 2015-12-20.
Jump up ^ Wolf, Martin (2009). "3". Fixing Global Finance. Yale University Press. p. 31.
Jump up ^ Field, Alexander J. (2011). A Great Leap Forward: 1930s Depression and U.S. Economic Growth. New Haven, London: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15109-1.
Jump up ^ Bjork, Gordon J. (1999). The Way It Worked and Why It Won’t: Structural Change and the Slowdown of U.S. Economic Growth. Westport, CT; London: Praeger. pp. 2, 67. ISBN 0-275-96532-5.
Jump up ^ Grübler, Arnulf (1990). The Rise and Fall of Infrastructures: Dynamics of Evolution and Technological Change in Transport (PDF). Heidelberg and New York: Physica-Verlag. p. 87<Fig. 3.1.5>
Jump up ^ Yaffe, David; Bullock, Paul (1979). "Inflation, the Crisis and the Post-War Boom". Revolutionary Communist No. 3/4 (Second Edition), November 1979. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
Jump up ^ Panitch, Leo; Miliband, Ralph (1992). "The New World Order and the Socialist Agenda". The Socialist Register. Retrieved October 11, 2015.
Jump up ^ Klein, Naomi (2008). The Shock Doctrine. Penguin. p. 55.
Jump up ^ "The cracks are showing". The Economist. June 26, 2008. Retrieved October 23, 2008.
Jump up ^ The Liquidation of Government Debt, Reinhart, Carmen M. & Sbrancia, M. Belen
Jump up ^ "U.S. Federal Individual Income Tax Rates History, 1913–2011". Tax Foundation. 9 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Folsom, Burton W. and Anita, FDR Goes to War: How Expanded Executive Power, Spiraling National Debt, and Restricted Civil Liberties Shaped Wartime America, Simon and Schuster, 2011, ISBN 9781439183229, S. 311
Jump up ^ Salant, Walter S. "Some Intellectual Contributions of the Truman Council of Economic Advisers to Policy-Making," History of Political Economy, 1973, Vol. 5 Issue 1, pp 36–49
Jump up ^ Countries GDP 1975: GDP annual comparison, CountryEconomy.com
Jump up ^ French, Michael. US Economic History Since 1945 (1997)
Jump up ^ "1957: Britons 'have never had it so good'". BBC. 1957-07-20. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ Sloman, John (2004). Economics. Penguin. p. 811.
Jump up ^ Mark Easton (2006-05-02). "Britain's happiness in decline". BBC. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
Jump up ^ Nigel Healey, ed., Britain's Economic Miracle: Myth or Reality? (1992) excerpt
Jump up ^ Jurgen Weber, Germany, 1945-1990 (Central European University Press, 2004) pp. 37-60
Jump up ^ Friedrich Fürstenberg, "West German Experience with Industrial Democracy," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 431, (May, 1977), pp. 44–53 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Detlef Junker, ed., The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1968 (Cambridge University Press, 2004) vol 1:291-309
Jump up ^ P. Sicsic, and C. Wyplosz. "France: 1945-92." in Economic Growth in Europe since 1945, edited by N. Crafts and G. Toniolo. (Cambridge University Press, 1996)
Jump up ^ Andrea Boltho, "Economic Policy in France and Italy since the War: Different Stances, Different Outcomes?," Journal of Economic Issues 35#3 (2001) pp 713+ online
Jump up ^ Vera Zamagni, Vera, The economic history of Italy 1860-1990 (Oxford University Press, 1993)
Jump up ^ Giangiacomo Nardozzi, "The Italian" Economic Miracle". Rivista di storia economica (2003) 19$2 pp: 139-180, in English.
Jump up ^ James L. McClain, Japan: A Modern History (2002) pp 562-98
Jump up ^ Hans Brinckmann, and Ysbrand Rogge. Showa Japan: The Post-War Golden Age and Its Troubled Legacy (2008)
Jump up ^ Gur Ofer, The service sector in Soviet economic growth (1973) p. 21 online
^ Jump up to: a b Sandle, Mark; Bacon, Edwin (2002). Brezhnev Reconsidered. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-0-333-79463-0.
Jump up ^ Brown, Archie (2009). The Rise & Fall of Communism. Bodley Head. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-84595-067-5.
Further reading[edit]
Brinckmann, Hans, and Ysbrand Rogge. Showa Japan: The Post-War Golden Age and Its Troubled Legacy (2008)
Bullock, Paul and Yaffe, David [1975] Inflation, the Crisis and the Post-War Boom RC 3/4 November 1975, RCG
Crafts, N. and G. Toniolo, eds. Economic Growth in Europe since 1945 (Cambridge University Press, 1996)
Cairncross, Frances; Cairncross, Alec (1994), The Legacy of the Golden Age: 1960s and Their Economic Consequences, Routledge
Marglin, Stephen A.; Schor, Juliet B. (1992), The Golden Age of Capitalism: Reinterpreting the Postwar Experience, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-828741-4
Webber, Michael John; Rigby, David L. (1996), The golden age illusion: rethinking postwar capitalism
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