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Ohio River
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Ohio River
The widest point on the Ohio River is just north of downtown Louisville, where it is one mile (1.6 km) wide
Country
United States
States
Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois
Tributaries
- left Little Kanawha River, Kanawha River, Guyandotte River, Big Sandy River, Little Sandy River, Licking River, Kentucky River, Salt River, Green River, Cumberland River, Tennessee River
- right Beaver River, Little Muskingum River, Muskingum River, Little Hocking River, Hocking River, Shade River, Scioto River, Little Miami River, Great Miami River, Wabash River
Cities
Pittsburgh, PA, East Liverpool, OH, Wheeling, WV, Huntington, WV, Parkersburg, WV, Cincinnati, OH, Louisville, KY, Owensboro, KY, Evansville, IN, Henderson, KY, Paducah, KY, Cairo, IL
Source
Allegheny River
- location Allegany Township, Potter County, Pennsylvania
- elevation 2,240 ft (683 m)
- coordinates 41°52′22″N 77°52′30″W / 41.87278°N 77.87500°W / 41.87278; -77.87500
Secondary source
Monongahela River
- location Fairmont, West Virginia
- elevation 880 ft (268 m)
- coordinates 39°27′53″N 80°09′13″W / 39.46472°N 80.15361°W / 39.46472; -80.15361
Source confluence
- location Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
- elevation 730 ft (223 m)
- coordinates 40°26′32″N 80°00′52″W / 40.44222°N 80.01444°W / 40.44222; -80.01444
Mouth
Mississippi River
- location at Cairo, Illinois / Ballard County, Kentucky
- elevation 290 ft (88 m)
- coordinates 36°59′12″N 89°07′50″W / 36.98667°N 89.13056°W / 36.98667; -89.13056Coordinates: 36°59′12″N 89°07′50″W / 36.98667°N 89.13056°W / 36.98667; -89.13056
Length
981 mi (1,579 km)
Basin
189,422 sq mi (490,601 km2)
Discharge
for Cairo, Illinois
- average 281,000 cu ft/s (7,957 m3/s) (1951–80)[1]
- max 1,850,000 cu ft/s (52,386 m3/s)
Ohio River basin
The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. At the confluence, the Ohio is considerably bigger than the Mississippi (Ohio at Cairo: 281,500 cu ft/s (7,960 m3/s);[2] Mississippi at Thebes: 208,200 cu ft/s (5,897 m3/s)[3]) and, thus, is hydrologically the main stream of the whole river system.
The 981-mile (1,579 km) river flows through or along the border of six states, and its drainage basin includes parts of 15 states. Through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U.S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people.[4]
It is named in Iroquoian or Seneca: Ohi:yó, lit. "Good River"[5] or Shawnee: Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi.[6] The river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation and trading route. Its waters connected communities. In the five centuries before European conquest, the Mississippian culture built numerous regional chiefdoms and major earthwork mounds in the Ohio Valley, such as Angel Mounds near Evansville, Indiana, as well as in the Mississippi Valley and the Southeast. The Osage, Omaha, Ponca and Kaw lived in the Ohio Valley, but under pressure from the Iroquois to the northeast, migrated west of the Mississippi River to Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma in the 17th century.
In 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the river served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a primary transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U.S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated: "The Ohio is the most beautiful river on earth. Its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted."[7]
During the 19th century, the river was the southern boundary of the Northwest Territory. It is sometimes considered as the western extension of the Mason–Dixon Line that divided Pennsylvania from Maryland, and thus part of the border between free and slave territory, and between the Northern and Southern United States or Upper South. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement.
The Ohio River is a climatic transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical and humid continental climate areas. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates. In winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohio's confluence with the Mississippi, it is ice-free year-round. Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio.
Contents
[hide]
1 Gallery
2 Geography and hydrography
2.1 Drainage basin
3 Geology
3.1 Upper Ohio River
3.2 Middle Ohio River
4 History
5 Pollution
6 River depth
7 Cities and towns along the river
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Gallery[edit]
The Allegheny River, left, and Monongahela River join to form the Ohio River at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the largest metropolitan area on the river.
Built between 1849 and 1851, the Wheeling Suspension Bridge was the first bridge across the river.
Louisville, Kentucky, The deepest point of the Ohio River is a scour hole just below Cannelton locks and dam (river mile 720.7). The widest point of the river is at the confluence of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers.
A barge hauls coal in the Louisville and Portland Canal, the only artificial portion of the Ohio River.
The Tall Stacks festival celebrates the riverboats of Cincinnati, Ohio, every three or four years.
Geography and hydrography[edit]
Natural-color satellite image of the Wabash-Ohio confluence.
The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. From there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line (near East Liverpool, Ohio; Chester, West Virginia; and Midland, Pennsylvania). From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia.
The river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the northern borders of West Virginia and Kentucky; and the southern borders of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, until it joins the Mississippi River near the city of Cairo, Illinois.
Major tributaries of the river, indicated by the location of the mouths, include:
Allegheny River – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Monongahela River – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Saw Mill Run – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Chartiers Creek – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Montour Run – Coraopolis, Pennsylvania
Beaver River – Rochester, Pennsylvania
Breezewood Creek – Beaver, Pennsylvania
Raccoon Creek – Center Township
Little Beaver Creek – East Liverpool, Ohio
Wheeling Creek – Wheeling, West Virginia
Middle Island Creek – St. Marys, West Virginia
Little Muskingum River – Ohio
Duck Creek – Marietta, Ohio
Muskingum River – Marietta, Ohio
Little Kanawha River – Parkersburg, West Virginia
Hocking River – Hockingport, Ohio
Kanawha River – Point Pleasant, West Virginia
Guyandotte River – Huntington, West Virginia
Big Sandy River – Kentucky-West Virginia border
Little Sandy River – Greenup, Kentucky
Little Scioto River – Sciotoville, Ohio
Scioto River – Portsmouth, Ohio
Kinniconick Creek – Vanceburg, Kentucky
Little Miami River – Cincinnati, Ohio
Licking River – Newport-Covington, Kentucky
Mill Creek – Cincinnati, Ohio
Great Miami River – Ohio-Indiana border
Salt River – West Point, Kentucky
Kentucky River – Carrollton, Kentucky
Green River – near Henderson, Kentucky
Wabash River – Indiana-Illinois-Kentucky border
Saline River – Illinois
Cumberland River – Smithland, Kentucky
Tennessee River – Paducah, Kentucky
Cache River – Illinois
Drainage basin[edit]
The Ohio's drainage basin covers 189,422 square miles (490,600 km2), encompassing the easternmost regions of the Mississippi Basin. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions.
Northeast
New York: a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny.
Pennsylvania: a corridor from the southwestern corner to north central border.
Mid-Atlantic/Upper South
Maryland: a small corridor along the Youghiogheny River on the western border.
West Virginia: all but the Eastern Panhandle.
Kentucky: all but a small part in the extreme west drained directly by the Mississippi.
Tennessee: all but a small part in the extreme west drained directly by the Mississippi, and a very small area in the southeastern corner which is drained by the Conasauga River.
Virginia: most of southwest Virginia.
North Carolina: the western quarter.
Midwest
Ohio: the southern two-thirds
Indiana: all but the northern area.
Illinois: the southeast quarter.
Deep South
Georgia: the far northwest corner.
Alabama: the northern portion.
Mississippi: the northeast corner.
South Carolina: less than 1 square mile in the northwest.
Geology[edit]
Glacial Lake Ohio
From a geological standpoint, the Ohio River is young. The river formed on a piecemeal basis beginning between 2.5 and 3 million years ago. The earliest ice ages occurred at this time and dammed portions of north-flowing rivers. The Teays River was the largest of these rivers. The modern Ohio River flows within segments of the ancient Teays. The ancient rivers were rearranged or consumed by glaciers and lakes.
Upper Ohio River[edit]
The upper Ohio River formed when one of the glacial lakes overflowed into a south-flowing tributary of the Teays River. Prior to that event, the north-flowing Steubenville River (no longer in existence) ended between New Martinsville and Paden City, West Virginia. Likewise, the south-flowing Marietta River (no longer in existence) ended between the present-day cities. The overflowing lake carved through the separating hill and connected the rivers.
The resulting floodwaters enlarged the small Marietta valley to a size more typical of a large river. The new large river subsequently drained glacial lakes and melting glaciers at the end of the Ice Age. The valley grew during and following the ice age.
Many small rivers were altered or abandoned after the upper Ohio River formed. Valleys of some abandoned rivers can still be seen on satellite and aerial images of the hills of Ohio and West Virginia between Marietta, Ohio, and Huntington, West Virginia. As testimony to the major changes that occurred, such valleys are found on hilltops.[clarification needed]
Middle Ohio River[edit]
The middle Ohio River formed in a manner similar to formation of the upper Ohio River. A north-flowing river was temporarily dammed southwest of present-day Louisville, creating a large lake until the dam burst. A new route was carved to the Mississippi. Eventually the upper and middle sections combined to form what is essentially the modern Ohio River.
History[edit]
Steamboat "Morning Star", a Louisville and Evansville mail packet, in 1858.
Pre-Columbian inhabitants of eastern North America considered the Ohio part of a single river continuing on through the lower Mississippi. The river's name comes from the Seneca (Iroquoian) Ohiːyo', a proper name derived from ohiːyoːh, meaning "good river".[8] The combined Allegheny-Ohio river is 1,310 miles (2,110 km) long and carries the largest volume of water of any tributary of the Mississippi. The Indians and early explorers and settlers of the region also often considered the Allegheny to be part of the Ohio. The forks (the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at what is now Pittsburgh) was considered a strategic military location.
French fur traders operated in the area, and France built forts along the Allegheny River. In 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, led an expedition of French traders who became the first Europeans to see the river. He traveled from Canada and entered the headwaters of the Ohio, traveling as far as the Falls of Ohio at present-day Louisville before turning back. He returned to explore the river again in other expeditions. An Italian cartographer traveling with him created the first map of the Ohio River. La Salle claimed the Ohio Valley for France.
In 1749, Great Britain established the Ohio Company to settle and trade in the area. Exploration of the territory and trade with the Indians in the region near the Forks by British colonials from Pennsylvania and Virginia – both of which claimed the territory – led to conflict with the French. In 1763, following the Seven Years' War, France ceded the area to Britain.[9]
The 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix opened Kentucky to colonial settlement and established the Ohio River as a southern boundary for American Indian territory.[10] In 1774, the Quebec Act restored the land east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River to Quebec, in effect making the Ohio the southern boundary of Canada. This appeased the Canadien British subjects but angered the Thirteen Colonies. Lord Dunmore's War south of the Ohio river also contributed to giving the land north to Quebec to stop further encroachment of the British colonials on native land. During the American Revolution, in 1776 the British military engineer John Montrésor created a map of the river showing the strategic location of Fort Pitt, including specific navigational information about the Ohio River's rapids and tributaries in that area.[11] However, the Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the entire Ohio Valley to the United States.
The economic connection of the Ohio Country to the East was significantly increased in 1818 when the National Road being built westward from Cumberland, Maryland reached Wheeling, Virginia (now West Virginia), providing an easier overland connection from the Potomac River to the Ohio River.[12]
Louisville was founded at the only major natural navigational barrier on the river, the Falls of the Ohio. The Falls were a series of rapids where the river dropped 26 feet (7.9 m) in a stretch of about 2 miles (3.2 km). In this area, the river flowed over hard, fossil-rich beds of limestone. The first locks on the river – the Louisville and Portland Canal – were built to circumnavigate the falls between 1825 and 1830. Fears that Louisville's transshipment industry would collapse proved ill-founded: the increasing size of steamships and barges on the river meant that the outdated locks could only service the smallest vessels until well after the Civil War. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers improvements were expanded again in the 1960s, forming the present-day McAlpine Locks and Dam.
Because the Ohio River flowed westward, it became a convenient means of westward movement by pioneers traveling from western Pennsylvania. After reaching the mouth of the Ohio, settlers would travel north on the Mississippi River to St. Louis, Missouri. There, some continued on up the Missouri River, some up the Mississippi, and some further west over land routes. In the early 19th century, river pirates such as Samuel Mason, operating out of Cave-In-Rock, Illinois, waylaid travelers on their way down the river. They killed travelers, stealing their goods and scuttling their boats. The folktales about Mike Fink recall the keelboats used for commerce in the early days of European settlement. The Ohio River boatmen were the inspiration for performer Dan Emmett, who in 1843 wrote the song "The Boatman's Dance".
Trading boats and ships traveled south on the Mississippi to New Orleans, and sometimes beyond to the Gulf of Mexico and other ports in the Americas and Europe. This provided a much-needed export route for goods from the west, since the trek east over the Appalachian Mountains was long and arduous. The need for access to the port of New Orleans by settlers in the Ohio Valley led to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803.
Because the river is the southern border of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, it was part of the border between free states and slave states in the years before the American Civil War. The expression "sold down the river" originated as a lament of Upper South slaves, especially from Kentucky, who were shipped via the Ohio and Mississippi to cotton and sugar plantations in the Deep South.[13][14] Before and during the Civil War, the Ohio River was called the "River Jordan" by slaves crossing it to escape to freedom in the North via the Underground Railroad.[15] More escaping slaves, estimated in the thousands, made their perilous journey north to freedom across the Ohio River than anywhere else across the north-south frontier. Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, the bestselling novel that fueled abolitionist work, was the best known of the anti-slavery novels that portrayed such escapes across the Ohio. The times have been expressed by 20th-century novelists as well, such as the Nobel Prize-winning Toni Morrison, whose novel Beloved was adapted as a film of the same name. She also composed the libretto for the opera Margaret Garner (2005), based on the life and trial of an enslaved woman who escaped with her family across the river.
The Ohio River is considered to separate Midwestern Great Lakes states from the Upper South states, which were historically border states in the Civil War.
The colonial charter for Virginia defined its territory as extending to the north shore of the Ohio, so that the riverbed was "owned" by Virginia. Where the river serves as a boundary between states today, Congress designated the entire river to belong to the states on the east and south, i.e., West Virginia and Kentucky at the time of admission to the Union, that were divided from Virginia. Thus Wheeling Island, the largest inhabited island in the Ohio River, belongs to West Virginia, although it is closer to the Ohio shore than to the West Virginia shore. Kentucky brought suit against Indiana in the early 1980s because of the building of the Marble Hill nuclear power plant in Indiana, which would have discharged its waste water into the river.
The U.S. Supreme Court held that Kentucky's jurisdiction (and, implicitly, that of West Virginia) extended only to the low-water mark of 1793 (important because the river has been extensively dammed for navigation, so that the present river bank is north of the old low-water mark.) Similarly, in the 1990s, Kentucky challenged Illinois' right to collect taxes on a riverboat casino docked in Metropolis, citing its own control of the entire river. A private casino riverboat that docked in Evansville, Indiana, on the Ohio River opened about the same time. Although such boats cruised on the Ohio River in an oval pattern up and down, the state of Kentucky soon protested. Other states had to limit their cruises to going forwards, then reversing and going backwards on the Indiana shore only. Since 2002, Indiana has allowed its riverboat casinos to be permanently docked.
In the early 1980s, the Falls of the Ohio National Wildlife Conservation Area was established at Clarksville, Indiana.
The confluence of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers is at Cairo, Illinois.
Carl D. Perkins Bridge in Portsmouth, Ohio with Ohio River and Scioto River tributary on right.
Silver Bridge in Point Pleasant, West Virginia which collapsed into the Ohio River on December 15, 1967, killing 46 persons.
Mouth of the Ohio, as it feeds into the Mississippi.
Cave-in-rock, view on the Ohio (circa 1832, Cave-In-Rock, Illinois): aquatint by Karl Bodmer from the book Maximilian, Prince of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, during the years 1832–1834
Pollution[edit]
The Ohio River as a whole is ranked as the most polluted river in the US based on 2009 and 2010 data although the more industrial and regional Ohio tributary, Monongahela River, ranked behind 16 other American rivers for pollution at number 17.[16]
The Ohio River was polluted with hundreds of thousands of pounds of PFOA by DuPont chemical company, from an outflow pipe, for several decades beginning in the 1950s.[17]
River depth[edit]
Lawrenceburg, Indiana, is one of many towns that use the Ohio as a shipping avenue.
The Ohio River is a naturally shallow river that was artificially deepened by a series of dams. The natural depth of the river varied from about 3 to 20 feet (0.91 to 6.10 m). The dams raise the water level and have turned the river largely into a series of reservoirs, eliminating shallow stretches and allowing for commercial navigation. From its origin to Cincinnati, the average depth is approximately 15 feet (5 m). The largest immediate drop in water level is below the McAlpine Locks and Dam at the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville, Kentucky, where flood stage is reached when the water reaches 23 feet (7 m) on the lower gauge. However, the river's deepest point is 168 feet (51 m) on the western side of Louisville, Kentucky. From Louisville, the river loses depth very gradually until its confluence with the Mississippi at Cairo, Illinois, where it has an approximate depth of 19 feet (6 m).
Water levels for the Ohio River from Smithland Lock and Dam upstream to Pittsburgh are predicted daily by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Ohio River Forecast Center.[18] The water depth predictions are relative to each local flood plain based upon predicted rainfall in the Ohio River basin in five reports as follows:
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Hannibal Locks and Dam, Ohio (including the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers)
Willow Island Locks and Dam, Ohio, to Greenup Lock and Dam, Kentucky (including the Kanawha River)
Portsmouth, Ohio, to Markland Locks and Dam, Kentucky
McAlpine Locks and Dam, Kentucky, to Cannelton Locks and Dam, Indiana
Newburgh Lock and Dam, Indiana, to Golconda, Illinois
The water levels for the Ohio River from Smithland Lock and Dam to Cairo, Illinois, are predicted by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Lower Mississippi River Forecast Center.[19]
Smithland Lock and Dam, Illinois, to Cairo, Illinois
Panorama of the Ohio at its widest point, just west of downtown Louisville, Kentucky
Cities and towns along the river[edit]
Metro Area
Population
Pittsburgh 2.4 million
Cincinnati 2.2 million
Louisville 1.4 million
Huntington-Ashland 365,419
Evansville 358,000
Parkersburg 160,000
Wheeling 145,000
Weirton-Steubenville 132,000
Owensboro 112,000
Cities along the Ohio River include:
Pennsylvania
Pittsburgh
Sewickley
McKees Rocks
Coraopolis
South Heights
Ambridge
Aliquippa
Rochester
Monaca
Beaver
Shippingport
Midland
Freedom
Rochester
Conway
Neville Island
Baden
Bellevue
Edgeworth
Leetsdale
Ohio
East Liverpool
Steubenville
Martins Ferry
Bellaire
Marietta
Belpre
Pomeroy
Gallipolis
Ironton
Portsmouth
Manchester
Aberdeen
Ripley
New Richmond
Cincinnati
West Virginia
Chester
Weirton
Wheeling
Moundsville
New Martinsville
Paden City
Sistersville
St. Marys
Parkersburg
Ravenswood
Point Pleasant
Huntington
Kenova
Kentucky
Big Bone
Rabbit Hash
Constance
Hamilton
Petersburg
Belleview
Henderson
Uniontown
Ashland
Vanceburg
Maysville
Augusta
Fort Thomas
Newport
Covington
Ludlow
Louisville
Hawesville
Lewisport
Owensboro
Paducah
Smithland
Warsaw
Ghent
Carrollton
Brandenburg
Bellevue
Dayton
Concord
Indiana
Lawrenceburg
Aurora
Rising Sun
Vevay
Madison
Jeffersonville
Clarksville
New Albany
Cannelton
Tell City
Troy
Rockport
Newburgh
Evansville
Mount Vernon
Illinois
Old Shawneetown
Cave-In-Rock
Elizabethtown
Rosiclare
Golconda
Brookport
Metropolis
Mound City
Cairo
See also[edit]
Geography of the United States
Islands of the Midwest
List of crossings of the Ohio River
List of islands of West Virginia (including islands on Ohio River)
List of locks and dams of the Ohio River
List of rivers of Indiana
List of rivers of Kentucky
List of rivers of Ohio
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
List of variant names of the Ohio River
Ohio and Erie Canal
Ohio River Bridges Project
Ohio River flood of 1937
Watersheds of Illinois
List of longest rivers of the United States (by main stem)
Ohio River Valley AVA
Ohio Valley in Kentucky
Ohio River Trail
Ohio River Water Trail
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Leeden, Frits van der; Troise, Fred L.; Todd, David Keith (1990). The Water Encyclopedia (2nd ed.). Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers. p. 126. ISBN 0-87371-120-3.
Jump up ^ Frits van der Leeden, Fred L. Troise, David Keith Todd: The Water Encyclopedia, 2nd edition, p. 126, Chelsea, Mich. (Lewis Publishers), 1990, ISBN 0-87371-120-3 (long term mean discharge)
Jump up ^ USGS stream gage 07022000 Mississippi River at Thebes, IL (long term mean discharge)
Jump up ^ "Ohio River Facts".
Jump up ^ Bright, William (2004). Native American Placenames of the United States. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 344. ISBN 9780806135984. OHIO River \ō hī′ ō\. From Seneca (Iroquoian) ohi:yo’, a proper name derived from ohi:yo:h 'good river'.
Jump up ^ "Shawnees Webpage". Shawnee's Reservation. 1997. Retrieved April 26, 2013.
Jump up ^ Jefferson, Thomas, 1743–1826. Notes on the State of Virginia Archived August 29, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.; the single instance refers to the former rapids near Louisville.
Jump up ^ Bright, William (2004). Native American placenames of the United States. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 344. ISBN 978-0-8061-3598-4. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
Jump up ^ "History of Seneca County: Containing a Detailed Narrative of the Principal Events That Have Occurred Since Its First Settlement Down to the Present Time; a History of the Indians That Formerly Resided Within Its Limits; Geographical Descriptions, Early Customs, Biographical Sketches, &c., &c., With an Introd., Containing a Brief History of the State, From the Discovery of the Mississippi River Down to the Year 1817, to the Whole of Which Is Added an Appendix, Containing Tabular Views, &c.". Mocavo.
Jump up ^ * Taylor, Alan (2006). The Divided Ground: Indians, Settlers, and the Northern Borderland of the American Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 44, see map on 39. ISBN 0-679-45471-3.
Jump up ^ Montrésor, John (1776). "Map of the Ohio River from Fort Pitt". World Digital Library. Pennsylvania. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
Jump up ^ Fowler, Thaddeus Mortimer (1906). "Bird's Eye View of Cumberland, Maryland 1906". World Digital Library. Retrieved July 22, 2013.
Jump up ^ mginter. "KET's Underground Railroad – Behind the Scenes – Guy Mendes".
Jump up ^ "Put in Master's Pocket: Interstate Slave Trading and the Black Appalachian Diaspora" Archived August 18, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ mginter. "KET's Underground Railroad – Community Research".
Jump up ^ "Report: Ohio River most polluted in U.S.". Pittsburgh Business Times. March 23, 2012. Retrieved April 24, 2012.
Jump up ^ Rich, Nathaniel (January 6, 2016). "The Lawyer Who Became DuPont's Worst Nightmare". New York Times.
Jump up ^ "Ohio RFC". US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather Service. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Lower Mississippi RFC". US Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Weather Service. Retrieved March 10, 2017.
References[edit]
Hay, Jerry (2010). Ohio River Guidebook, 1st Edition
Further reading[edit]
Dunn, J. P. (December 1912). "Names of the Ohio River". The Indiana Quarterly Magazine of History. 8 (4): 166–70. JSTOR 27785389. doi:10.2307/27785389 (inactive 2017-03-10).
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ohio River.
Ohio River Flows and Forecasts
U.S. Geological Survey: PA stream gauging stations
Ohio River Forecast Center, which issues official river forecasts for the Ohio River and its tributaries from Smithland Lock and Dam upstream
Lower Mississippi River Forecast Center, which issues official river forecasts for the Ohio River and its tributaries downstream of Smithland Lock and Dam
Texts on Wikisource:
"Ohio River". Encyclopædia Britannica. 20 (11th ed.). 1911.
"Ohio River". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
"Ohio River". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Ohio, a river of the United States". The New Student's Reference Work. 1914.
"Ohio, a river of the United States". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
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text:
History of music publishing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A page from the Mellon Chansonnier (c.1470), one of the last hand-copied musical manuscripts, prepared for the wedding of Catherine of Aragon
Music publishing is the business of creating, producing and distributing printed musical scores, parts, and books in various types of music notation, while ensuring that the composer, songwriter and other creators receive credit and royalties or other payment (where applicable). This article outlines the early history of the industry.
Contents
[hide]
1 Printing
1.1 Petrucci
1.2 Rastell
2 Copyright
2.1 1886 Berne Convention
2.2 United States
3 Performing rights
4 Early modern era: 18th century
4.1 German publishers
4.2 United States of America
5 Licensing
5.1 Licenses
6 Technologies
6.1 Sound recording
6.2 Film music
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
Printing[edit]
Music publishing did not begin on a large scale until the mid-15th century, when mechanical techniques for printing music were first developed. The earliest example, a set of liturgical chants, dates from about 1465, shortly after the Gutenberg Bible. Prior to this time, music had to be copied out by hand. This was a very labor-intensive and time-consuming process, so it was usually undertaken only by monks and priests seeking to preserve sacred music for the church. The few collections of secular music that are extant were commissioned and owned by wealthy noblemen. Examples include the Squarcialupi Codex of Italian Trecento music and the Chantilly Codex of French Ars subtilior music.
A page from the Odhecaton
Petrucci[edit]
The father of modern music printing was Ottaviano Petrucci, a printer and publisher who was able to secure a twenty-year monopoly on printed music in Venice during the 16th century. His first collection was entitled Harmonice Musices Odhecaton and contained 96 polyphonic compositions, mostly by Josquin des Prez and Heinrich Isaac. He flourished by focusing on Flemish works, rather than Italian, as they were very popular throughout Europe during the Renaissance. His printing shop used the triple-impression method, in which a sheet of paper was pressed three times. The first impression was the staff lines, the second the words, and the third the notes. This method produced very clean results, though it was time-consuming and expensive.
Rastell[edit]
Around 1520 in England, John Rastell developed a single-impression method for printing music.[1] With his method, the staff lines, words and notes were all part of a single piece of type, making it much easier to produce. However, this method produced messier results, as the staff lines were often inexactly aligned and looked wavy on the page. The single-impression method eventually triumphed over Petrucci's, however, and became the dominant mode of printing until copper-plate engraving took over in the 17th century. This method was adopted and used widely by a Frenchman, Pierre Attaingnant.
Copyright[edit]
First page from the "Statute of Anne"
The concept of musical copyright had its beginnings in the reign of King Henry VIII of England who required copies of all printed matter to be sent to him and offered protection to printers in the form of licenses, primarily to produce a new source of revenue. In 1575 Elizabeth I granted Thomas Tallis and his pupil William Byrd a 21-year patent monopoly on the printing and publishing of polyphonic music.[2] The first modern copyright law was the Statute of Anne (1709), which protected all published works for a period of fourteen years, later extended to twenty-eight years. The earliest attempt at a printed musical copyright notice appears in the "Shir Hashirim" of Salomone Rossi (Venice, 1623) which includes a rabbinical curse on those infringing the text, written by Leon of Modena.
1886 Berne Convention[edit]
The first international agreement involving copyright was the Berne Convention of 1886. The core principle of the Convention is its provision that each of the contracting countries shall provide automatic protection for works in all other countries of the union and for unpublished works whose authors are citizens of or residents in those countries. Performance rights are included in these provisions. As of March 2012, 165 countries had become parties to the convention.
United States[edit]
The first U.S. federal copyright law gave protections to "maps, charts, and books." Contrary to some scholarly accounts, the 1790 Act's protection of "books" did encompass musical compositions.[3] The first registration in the U.S. for a musical composition was made on January 6, 1794 by Raynor Taylor for the original song "The Kentucky Volunteer."[4] However, musical compositions were not explicitly protected until the Copyright Act of 1831, and then protection remained limited to reproduction rights. The copyright term was twenty-eight years plus a fourteen-year renewal period.
Performing rights[edit]
Façade of 10 Rue Chaptal, first home of SACEM
While England was a leader in the development of copyright, the French led the way in performing rights. In 1777, Pierre de Beaumarchais founded the "Bureau de Legislation Dramatique" which became the present Société des Auteurs et Compositeurs Dramatiques (SACD) in 1829. Many years later, in 1847, this inspired the composer and librettist Ernest Bourget to claim payment for each performance of his works at Les Ambassadeurs, a leading Café-concert venue of that time. A lawsuit won by Bourget and others in 1851 led to the formation of the Société des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique (SACEM) – the first performing rights society in the world.
Other countries followed suit: The Italian Società Italiana degli Autori ed Editori (SIAE) was founded in 1882 and the Spanish "Sociedad de Autores", predecessor of the current Sociedad General de Autores y Editores (SGAE), in 1899. The predecessor to the Gesellschaft für Musikalische Aufführungs und Mechanische Vervielfältigungsrechte (GEMA) was formed in Germany by composer Richard Strauss in 1903. It became GEMA in 1915 when it merged with another small society. So, by the end of the 19th century, the foundation had been laid for the modern music publishing industry.
Early modern era: 18th century[edit]
German publishers[edit]
As England was a leader in developing copyright systems and France was ahead in developing performing rights, Germany was the pioneering country in modern music publishing. The first German music publishing enterprises date from the 18th century. Bernhard Christoph Breitkopf of Leipzig, a printer and general publisher, decided to specialize in music printing as of 1754. He became successful by developing improvements in the setting of music type. Gottfried Christoph Härtel joined the firm in 1795, which soon became the partnership of Breitkopf & Härtel. They were the original publishers for a who's-who of great German composers, including Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart, Schubert, Schumann and Wagner.
Schott Music of Mainz was founded in 1770 by Bernhard Schott and still exists today. They specialized in French and Italian operas and, more recently, have published works by Hindemith, Stravinsky, Orff, Schoenberg and Henze. N. Simrock of Bonn, and later Berlin, was established in 1790 by Nikolaus Simrock. Their original publications included works by Beethoven, Haydn, Meyerbeer, Weber, Mendelssohn, Schumann and Brahms.
United States of America[edit]
In 1764, Josiah Flagg compiled the first collection of popular and religious music, printed on paper made in the colonies. The post-revolutionary period was notable for the arrival of the first professional music publishers from Europe in the 1770s. They opened shops in Philadelphia, New York, Boston and Baltimore, bringing with them European technology. Benjamin Carr and James Hewitt were two important early American music publishers. The first song published under US copyright was The Kentucky Volunteer, by Carr's own house.
In the first quarter of the 19th century alone, 10,000 pieces of popular music were printed by U.S. publishers. The industry, however, did nothing to promote music or develop writers. Songs became popular by word-of-mouth. Most minstrel troupes and professional singers wrote their own music or had songs written to order. Stephen Foster was the first composer who tried to make a living as an independent professional songwriter but, in the 1850s, copyright protection was so lax and royalties so small (or non-existent) that he found himself living in poverty. This changed only gradually as young men involved in other business enterprises began to perceive the possibilities for enrichment in song publishing.
Sheet music for "After the Ball"
Prior to the 1880s, popular music publishing was a secondary function of music stores or "serious" (Classical) music publishers. After 1880, publishers in New York developed a promotional technique called plugging. By 1900, most music publishers had clustered their businesses along 28th St. (between 6th Ave. and Broadway) in order to be closer to New York's thriving entertainment center. This area came to be known as Tin Pan Alley. The first decade of the 20th century saw the production of more popular music than had ever been written up to that time: about 25,000 songs annually. In 1893, sheet music for the song "After the Ball" sold one million copies and, over the next ten years, went on to sell a total of ten million.
Despite the enactment of new U.S. copyright legislation, including the 1891 Chace Act, which allowed for the international protection of copyrights, the provisions of the 1909 Copyright Act were generally ignored. To correct this situation, operetta composer Victor Herbert established the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP), in 1914. It quickly attracted prominent composers such as Irving Berlin and John Philip Sousa, and was able to ensure that everyone was properly paid and credited for their work.
Licensing[edit]
There are many aspects to music publishing. Chief among them is the licensing of music for use in advertising, television, films and other purposes. Music publishing started out by just being the publishing of the actual sheet music, and not even the score. Song sheets were made which just had the lyrics of a popular song. In the 19th century, sheet music for songs began including a simple piano accompaniment and notation for the song's melody. In the 2010s, music publishing is the exploitation of compositions (songs, instrumental pieces, and other music) for various performance uses, including newer uses such as licensing for video games, for use by recording artists looking for their next hit single and for use in a range of licensing purposes.
Licenses[edit]
Within music publishing there are many different types of licenses. For instance:
• Blanket license
• Mechanical license
• Performing Rights License (PRO)
• Synchronization License or Sync Rights
A blanket license is a big annual fee to one of the key performing rights organizations (PRO) (SESAC, ASCAP, or BMI). The blanket license paid to the PRO, covers every work that is in the PRO's catalog. Blanket licenses are mostly used by television networks and radio stations so that they have the right to play any song or piece from one catalog instead of paying license fees for every single song.[5]
A mechanical license is issued when a recording artist wishes to sell their recording of a written composition. It serves as a notice to the composition owners that sales are forthcoming and that royalties dictated by a statutory rate will be owed and paid to them.
Performing Rights License (PRO) is the license that gives the licensee the right to publicly perform the song/work that they get the license to anywhere.[5]
Lastly, a sync license grants the right to use the composition in the synchronization of a recording over a moving picture in a film, advertisement, television show or any other audiovisual work. For the same synchronization use, one must also obtain a master use license, which grants rights to use the sound recording, which is a separately owned asset from the composition.
A music publisher does a lot to negotiate the uses and fees for the songwriters and composers on their roster. In the 2010s, the publishing companies are a main source of revenue besides live touring, because sync licensing has persisted as a substantial income source while the music industry underwent wrenching changes that saw their previously dominant income source, record sales, steadily decline.
Technologies[edit]
Sound recording[edit]
The invention and development of sound recording resulted in a redefinition of the concept of publishing, much the same as online music stores in the 2000s would later revolutionize how recordings are purchased. Initially, popular music was slow to take advantage of the new technology. In 1910, when sales of the new disc format exceeded those of the old cylinder, more than 75% of the records sold were classical music. One factor in this may have been the expense, which would have concentrated sales among the more upscale purchasers. Until 1925, sheet music sales continued to surpass discs and were the primary source of revenue for publishers and composers. At that point, sheet music sales began to decline while records were still providing inadequate income to compensate. This led to short lived but serious economic problems for some publishers.
Film music[edit]
Samuel Fox (1884-1971) who founded the Sam Fox Publishing Company in 1906, was the first to publish original film scores.[6] In 1927, after the release of The Jazz Singer (the first talkie), the need for music led movie studios to buy music publishing companies, gaining both catalogues of music and experienced composers at the same time. For example, in 1929, Warner Brothers paid 10 million dollars for Harms, Witmark and Remick; MGM bought Leo Feist Inc. and some smaller companies; Paramount started its own publishing division, Famous Music.
See also[edit]
Music engraving
Music publisher (popular music)
Music publisher (sheet music)
Sheet music
Copyright
References[edit]
Jump up ^ J. A. Bernstein, Music Printing in Renaissance Venice: The Scotto Press, 1539-1572 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 27.
Jump up ^ J. P. Wainright, 'England ii, 1603-1642' in J. Haar, ed., European Music, 1520-1640 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2006), pp. 509-21.
Jump up ^ Clayton v. Stone, 5 F. Cas. 999, 1000 (C.C.S.D.N.Y. 1829) (“A book [within the Copyright Act of 1790 can be] a volume made up of several sheets bound together; it may be printed only on one sheet, as the words of a song or the music accompanying it”)
Jump up ^ William F. Patry, Copyright Law and Practice 30 n.91 (2000) (“The first registration for a musical composition was made on January 6, 1794, for The Kentucky Volunteer: A New Song, written by ‘a lady of Philadelphia.’ The composer is believed to have been Raynor Taylor.”) (citing Federal Copyright Records 1790-1800 at 15 (1987)).
^ Jump up to: a b Mark Halloran, Musician's Business & Legal Guide (4th Edition) (Prentice Hall, 2007)
Jump up ^ "Music Publisher Sam Fox Dies at 89"; Associated Press, Daily Mail, Hagerstown, Maryland; Dec. 4, 1971; pg 12.
Bibliography[edit]
On the Publishing and Dissemination of Music, 1500-1850, by Hans Lenneberg, Pendragon Press (c2003) ISBN 1-57647-078-4
English Music Printing, 1553-1700, by D. W. Krummel, Bibliographical Society (1975) ISBN 0-19-721788-5
One Hundred and Fifty Years of Music Publishing in the United States : An Historical Sketch with Special Reference to the Pioneer Publisher, Oliver Ditson Company, Inc., 1783-1933, by William Arms Fisher, Scholarly Press (reprint 1977, c1933) ISBN 0-403-01554-5
The Music Library of Jean-Baptiste Christophe Ballard, Sole Music Printer to the King of France, 1750 Inventory of his Grand Collection Brought to Light by Tula Giannini. link to full article: http://mysite.pratt.edu/~giannini/ballard.htm
"British Music Publishers, Printers, and Engravers - from Queen Elizabeth's Reign to George the Fourth's", by Frank Kidson, London 1900, republished by Benjamin Blom - New York 1967 (Library of Congress Cat. Card No.67-23861
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Bacterial conjugation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells.[1] It is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact.[2]
Bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating since it involves the exchange of genetic material. However, it is not sexual reproduction, since no exchange of gamete occurs. During conjugation the donor cell provides a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element that is most often a plasmid or transposon.[3] Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the recipient cell does not already contain a similar element.
The genetic information transferred is often beneficial to the recipient. Benefits may include antibiotic resistance, xenobiotic tolerance or the ability to use new metabolites.[4] Such beneficial plasmids may be considered bacterial endosymbionts. Other elements, however, may be viewed as bacterial parasites and conjugation as a mechanism evolved by them to allow for their spread.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Mechanism
3 Conjugal transfer in mycobacteria
4 Inter-kingdom transfer
5 Genetic engineering applications
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
History[edit]
The process was discovered in 1946 by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum.[5]
Mechanism[edit]
Schematic drawing of bacterial conjugation.
Conjugation diagram
Donor cell produces pilus.
Pilus attaches to recipient cell and brings the two cells together.
The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient cell.
Both cells synthesize a complementary strand to produce a double stranded circular plasmid and also reproduce pili; both cells are now viable donor for the F-factor.[1]
The F-plasmid is an episome (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial chromosome by homologous recombination) with a length of about 100 kb. It carries its own origin of replication, the oriV, and an origin of transfer, or oriT.[3] There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a given bacterium, either free or integrated, and bacteria that possess a copy are called F-positive or F-plus (denoted F+). Cells that lack F plasmids are called F-negative or F-minus (F−) and as such can function as recipient cells.
Among other genetic information, the F-plasmid carries a tra and trb locus, which together are about 33 kb long and consist of about 40 genes. The tra locus includes the pilin gene and regulatory genes, which together form pili on the cell surface. The locus also includes the genes for the proteins that attach themselves to the surface of F− bacteria and initiate conjugation. Though there is some debate on the exact mechanism of conjugation it seems that the pili are not the structures through which DNA exchange occurs. This has been shown in experiments where the pilus are allowed to make contact, but then are denatured with SDS and yet DNA transformation still proceeds. Several proteins coded for in the tra or trb locus seem to open a channel between the bacteria and it is thought that the traD enzyme, located at the base of the pilus, initiates membrane fusion.
When conjugation is initiated by a signal the relaxase enzyme creates a nick in one of the strands of the conjugative plasmid at the oriT. Relaxase may work alone or in a complex of over a dozen proteins known collectively as a relaxosome. In the F-plasmid system the relaxase enzyme is called TraI and the relaxosome consists of TraI, TraY, TraM and the integrated host factor IHF. The nicked strand, or T-strand, is then unwound from the unbroken strand and transferred to the recipient cell in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication beginning at the oriV) or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the rolling circle replication of lambda phage). Conjugative replication may require a second nick before successful transfer can occur. A recent report claims to have inhibited conjugation with chemicals that mimic an intermediate step of this second nicking event.[6]
1.The insertion sequences (yellow) on both the F factor plasmid and the chromosome have similar sequences, allowing the F factor to insert itself into the genome of the cell. This is called homologous recombination and creates an Hfr (high frequency of recombination) cell. 2.The Hfr cell forms a pilus and attaches to a recipient F- cell. 3.A nick in one strand of the Hfr cell’s chromosome is created. 4.DNA begins to be transferred from the Hfr cell to the recipient cell while the second strand of its chromosome is being replicated. 5.The pilus detaches from the recipient cell and retracts. The Hfr cell ideally wants to transfer its entire genome to the recipient cell. However, due to its large size and inability to keep in contact with the recipient cell, it is not able to do so. 6.a. The F- cell remains F- because the entire F factor sequence was not received. Since no homologous recombination occurred, the DNA that was transferred is degraded by enzymes.[7] b. In very rare cases, the F factor will be completely transferred and the F- cell will become an Hfr cell.[8]
If the F-plasmid that is transferred has previously been integrated into the donor's genome (producing an Hfr strain ["High Frequency of Recombination"]) some of the donor's chromosomal DNA may also be transferred with the plasmid DNA.[2] The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact. In common laboratory strains of E. coli the transfer of the entire bacterial chromosome takes about 100 minutes. The transferred DNA can then be integrated into the recipient genome via homologous recombination.
A cell culture that contains in its population cells with non-integrated F-plasmids usually also contains a few cells that have accidentally integrated their plasmids. It is these cells that are responsible for the low-frequency chromosomal gene transfers that occur in such cultures. Some strains of bacteria with an integrated F-plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture. Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently they are called Hfr (high frequency of recombination). The E. coli genome was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes (initially using a Waring blender). The genes that were transferred were then investigated.
Since integration of the F-plasmid into the E. coli chromosome is a rare spontaneous occurrence, and since the numerous genes promoting DNA transfer are in the plasmid genome rather than in the bacterial genome, it has been argued that conjugative bacterial gene transfer, as it occurs in the E. coli Hfr system, is not an evolutionary adaptation of the bacterial host, nor is it likely ancestral to eukaryotic sex.[9]
Conjugal transfer in mycobacteria[edit]
Conjugation in Mycobacteria smegmatis, like conjugation in E. coli, requires stable and extended contact between a donor and a recipient strain, is DNase resistant, and the transferred DNA is incorporated into the recipient chromosome by homologous recombination. However, unlike E. coli Hfr conjugation, mycobacterial conjugation is chromosome rather than plasmid based.[10][11] Furthermore, in contrast to E. coli Hfr conjugation, in M. smegmatis all regions of the chromosome are transferred with comparable efficiencies. The lengths of the donor segments vary widely, but have an average length of 44.2kb. Since a mean of 13 tracts are transferred, the average total of transferred DNA per genome is 575kb.[11] This process is referred to as "Distributive conjugal transfer."[10][11] Gray et al.[10] found substantial blending of the parental genomes as a result of conjugation and regarded this blending as reminiscent of that seen in the meiotic products of sexual reproduction.
Inter-kingdom transfer[edit]
Agrobacterium tumefaciens gall at the root of Carya illinoensis.
Bacteria related to the nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case of inter-kingdom conjugation.[12] For example, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium and the root-tumor inducing (Ri) plasmid of A. rhizogenes contain genes that are capable of transferring to plant cells. The expression of these genes effectively transforms the plant cells into opine-producing factories. Opines are used by the bacteria as sources of nitrogen and energy. Infected cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria using a system (the tra, or transfer, operon) that is different and independent of the system used for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfers create virulent strains from previously avirulent strains.
Genetic engineering applications[edit]
Conjugation is a convenient means for transferring genetic material to a variety of targets. In laboratories, successful transfers have been reported from bacteria to yeast,[13] plants, mammalian cells,[14][15] diatoms[16] and isolated mammalian mitochondria.[17] Conjugation has advantages over other forms of genetic transfer including minimal disruption of the target's cellular envelope and the ability to transfer relatively large amounts of genetic material (see the above discussion of E. coli chromosome transfer). In plant engineering, Agrobacterium-like conjugation complements other standard vehicles such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). While TMV is capable of infecting many plant families these are primarily herbaceous dicots. Agrobacterium-like conjugation is also primarily used for dicots, but monocot recipients are not uncommon.
See also[edit]
Sexual conjugation in algae and ciliates
Transfection
Triparental mating
Zygotic induction
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Holmes RK, Jobling MG (1996). Baron S, et al., eds. Genetics: Conjugation. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
^ Jump up to: a b Griffiths AJF; et al. (1999). An Introduction to genetic analysis (7th ed.). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-3520-2.
^ Jump up to: a b Ryan KJ, Ray CG, eds. (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. pp. 60–4. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9.
Jump up ^ Holmes RK, Jobling MG (1996). Baron S, et al., eds. Genetics: Exchange of Genetic Information. in: Baron's Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). Univ of Texas Medical Branch. ISBN 0-9631172-1-1.
Jump up ^ Lederberg J, Tatum EL (1946). "Gene recombination in E. coli". Nature. 158 (4016): 558. doi:10.1038/158558a0.
Jump up ^ Lujan SA, Guogas LM, Ragonese H, Matson SW, Redinbo MR (2007). "Disrupting antibiotic resistance propagation by inhibiting the conjugative DNA relaxase". PNAS. 104 (30): 12282–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702760104. JSTOR 25436291. PMC 1916486  . PMID 17630285.
Jump up ^ "Genetic Exchange". www.microbiologybook.org. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
Jump up ^ Griffiths, Anthony JF; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M. (2000). "Bacterial conjugation".
Jump up ^ Michod RE, Bernstein H, Nedelcu AM (2008). "Adaptive value of sex in microbial pathogens" (PDF). Infect Genet Evol. 8 (3): 267–285. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.01.002. PMID 18295550.
^ Jump up to: a b c Gray TA, Krywy JA, Harold J, Palumbo MJ, Derbyshire KM (2013). "Distributive conjugal transfer in mycobacteria generates progeny with meiotic-like genome-wide mosaicism, allowing mapping of a mating identity locus". PLoS Biol. 11 (7): e1001602. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001602. PMC 3706393  . PMID 23874149.
^ Jump up to: a b c Derbyshire KM, Gray TA (2014). "Distributive Conjugal Transfer: New Insights into Horizontal Gene Transfer and Genetic Exchange in Mycobacteria". Microbiol Spectr. 2 (1): 61–79. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.MGM2-0022-2013. PMC 4259119  . PMID 25505644.
Jump up ^ Pan SQ, Jin S, Boulton MI, Hawes M, Gordon MP, Nester EW (July 1995). "An Agrobacterium virulence factor encoded by a Ti plasmid gene or a chromosomal gene is required for T-DNA transfer into plants". Mol. Microbiol. 17 (2): 259–69. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2958.1995.mmi_17020259.x. PMID 7494475.
Jump up ^ Heinemann JA, Sprague GF (July 1989). "Bacterial conjugative plasmids mobilize DNA transfer between bacteria and yeast". Nature. 340 (6230): 205–9. doi:10.1038/340205a0. PMID 2666856.
Jump up ^ Kunik T, Tzfira T, Kapulnik Y, Gafni Y, Dingwall C, Citovsky V (February 2001). "Genetic transformation of HeLa cells by Agrobacterium". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (4): 1871–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.041327598. PMC 29349  . PMID 11172043.
Jump up ^ Waters VL (December 2001). "Conjugation between bacterial and mammalian cells". Nat. Genet. 29 (4): 375–6. doi:10.1038/ng779. PMID 11726922.
Jump up ^ Karas, Bogumil J.; Diner, Rachel E.; Lefebvre, Stephane C.; McQuaid, Jeff; Phillips, Alex P.R.; Noddings, Chari M.; Brunson, John K.; Valas, Ruben E.; Deerinck, Thomas J. (2015-04-21). "Designer diatom episomes delivered by bacterial conjugation". Nature Communications. 6. doi:10.1038/ncomms7925. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4411287  . PMID 25897682.
Jump up ^ Yoon YG, Koob MD (2005). "Transformation of isolated mammalian mitochondria by bacterial conjugation". Nucleic Acids Res. 33 (16): e139. doi:10.1093/nar/gni140. PMC 1201378  . PMID 16157861.
External links[edit]
Bacterial conjugation (a Flash animation)
[hide]
v
t
e
Genetics: homologous recombination / mobile genetic elements
Primarily prokaryotic
Conjugation
Transduction
Transformation
Occurs in eukaryotes
Transfection
Chromosomal crossover
Gene conversion
Fusion gene
Horizontal gene transfer
Sister chromatid exchange
Transposon
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https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konjugasi
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