text:
List of stock market crashes and bear markets
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This is a list of stock market crashes and bear markets in Europe and United States.
Contents
[hide]
1 Table
2 See also
3 Notes
4 References
Table[edit]
[34]
Name
Date
Country
Causes
Ref
Kipper und Wipper 000000001623-01-01-00001623 A financial crisis caused by debased (fraudulent) foreign coins minted in the Holy Roman Empire from 1621–1623, done to raise funds at the start of the Thirty Years' War [1]
Tulip mania Bubble 000000001637-01-01-00001637 A bubble (1633–37) in the Netherlands during which contracts for bulbs of tulips reached extraordinarily high prices, and suddenly collapsed [2]
The Mississippi Bubble 000000001720-01-01-00001720 Banque Royale by John Law stopped payments of its note in exchange for specie and as result caused economic collapse in France.
South Sea Bubble of 1720 000000001720-01-01-00001720 Affected early European stock markets, during early days of chartered joint stock companies
Bengal Bubble of 1769 000000001769-01-01-00001769 Primarily caused by the British East India Company, whose shares fell from £276 in December 1768 to £122 in 1784
Credit crisis of 1772 000000001772-01-01-00001772
Financial Crisis of 1791–92 000000001791-01-01-00001791 Shares of First bank of US boom and bust in Aug and Sept 1791. Groundwork of Alexander Hamilton's cooperation with the Bank of New York to end this event would be crucial in ending the Panic of 1792 next year.
Panic of 1796–97 000000001796-01-01-00001796 A series of downturns in Atlantic credit markets led to broader commercial downturns in Great Britain and the United States.
Panic of 1819 000000001819-01-01-00001819
Panic of 1825 000000001825-01-01-00001825
Panic of 1837 000000001837-05-10-000010 May 1837
Panic of 1847 000000001847-01-01-00001847
Panic of 1857 000000001857-01-01-00001857
Panic of 1866 000000001866-01-01-00001866
Black Friday 000000001869-09-24-000024 Sep 1869
Panic of 1873 000000001873-05-09-00009 May 1873 Initiated the Long Depression in the United States and much of Europe
Paris Bourse crash of 1882 000000001882-01-19-000019 Jan 1882
Panic of 1884 000000001884-01-01-00001884
Encilhamento 000000001890-01-01-00001890 Lasting 3 years, 1890–1893, a boom and bust process that boomed in late 1880s and burst on early 1890s, causing a collapse in the Brazilian economy and aggravating an already unstable political situation. [3] [4] [5] [6]
Panic of 1893 000000001893-01-01-00001893
Panic of 1896 000000001896-01-01-00001896
Panic of 1901 000000001901-05-17-000017 May 1901 Lasting 3 years, the market was spooked by the assassination of President McKinley in 1901, coupled with a severe drought later the same year.
Panic of 1907 000000001907-10-01-0000Oct 1907 Lasting over a year, markets took fright after U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt had threatened to rein in the monopolies that flourished in various industrial sectors, notably railways.
Wall Street Crash of 1929 000000001929-10-24-000024 Oct 1929 Lasting over 4 years, the bursting of the speculative bubble in shares led to further selling as people who had borrowed money to buy shares had to cash them in, when their loans were called in. Also called the Great Crash or the Wall Street Crash, leading to the Great Depression.
Recession of 1937–38 000000001937-01-01-00001937 Lasting around a year, this share price fall was triggered by an economic recession within the Great Depression and doubts about the effectiveness of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal policy.
Kennedy Slide of 1962 000000001962-05-28-000028 May 1962 Also known as the 'Flash Crash of 1962' [7]
Brazilian Markets Crash of 1971 000000001971-07-01-0000July 1971 Lasting through the 1970s and early-1980s, this was the end of a boom that started in 1969, compounded by the 1970s energy crisis coupled with early 1980s Latin American debt crisis. [8] [9] [10]
1973–74 stock market crash 000000001973-01-01-0000Jan 1973 Lasting 23 months, dramatic rise in oil prices, the miners' strike and the downfall of the Heath government.
Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash 000000001982-08-01-0000Aug 1982
Black Monday 000000001987-10-19-000019 Oct 1987
Rio de Janeiro Stock Exchange Crash 000000001989-06-01-0000June 1989 Rio de Janeiro Stock Exchange Crash, due to its weak internal controls and absence of credit discipline, that led to its collapse, and of which it never recovered [11] [12] [13]
Friday the 13th mini-crash 000000001989-10-13-000013 Oct 1989 Failed leveraged buyout of United Airlines causes crash
Early 1990s recession 000000001990-07-01-0000July 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait in July 1990, causing oil prices to increase. The Dow dropped 18% in three months, from 2,911.63 on July 3 to 2,381.99 on October 16,1990. This recession lasted approximately 8 months.
Japanese asset price bubble 000000001991-01-01-00001991 Lasting approximately twenty years, through at least the end of 2011, share and property price bubble bursts and turns into a long deflationary recession. Some of the key economic events during the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble include the 1997 Asian financial crisis and the Dot-com bubble. In addition, more recent economic events, such as the late-2000s financial crisis and August 2011 stock markets fall have prolonged this period.
Black Wednesday 000000001992-09-16-000016 Sep 1992 The Conservative government was forced to withdraw the pound sterling from the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) after they were unable to keep sterling above its agreed lower limit.
1997 Asian financial crisis 000000001997-07-02-00002 July 1997 Investors deserted emerging Asian shares, including an overheated Hong Kong stock market. Crashes occur in Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea, Philippines, and elsewhere, reaching a climax in the October 27, 1997 mini-crash.
October 27, 1997, mini-crash 000000001997-10-27-000027 Oct 1997 Global stock market crash that was caused by an economic crisis in Asia.
1998 Russian financial crisis 000000001998-08-17-000017 Aug 1998 The Russian government devalues the ruble, defaults on domestic debt, and declares a moratorium on payment to foreign creditors.
Dot-com bubble 000000002000-03-10-000010 March 2000 Collapse of a technology bubble.
Economic effects arising from the September 11 attacks 000000002001-09-11-000011 Sep 2001 The September 11 attacks caused global stock markets to drop sharply. The attacks themselves caused approximately $40 billion in insurance losses, making it one of the largest insured events ever. See world economic effects arising from the September 11 attacks.
Stock market downturn of 2002 000000002002-10-09-00009 Oct 2002 Downturn in stock prices during 2002 in stock exchanges across the United States, Canada, Asia, and Europe. After recovering from lows reached following the September 11 attacks, indices slid steadily starting in March 2002, with dramatic declines in July and September leading to lows last reached in 1997 and 1998. See stock market downturn of 2002.
Chinese stock bubble of 2007 000000002007-02-27-000027 Feb 2007 The SSE Composite Index of the Shanghai Stock Exchange tumbles 9% from unexpected selloffs, the largest drop in 10 years, triggering major drops in worldwide stock markets. [14] [15] [16]
United States bear market of 2007–09 000000002007-10-11-000011 Oct 2007 Till June 2009, the Dow Jones Industrial Average, Nasdaq Composite and S&P 500 all experienced declines of greater than 20% from their peaks in late 2007. [17] [18]
Financial crisis of 2007–08 000000002008-09-16-000016 Sep 2008 On September 16, 2008, failures of large financial institutions in the United States, due primarily to exposure of securities of packaged subprime loans and credit default swaps issued to insure these loans and their issuers, rapidly devolved into a global crisis resulting in a number of bank failures in Europe and sharp reductions in the value of equities (stock) and commodities worldwide. The failure of banks in Iceland resulted in a devaluation of the Icelandic króna and threatened the government with bankruptcy. Iceland was able to secure an emergency loan from the IMF in November. Later on, U.S. President George W. Bush signs the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act into law, creating a Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) to purchase failing bank assets. Had disastrous effects on the world economy along with world trade. [19] [20]
2009 Dubai debt standstill 000000002009-11-27-000027 Nov 2009 Dubai requests a debt deferment following its massive renovation and development projects, as well as the Great Recession. The announcement causes global stock markets to drop. [21]
European sovereign debt crisis 000000002010-04-27-000027 April 2010 Standard & Poor's downgrades Greece's sovereign credit rating to junk four days after the activation of a €45-billion EU–IMF bailout, triggering the decline of stock markets worldwide and of the Euro's value, and furthering a European sovereign debt crisis. [22] [23] [24]
2010 Flash Crash 000000002010-05-06-00006 May 2010 The Dow Jones Industrial Average suffers its worst intra-day point loss, dropping nearly 1,000 points before partially recovering. [25]
August 2011 stock markets fall 000000002011-08-01-00001 Aug 2011
S&P 500 entered a short-lived bear market between 02nd May 2011 (intraday high: 1,370.58) and 04th October 2011 (intraday low: 1,074.77), a decline of 21.58%. The stock market rebounded thereafter and ended the year flat.
2015–16 Chinese stock market crash 000000002015-06-12-000012 June 2015 China stock market crash starts in June and continues into July and August. In January 2016, Chinese stock market experiences a steep sell-off which sets off a global rout. [26] [27] [28] [29] [30]
2015–16 stock market selloff 000000002015-08-18-000018 August 2015 The Dow Jones fell 588 points during a two-day period, 1,300 points from August 18–21. On Monday, August 24, world stock markets were down substantially, wiping out all gains made in 2015, with interlinked drops in commodities such as oil, which hit a six-year price low, copper, and most of Asian currencies, but the Japanese yen, losing value against the United States dollar. With this plunge, an estimated ten trillion dollars had been wiped off the books on global markets since June 3. [31] [32] [33]
See also[edit]
List of recessions in the United States
List of economic crises
List of recessions in the United Kingdom
Economic bubble
List of banking crises
List of largest daily changes in the Dow Jones Industrial Average
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ "“Kipper und Wipper”: Rogue Traders, Rogue Princes, Rogue Bishops and the German Financial Meltdown of 1621-23" by Mike Dash, Smithsonian, March 29, 2012
Jump up ^ Dash, Mike "Tulipomania: The Story of the World's Most Coveted Flower & the Extraordinary Passions It Aroused" 2001
Jump up ^ James D. Henderson, Helen Delpar & Maurice P. Brungardt "A Reference Guide to Latin American History" Richard Weldon Editor – M.E.Sharpe Inc. 2000, ISBN I563247445 page 172, 2nd column, "1890" (2nd paragraph)
Jump up ^ Jeffrey D. Needell; "A Tropical Belle Epoque: Elite Culture and Society in Turn-of-the-Century" Cambridge University Press 1987 Pages 10 & 12
Jump up ^ Gail D. Triner; "Banking and economic development: Brazil, 1889–1930" Palgrave™ 2000 ISBN 0-312-23399-X Pages 44–74
Jump up ^ Viscount of Taunay; "O Encilhamento; scenas contemporaneas da Bolsa do Rio de Janeiro em 1890, 1891 e 1892" (in Portuguese) ("The Encilhamento: contemporary scenes of Rio Stock Exchange in 1890, 1891 & 1892") Editora Melhoramentos, Rio 1893
Jump up ^ "Back to the Future: Lessons From the Forgotten 'Flash Crash' of 1962" [1]
Jump up ^ Gary Previts, Peter Walton & Peter Wolnizer "A Global History of Accounting, Financial Reporting And Public Policy; Americas – Volume 14B" The University of Sydney/The Accounting Foundation, Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2011 ISBN 978-0-85724-811-4 Page 41, from the last paragraph
Jump up ^ Detailed PDF Archived 2012-12-03 at the Wayback Machine. Academic work about the subject (in Portuguese) UNICAMP june 2007
Jump up ^ Marta Barcellos & Simone Azevedo; "Histórias do Mercado de Capitais no Brasil" ("Histories of Financial Markets in Brazil") (in Portuguese) Campus Elsevier Brazil 2011 ISBN 85-352-3994-4 Introduction and Chapter 4
Jump up ^ Markham, Jeffrey W. "A Financial History of the United States; Volume III (1970–2001)" M.E.Sharpe 2002 ISBN 0-7656-0730-1 page 147, from last paragraph
Jump up ^ Article Archived 2013-10-21 at the Wayback Machine. about the decline of Rio Stock Exchange. Last 3 paragraphs are about the 1989 crash
Jump up ^ Barcellos & Azevedo 2011, Pages 141-142; 149 to 151, and 154
Jump up ^ Chen, Shu-Ching Jean; Kwok, Vivian Wai-yin (27 February 2007). "Black Tuesday In China". Forbes. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Share sale knocks Chinese market". BBC News. 27 February 2007. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Han, Pliny (27 February 2007). "Chinese shares slump sharply, down 8.84%". Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Browning, E. S. (28 June 2008). "Dow Hits Bear-Market Territory, Signaling Woe for Economy". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Korkki, Phyllis (4 March 2007). "A Scary Tuesday Was No Black Monday". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "IMF approves $2.1bn Iceland loan". BBC News. 20 November 2008. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Sahadi, Jeanne (4 October 2008). "Bailout is law". CNN. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ Robertson, David (30 November 2009). "Investors face huge losses as debt-ridden Dubai World is abandoned by government". The Times. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Greek bonds rated 'junk' by Standard & Poor's". BBC News. 2010-04-27. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
Jump up ^ "Greece crisis: Euro markets hit again". BBC News. 2010-04-28. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
Jump up ^ "Greece crisis deepens on global market sell-off". CNN. 2010-04-28. Retrieved 2010-04-28.
Jump up ^ Moyer, Liz (7 May 2010). "Was The Market Mayhem A Mistake? Maybe Not". Forbes. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
Jump up ^ "Chinese stock market beats Wall Street and FTSE by closing up in 2015". telegraph.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "Today's Stock Market News and Analysis from Nasdaq.com". nasdaq.com.
Jump up ^ Editorial, Reuters. "Shanghai stocks poised to end 2015 up nearly 10 pct, beating Wall Street". reuters.com.
Jump up ^ "Shanghai Composite Index ends year up nearly 10%". atimes.com.
Jump up ^ Mulligan, Mark (29 July 2015). "Chinese consumers 'laugh off' stock market gyrations". smh.com.au.
Jump up ^ Shan Li; Andrea Chang; Paresh Dave (August 21, 2015). "Stock market suffers worst one-day drop since 2008". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ "customRangeStart":1440054000,"customRangeEnd":1440399600,"range":"custom","allowChartStacking":true} "DJI Interactive Stock Quote". Yahoo Finance. Yahoo! Inc. August 24, 2015. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Popper, Nathaniel; Gough, Neil (August 23, 2015). "Global Stocks Tumble Further Amid Doubts About China". New York Times. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
Jump up ^ Popper, Nathaniel; Gough, Neil (August 23, 2015). "Global Stocks Tumble Further Amid Doubts About China". New York Times. Retrieved August 24, 2015.
References[edit]
Sobel, Robert (1988). Panic on Wall Street: A Classic History of America's Financial Disasters with a New Exploration of the Crash of 1987. New York: Truman Talley Books/Dutton. ISBN 0-525-48404-3.
[hide]
v
t
e
Stock market crashes
17th century
Early stock market crashes in the Dutch Republic
18th century
The Mississippi Bubble
South Sea Bubble of 1720
Panic of 1792
Panic of 1796–97
19th century
Panic of 1819
Panic of 1825
Panic of 1837
Panic of 1847
Panic of 1857
Black Friday (1869)
Panic of 1873
Paris Bourse crash of 1882
Panic of 1884
Encilhamento
Panic of 1893
Panic of 1896
20th century
Panic of 1901
Panic of 1907
Depression of 1920–21
Wall Street Crash of 1929
Recession of 1937–38
1971 Brazilian markets crash
1973–74 stock market crash
Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash (1982)
Japanese asset price bubble (1986–1991)
Black Monday (1987)
Rio de Janeiro Stock Exchange collapse
Friday the 13th mini-crash (1989)
1990s Japanese stock market crash
Dot-com bubble (1995–2000)
1997 Asian financial crisis
October 27, 1997, mini-crash
1998 Russian financial crisis
21st century
Economic effects arising from the September 11 attacks (2001)
Stock market downturn of 2002
Chinese stock bubble of 2007
United States bear market of 2007–09
Financial crisis of 2007–08
Dubai debt standstill
European debt crisis
2010 Flash Crash
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami (Aftermath)
August 2011 stock markets fall
2011 Bangladesh share market scam
2015–16 Chinese stock market turbulence
2015–16 stock market crash
2016 United Kingdom EU referendum (Aftermath)
See also: List of stock market crashes and bear markets
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text:
Sonata form
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the Sonata as a complete multi-movement structure, and related musical forms, see Sonata.
Simplest sonata form pattern and its relation to binary form.[1]:57
Classical sonata form in a minor key.[2]
Early examples of sonata form resemble two-reprise continuous ternary form.[3]
Sonata form, optional features in parentheses.[4]
Sonata form (also sonata-allegro form or first movement form) is a musical structure consisting of three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation. It has been used widely since the middle of the 18th century (the early Classical period).
While it is typically used in the first movement of multi-movement pieces, it is sometimes used in subsequent movements as well—particularly the final movement. The teaching of sonata form in music theory rests on a standard definition and a series of hypotheses about the underlying reasons for the durability and variety of the form—a definition that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century.[5] There is little disagreement that on the largest level, the form consists of three main sections: an exposition, a development, and a recapitulation;[6]:359 however, beneath this general structure, sonata form is difficult to pin down to a single model.
The standard definition focuses on the thematic and harmonic organization of tonal materials that are presented in an exposition, elaborated and contrasted in a development and then resolved harmonically and thematically in a recapitulation. In addition, the standard definition recognizes that an introduction and a coda may be present. Each of the sections is often further divided or characterized by the particular means by which it accomplishes its function in the form.
After its establishment, the sonata form became the most common form in the first movement of works entitled "sonata", as well as other long works of classical music, including the symphony, concerto, string quartet, and so on.[6]:359 Accordingly, there is a large body of theory on what unifies and distinguishes practice in the sonata form, both within eras and between eras. Even works that do not adhere to the standard description of a sonata form often present analogous structures or can be analyzed as elaborations or expansions of the standard description of sonata form.
Contents
[hide]
1 Defining 'sonata form'
1.1 Definition as a formal model
2 Outline of sonata form
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Exposition
2.3 Development
2.4 Recapitulation
2.5 Coda
3 Variations on the standard schema
3.1 Monothematic expositions
3.2 Expositions that modulate to other keys
3.3 Expositions with more than two key areas
3.4 Modulations within the first subject group
3.5 Recapitulations in the "wrong key"
3.6 Recapitulation "destruct"
3.7 Truncated sonata form
4 Sonata form in concerti
5 The history of sonata form
6 Sonata form and other musical forms
7 Theory of sonata form
8 Musical criticism and sonata form
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
Defining 'sonata form'[edit]
Baroque binary forms roots in sonata form[1]:57
According to the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, sonata form is "the most important principle of musical form, or formal type, from the Classical period well into the 20th century".[7] As a formal model it is usually best exemplified in the first movements of multi-movement works from this period, whether orchestral or chamber, and has, thus, been referred to frequently as "first-movement form" or "sonata-allegro form" (since the typical first movement in a three- or four-movement cycle will be in allegro tempo). However, as what Grove, following Charles Rosen, calls a "principle"—a typical approach to shaping a large piece of instrumental music—it can be seen to be active in a much greater variety of pieces and genres, from minuet to concerto to sonata-rondo. It also carries with it expressive and stylistic connotations: "sonata style", for Donald Tovey as for other theorists of his time, was characterized by drama, dynamism, and a "psychological" approach to theme and expression.[7]
Although the Italian term sonata often refers to a piece in sonata form, it is essential to separate the two. As the title for a single-movement piece of instrumental music—the past participle of suonare, "to sound", as opposed to cantata, the past participle of cantare, "to sing"—"sonata" covers many pieces from the Baroque and mid-18th century that are not "in sonata form". Conversely, in the late 18th century or "Classical" period, the title "sonata" is typically given to a work composed of three or four movements. Nonetheless, this multi-movement sequence is not what is meant by sonata form, which refers to the structure of an individual movement.
The definition of sonata form in terms of musical elements sits uneasily between two historical eras. Although the late 18th century witnessed the most exemplary achievements in the form, above all from Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, compositional theory of the time did not use the term "sonata form". Perhaps the most extensive contemporary description of the sonata-form type of movement may have been given by the theorist H. C. Koch in 1793: like earlier German theorists and unlike many of the descriptions of the form we are used to today, he defined it in terms of the movement's plan of modulation and principal cadences, without saying a great deal about the treatment of themes. Seen in this way, sonata form was closest to binary form, out of which it probably developed.[7]
The model of the form that is often taught currently tends to be more thematically differentiated. It was originally promulgated by Anton Reicha in Traité de haute composition musicale in 1826, by Adolf Bernhard Marx in Die Lehre von der musikalischen Komposition in 1845, and by Carl Czerny in 1848. Marx may be the originator of the term "sonata form". This model was derived from study and criticism of Beethoven's piano sonatas.
Definition as a formal model[edit]
A sonata-allegro movement is divided into sections. Each section is felt to perform specific functions in the musical argument.
It may begin with an introduction, which is, in general, slower than the main movement. In terms of structure, introductions are an upbeat before the main musical argument.[clarification needed]
The first required section is the exposition. The exposition presents the primary thematic material for the movement: one or two themes or theme groups, often in contrasting styles and in opposing keys, connected by a modulating transition. The exposition typically concludes with a closing theme, a codetta, or both.
The exposition is followed by the development where the harmonic and textural possibilities of the thematic material are explored.
The development then re-transitions back to the recapitulation where the thematic material returns in the tonic key, and for the recapitulation to complete the musical argument, material that has not been stated in the tonic key is "resolved" by being played, in whole or in part, in the tonic.
The movement may conclude with a coda, beyond the final cadence of the recapitulation.
The term 'sonata form' is controversial and has been called misleading by scholars and composers almost from its inception. Its originators implied that there was a set template to which Classical and Romantic composers aspired, or should aspire. However, sonata form is currently viewed as a model for musical analysis, rather than compositional practice. Although the descriptions on this page could be considered an adequate analysis of many first-movement structures, there are enough variations that theorists such as Charles Rosen have felt them to warrant the plural in 'sonata forms'.[5]
These variations include, but are not limited to:
a monothematic exposition, where the same material is presented in different keys, often used by Haydn;
a 'third subject group' in a different key than the other two, used by Schubert (e.g. in the String Quintet, D. 956), Brahms, and Bruckner;
the first subject recapitulated in the 'wrong' key, often the subdominant, as in Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K. 545 and Schubert's Symphony No. 5;
the second subject group recapitulated in a key other than the tonic, as in Richard Strauss's Symphony No. 2.
and an extended coda section that pursues developmental, rather than concluding, processes, often found in Beethoven's middle-period works, such as his Symphony No. 3.
Through the Romantic period, formal distortions and variations become so widespread (Mahler, Elgar and Sibelius among others are cited and studied by James Hepokoski) that 'sonata form' as it is outlined here is not adequate to describe the complex musical structures that it is often applied to.
In the context of the many late-Baroque extended binary forms that bear similarities to sonata form, sonata form can be distinguished by the following three characteristics:[7]
a separate development section including a retransition
the simultaneous return of the first subject group and the tonic
a full (or close to full) recapitulation of the second subject group
Outline of sonata form[edit]
The standard description of the sonata form is:
Introduction[edit]
Main article: Introduction (music)
The Introduction section is optional, or may be reduced to a minimum. If it is extended, it is, in general, slower than the main section and frequently focuses on the dominant key. It may or may not contain material that is later stated in the exposition. The introduction increases the weight of the movement (such as the famous dissonant introduction to Mozart's "Dissonance" Quartet, KV 465), and also permits the composer to begin the exposition with a theme that would be too light to start on its own, as in Haydn's Symphony No. 103 ("The Drumroll") and Beethoven's Quintet for Piano and Winds Op. 16. The introduction usually is not included in the exposition repeat: the Pathétique is a possible counterexample. Much later, Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 (Op. 35) is a clear example where the introduction is so included.
On occasion, the material of introduction reappears in its original tempo later in the movement. Often, this occurs as late as the coda, as in Mozart's String Quintet in D major KV 593, Haydn's "Drumroll" Symphony, Beethoven's Piano Sonata No. 8 ("Pathétique"), or Schubert's Symphony No. 9 ("Great"). Sometimes it can appear earlier: it occurs at the beginning of the development in the Pathétique Sonata, and at the beginning of the recapitulation of Schubert's Symphony No. 1.
Exposition[edit]
Main article: Exposition (music)
The primary thematic material for the movement is presented in the Exposition. This section can be further divided into several sections. The same section in most sonata form movements has prominent harmonic and thematic parallelisms (although in some works from the 19th century and onward, some of these parallelisms are subject to considerable exceptions), which include:
First theme (G major) and transition from counterstatement (to D major) from Haydn's Keyboard Sonata, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 1–12 Play (help·info).[6]:136
First subject group, P (Prime) – this consists of one or more themes, all of them in the tonic key. Although some pieces are written differently, most follow this form.
Start of second subject (D major) of Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 13–16 Play (help·info).
Transition, T – in this section the composer modulates from the key of the first subject to the key of the second. If the first group is in a major key, the second group will usually be in the dominant key. However, if the first group is in minor key, the second group will usually be the relative major.
End of second subject and Codetta (D major) of Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 17–28 Play (help·info)
Second subject group, S – one or more themes in a different key from the first group. The material of the second group is often different in rhythm or mood from that of the first group (frequently, it is more lyrical).
Codetta, K – the purpose of this is to bring the exposition section to a close with a perfect cadence in the same key as the second group. It is not always used, and some works end the exposition on the second subject group.
The exposition is commonly repeated, particularly in classical works, and more likely in solo or chamber works than for concerti. Often, though not always, the last measure or measures of the exposition are slightly different between the repeats, one to point back to the tonic, where the exposition began, and the second to point towards the development.
Development[edit]
Main article: Musical development
Development Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 29–53 Play (help·info).[6]:138–139
In general, the Development starts in the same key as the exposition ended, and may move through many different keys during its course. It will usually consist of one or more themes from the exposition altered and on occasion juxtaposed and may include new material or themes—though exactly what is acceptable practice is a point of contention. Alterations include taking material through distant keys, breaking down of themes and sequencing of motifs, and so forth.
The development varies greatly in length from piece to piece and from time period to time period, sometimes being relatively short compared to the exposition (e.g., the first movement of Eine kleine Nachtmusik) and in other cases quite long and detailed (e.g., the first movement of the "Eroica" Symphony). Developments in the Classical era are typically shorter due to how much composers of that era valued symmetry, unlike the more expressive Romantic era in which development sections gain a much greater importance. However, it almost always shows a greater degree of tonal, harmonic, and rhythmic instability than the other sections. In a few cases, usually in late Classical and early Romantic concertos, the development section consists of or ends with another exposition, often in the relative minor of the tonic key.
At the end, the music will usually return to the tonic key in preparation of the recapitulation. (On occasion, it will actually return to the sub-dominant key and then proceed with the same transition as in the exposition). The transition from the development to the recapitulation is a crucial moment in the work.
Retransition Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 54–57 Play (help·info).[6]:140
The last part of the development section is called the Retransition: It prepares for the return of the first subject group in the tonic, most often through a grand prolongation of the dominant seventh. In addition, the character of the music would signal such a return.[clarification needed]
Exceptions include the first movement of Brahms's Piano Sonata No. 1. The general key of the movement is C major, and it would then follow that the retransition should stress the dominant seventh chord on G. Instead, it builds in strength over the dominant seventh chord on C, as if the music were proceeding to F major, only to take up immediately the first theme in C major. Another exception is the fourth movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9. The home key of the movement is C major. The retransition prolongates over the dominant chord on G, but suddenly takes up the first theme in the flattened mediant E♭ major.
A particularly common exception is for the dominant to be substituted with the dominant of the relative minor key: one example is the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet in E major, Op. 54 No. 3.
Occasionally, the retransition can begin with a false recapitulation, in which the opening material of the first theme group is presented before the development has completed. The surprise that ensues when the music continues to modulate toward the tonic can be used for either comic or dramatic effect. An example occurs in the first movement of Haydn's String Quartet in G major, Op. 76 No. 1.
Recapitulation[edit]
Main article: Recapitulation (music)
Recapitulation Haydn's Sonata in G Major, Hob. XVI: G1, I, mm. 58–80 Play (help·info).[6]:140–141
The Recapitulation is an altered repeat of the exposition, and consists of:
First subject group – normally given prominence as the highlight of a recapitulation, it is usually in exactly the same key and form as in the exposition.
Transition – often the transition is carried out by introducing a novel material: a kind of an additional brief development. It is called a "secondary development".
Second subject group – usually in roughly the same form as in the exposition, but now in the home key, which sometimes involves change of mode from major to minor, or vice versa, as occurs in the first movement of Mozart's Symphony No. 40 (K. 550). More often, however, it may be recast in the parallel major of the home key (for example, C major when the movement is in C minor like Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 in C Minor, op. 67/I). Key here is more important than mode (major or minor); the recapitulation provides the needed balance even if the material's mode is changed, so long as there is no longer any key conflict.
Exceptions to the recapitulation form include Mozart and Haydn works that often begin with the second subject group when the first subject group has been elaborated at length in the development. If a theme from the second subject group has been elaborated at length in the development in a resolving key such as the tonic major or minor or the subdominant, it may also be omitted from the recapitulation. Examples include the opening movements of Mozart's piano sonata in C minor, KV 457 and Haydn's String Quartet in G major, Op. 77 No. 1.
After the closing cadence, the musical argument proper is said to be completed harmonically. If the movement continues, it is said to have a coda.
Coda[edit]
Main article: Coda (music)
Coda to Mozart's Sonata in C Major, K. 309, I, mm. 152–155; last bars of recapitulation also presented for context Play (help·info).[6]:151
The Coda is optional. After the final cadence of the recapitulation, the movement may continue with a coda which will contain material from the movement proper. Codas, when present, vary considerably in length, but like introductions are not part of the "argument" of the work. The coda will end, however, with a perfect authentic cadence in the original key. Codas may be quite brief tailpieces, or they may be very long and elaborate. An example of the more extended type is the coda to the first movement of Beethoven's Eroica Symphony, and an exceptionally long coda appears at the end of the finale of Beethoven's Symphony No. 8.
Explanations for why an extended coda is present vary. One reason may be to omit the repeat of the development and recapitulation sections found in earlier sonata forms of the 18th century. Indeed, Beethoven's extended codas often serve the purpose of further development of thematic material. Another role that these codas sometimes serve is to return to the minor mode in minor-key movements where the recapitulation proper concludes in the parallel major, as in the first movements of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5 or Schumann's Piano Concerto, or rarely, to restore the home key after an off-tonic recapitulation, such as in the first movements of Brahms's Clarinet Quintet and Dvořák's Symphony No. 9.
Variations on the standard schema[edit]
Monothematic expositions[edit]
It is not necessarily the case that the move to the dominant key in the exposition is marked by a new theme. Haydn in particular was fond of using the opening theme, often in a truncated or otherwise altered form, to announce the move to the dominant, as in the first movement of his Sonata Hob. XVI No. 49 in E♭ major. Mozart also occasionally wrote such expositions: for instance in the Piano Sonata K. 570 or the String Quintet K. 593. Such expositions are often called monothematic, meaning that one theme serves to establish the opposition between tonic and dominant keys. This term is misleading, since most "monothematic" works have multiple themes: most works so labeled have additional themes in the second subject group. Rarely, as in the fourth movement of Haydn's String Quartet in B♭ major, Op. 50, No. 1, did composers perform the tour de force of writing a complete sonata exposition with just one theme. A more recent example is Edmund Rubbra's Symphony No. 2.
The fact that so-called monothematic expositions usually have additional themes is used by Charles Rosen to illustrate his theory that the Classical sonata form's crucial element is some sort of dramatization of the arrival of the dominant.[citation needed] Using a new theme was a very common way to achieve this, but other resources such as changes in texture, salient cadences and so on were also accepted practice.
Expositions that modulate to other keys[edit]
The key of the second subject may be something other than the dominant (for a major-mode sonata movement) or relative major (for a minor-key movement). A second option for minor-mode sonata form movements was to modulate to the minor dominant; this option, however, robs the sonata structure of the space of relief and comfort that a major-mode second theme would bring, and was therefore used primarily for a bleak, grim effect, as Beethoven did with some frequency.
About halfway through his career, Beethoven also began to experiment with other tonal relationships between the tonic and the second subject group. The most common practice, for Beethoven and many other composers from the Romantic era, was to use the mediant or submediant, rather than the dominant, for the second group. For instance, the first movement of the "Waldstein" sonata, in C major, modulates to the mediant E major, while the opening movement of the "Hammerklavier" sonata, in B♭ major, modulates to the submediant G major, and String Quartet No. 13 in the same key modulating to the flattened submediant key of G♭ major. Tchaikovsky also implemented this practice in the last movement of his Symphony No. 2; the movement is in C major and modulates to the flattened submediant A♭ major. The young Chopin even experimented with expositions that do not modulate at all, in the opening movements of his Piano Sonata No. 1 (remaining in C minor throughout) and his Piano Concerto No. 1 (moving from E minor to E major).
Beethoven began also to use the submediant major with more frequency in minor-key sonata-form movements, as in the first movements of Symphony No. 9, Piano Sonata No. 32, and String Quartets No. 11 and No. 15. Interestingly, the latter case transposes the second repeat of its exposition by a fifth, starting on the minor dominant (instead of the tonic) and finishing on the major mediant (instead of the submediant). The first movement of Richard Strauss's Symphony No. 2, in F minor, modulates to the submediant D♭ minor, as do the F minor first movements of Brahms' first clarinet sonata and piano quintet; all three works balance this downward third by moving up to the major mediant (A♭ major) for the key of the second movement.
Rarely, a major-mode sonata form movement will modulate to a minor key for the second subject area, such as the mediant minor (Beethoven Sonata Op. 31/1, i), the relative minor (first movements of Beethoven Triple Concerto and Brahms Piano Trio No. 1) or even the minor dominant (Brahms Piano Concerto No. 2, i). In such cases, the second theme will often return initially in the tonic minor in the recapitulation, with the major mode restored later on.
During the late Romantic period, it was also possible to modulate to remote tonal areas to represent divisions of the octave. In the first movement of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 4, the first subject group is in the tonic F minor but modulates to G♯ minor and then to B major for the second subject group. The recapitulation begins in D minor and modulates to F major, and goes back to the parallel F minor for the coda.
Also in the late Romantic period, it was possible for a minor-key sonata form movement to modulate to the major dominant, as in the first movements of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 1 and Brahms' Symphony No. 4. Another possibility for minor-key sonata form movements was to modulate to the mediant minor, as in the first movement of Brahms' Symphony No. 1; the second subject group starts in the relative E♭ major and then goes to the parallel mediant E♭ minor.
Expositions with more than two key areas[edit]
Main article: Three-key exposition
The exposition needs not only to have two key areas. Some composers, most notably Schubert, composed sonata forms with three or more key areas. The first movement of Schubert's Quartet in D minor, D. 810 ("Death and the Maiden"), for example, has three separate key and thematic areas, in D minor, F major, and A minor.[8] Similarly, Chopin's Piano Concerto in F minor uses F minor, A♭ major, and C minor in its first movement's exposition. In both cases, the transition is i–♭III–v, an elaboration of the minor schema of either using i–♭III or i–v. This is by no means the only scheme, however: the opening movement of Schubert's Violin Sonata in G minor, D. 408, uses the scheme i–♭III–♭VI, and the opening movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 2 in B♭ major, D. 125, uses the scheme I–IV–V. An extreme example is the finale to Schubert's Symphony No. 6, D. 589, which has a six-key exposition (C major, A♭ major, F major, A major, E♭, and G major), with a new theme for each key.
Modulations within the first subject group[edit]
The first subject group need not be entirely in the tonic key. In the more complex sonata expositions there can be brief modulations to fairly remote keys, followed by reassertion of the tonic. For example, Mozart's String Quintet in C, K. 515, visits C minor and D♭ major as chromaticism within the C-major first subject group, before finally moving to D major, the dominant of the dominant major (G major), preparing the second subject group in the dominant. Many works by Schubert and later composers utilized even further harmonic convolutions. In the first subject group of Schubert's Piano Sonata in B♭, D. 960, for example, the theme is presented three times, in B♭ major, in G♭ major, and then again in B♭ major. The second subject group is even more wide-ranging. It begins in F♯ minor, moves into A major, then through B♭ major to F major.[9]
Recapitulations in the "wrong key"[edit]
In the recapitulation section, the key of the first subject group may be in a key other than tonic, most often in the subdominant, known as a "subdominant recapitulation". In some pieces by Haydn and Mozart, such as Mozart's Piano Sonata No. 16 in C, K. 545, or the finale of his String Quartet No. 14 in G, K. 387, the first subject group will be in the subdominant and then modulate back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. Schubert was a prominent user of the subdominant recapitulation; it appears for example in the opening movements of his Symphonies No. 2 and No. 5, as well as those of his piano sonatas D 279, D 459, D 537, D 575, as well as the finale of D 664. Sometimes this effect is also used for false reprises in the "wrong key" that are soon followed by the actual recapitulation in the tonic, such as in the first movement of Haydn's quartet Op. 76 No. 1 in G (false reprise in the subdominant), or the finale of Schubert's piano sonata in A, D 959 (false reprise in the major submediant). A special case is the recapitulation that begins in the tonic minor, for example in the slow movement of Haydn's quartet Op. 76 No. 4 in E♭, or the opening movement of Haydn's Symphony No. 47 in G major. In the Classical period, the subdominant is the only possible substitute for the tonic at this position (because any other key would need resolution and would have to be introduced as a false reprise in the development), but with the erosion of the distinction between the sharp and flat directions and the blurring of tonal areas recapitulations beginning in other keys became possible after around 1825.
It is also possible for the first subject group to begin in tonic (or a key other than tonic), modulate to another key and then back to tonic for the second subject group. In the finale of the original 1872 version of Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 2, the first subject group begins in the tonic C major, modulates to E♭ major, then through E major, and then modulates back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. And in the last movement of Schubert's Symphony No. 9 in C major, the first subject group is in the flattened mediant E♭ major, modulates to the subdominant F major and then back to tonic for the second subject group and coda. It is also possible to have the second subject group in a key other than tonic while the first subject group is in the home key. For instance in the first movement of Richard Strauss's Symphony No. 2 in F minor, the recapitulation begins with the first subject group in tonic but modulates to the mediant A♭ major for the second subject group before modulating back to F minor for the coda. Some Romantic works even exhibit progressive tonality in sonata form: for example, the second movement 'Quasi-Faust' from Charles-Valentin Alkan's Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges' is in D♯ minor, and while the exposition travels from D♯ to the major subdominant G♯ major, the recapitulation begins again in D♯ minor and ends in the relative major F♯ major, and stays there till the end of the movement. Such a scheme may have been constructed to conform with the programmatic nature of the movement, but also fits well with the Romantic penchant for beginning a work at maximum tension and decreasing the tension afterwards, so that the point of ultimate stability is not reached until the last possible moment. (Furthermore, the identification of a minor key with its relative major is common in the Romantic period, supplanting the earlier Classical identification of a minor key with its parallel major.)
Recapitulation "destruct"[edit]
In some pieces in sonata form, in the recapitulation, the first subject group is omitted, leaving only the second subject group, like the second movement of Haydn's Sonata Hob. XVI/35, as well as the opening movements of Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 and No. 3. It is also possible for the first subject group to be slightly different in comparison of the exposition, like the fourth movement of Dvorak's Symphony No. 9. Another example occurs in the finale of Mozart's string quartet KV 387, where the opening of the first subject group is cut, and in the quintet KV 515, where a later portion of the first subject group is cut. On the other hand, it is also possible for the subject groups to be reversed in order, like the fourth movement of Bruckner's Symphony No. 7, or the first movement of Mozart's piano sonata in D major, KV 311. It is also possible for the second subject group to be omitted, like the fourth movement of Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5, as well as the second movement of Beethoven's String Quartet No. 9. The second subject group's melody can be different compared to the exposition, like Haydn's Symphony No. 44. Such melodic adjustment is common in minor-key sonata forms, when the mode of the second subject needs to be changed, for example in the opening movement of Mozart's wind serenade KV 388.
Truncated sonata form[edit]
Occasionally, especially in some Romantic works, the sonata form extends only as far as the end of the exposition, at which point the piece transitions directly into the next movement instead of a development section. One example is Henryk Wieniawski's Violin Concerto No. 2 in D minor. Another example is Fritz Seitz's Violin Concertos for students, where such a truncated sonata form is used ostensibly to cut down on the first movements' length. Sometimes, the third movement of such works is the recapitulation of the first movement (one example being Franz Strauss' Horn Concerto in C Minor), making the entire work effectively a single-movement sonata.
Some Classical slow movements involve a different sort of truncation, in which the development section is replaced altogether by a short retransition. This occurs in the slow movements of Mozart's quartets KV 387, KV 458, KV 465, KV 575, and KV 589. It is also common in overtures, occurring for example in Schubert's Overture in the Italian Style in C, D 590. This is distinct from a short development, such as in the opening movement of Mozart's Violin Sonata in G major, KV 379.
Sonata form in concerti[edit]
An important variant on traditional sonata-allegro form is found in the first movement of the Classical concerto. Here, the sonata-allegro's customary 'repeated exposition' is replaced by two different but related sections: the 'tutti exposition' and the 'solo exposition'. Prototypically the 'tutti exposition' does not feature the soloist (except, in early classical works, in a 'continuo' role), and does not contain the decisive sonata-exposition modulation to the secondary key. Only when the 'solo exposition' is under way does the solo instrument assert itself and participate in the move to (classically) the dominant or relative major. The situation is only seemingly different in the case of such late classical works as Beethoven's piano concertos No. 4 and No. 5, where the soloist is heard at the outset: as the later unfolding of those movements makes clear, the opening piano solo or early piano flourishes actually precede the start of the exposition proper. This device is also found in an early Mozart concerto, No. 9, as well as in many Romantic concertos, such as Grieg's A minor concerto or Brahms' B♭ major concerto.
A structural feature that the special textural situation of the concerto makes possible is the 'ownership' of certain themes or materials by the solo instrument; such materials will thus not be exposed until the 'solo' exposition. Mozart was fond of deploying his themes in this way.
Towards the end of the recapitulation of a concerto movement in sonata form, there is usually a cadenza for the soloist alone. This has an improvisatory character (it may or may not actually be improvised), and, in general, serves to prolong the harmonic tension on a dominant-quality chord before the orchestra ends the piece in the tonic.
The history of sonata form[edit]
Main article: History of sonata form
The term sonata is first found in the 17th century, when instrumental music had just begun to become increasingly separated from vocal music. The original meaning of the term (derived from the Italian word suonare, to sound on instrument) referred to a piece for playing, distinguished from cantata, a piece for singing. At this time, the term implies a binary form, usually AABB with some aspects of three part forms. Early examples of simple pre-Classical sonata forms include Pergolesi's Trio Sonata No. 3 in G Major.[1]:57
The Classical era established the norms of structuring first movements and the standard layouts of multi-movement works. There was a period of a wide variety of layouts and formal structures within first movements that gradually became expected norms of composition. The practice of Haydn and Mozart, as well as other notable composers, became increasingly influential on a generation that sought to exploit the possibilities offered by the forms that Haydn and Mozart had established in their works. In time, theory on the layout of the first movement became more and more focused on understanding the practice of Haydn, Mozart, and, later, Beethoven. Their works were studied, patterns and exceptions to those patterns identified, and the boundaries of acceptable or usual practice set by the understanding of their works. The sonata form as it is described is strongly identified with the norms of the Classical period in music. Even before it had been described the form had become central to music making, absorbing or altering other formal schemas for works. Examples include Beethoven's Appassionata sonata.[1]:59
The Romantic era in music was to accept the centrality of this practice, codify the form explicitly and make instrumental music in this form central to concert and chamber composition and practice, in particular for works that were meant to be regarded as "serious" works of music. Various controversies in the 19th century would center on exactly what the implications of "development" and sonata practice actually meant, and what the role of the Classical masters was in music. It is ironic that, at the same time that the form was being codified (by the likes of Czerny and so forth), composers of the day were writing works that flagrantly violated some of the principles of the codified form.
It has continued to be influential through the subsequent history of classical music through to the modern period. The 20th century brought a wealth of scholarship that sought to found the theory of the sonata form on basic tonal laws. The 20th century would see a continued expansion of acceptable practice, leading to the formulation of ideas by which there existed a "sonata principle" or "sonata idea" that unified works of the type, even if they did not explicitly meet the demands of the normative description.
Sonata form and other musical forms[edit]
Sonata form shares characteristics with both binary form and ternary form. In terms of key relationships, it is very like binary form, with a first half moving from the home key to the dominant and the second half moving back again (this is why sonata form is sometimes known as compound binary form); in other ways it is very like ternary form, being divided into three sections, the first (exposition) of a particular character, the second (development) in contrast to it, the third section (recapitulation) the same as the first.
The early binary sonatas by Domenico Scarlatti provide excellent examples of the transition from binary to sonata-allegro form. Among the many sonatas are numerous examples of the true sonata form being crafted into place.
Theory of sonata form[edit]
Main article: Sonata theory
The sonata form is a guide to composers as to the schematic for their works, for interpreters to understand the grammar and meaning of a work, and for listeners to understand the significance of musical events. A host of musical details are determined by the harmonic meaning of a particular note, chord or phrase. The sonata form, because it describes the shape and hierarchy of a movement, tells performers what to emphasize, and how to shape phrases of music. Its theory begins with the description, in the 18th century, of schematics for works, and was codified in the early 19th century. This codified form is still used in the pedagogy of the sonata form.
In the 20th century, emphasis moved from the study of themes and keys to how harmony changed through the course of a work and the importance of cadences and transitions in establishing a sense of "closeness" and "distance" in a sonata. The work of Heinrich Schenker and his ideas about "foreground", "middleground", and "background" became enormously influential in the teaching of composition and interpretation. Schenker believed that inevitability was the key hallmark of a successful composer, and that, therefore, works in sonata form should demonstrate an inevitable logic.
In the simplest example, playing of a cadence should be in relationship to the importance of that cadence in the overall form of the work. More important cadences are emphasized by pauses, dynamics, sustaining and so on. False or deceptive cadences are given some of the characteristics of a real cadence, and then this impression is undercut by going forward more quickly. For this reason, changes in performance practice bring changes to the understanding of the relative importance of various aspects of the sonata form. In the Classical era, the importance of sections and cadences and underlying harmonic progressions gives way to an emphasis on themes. The clarity of strongly differentiated major and minor sections gives way to a more equivocal sense of key and mode. These changes produce changes in performance practice: when sections are clear, then there is less need to emphasize the points of articulation. When they are less clear, greater importance is placed on varying the tempo during the course of the music to give "shape" to the music.
Over the last half-century, a critical tradition of examining scores, autographs, annotations, and the historical record has changed, sometimes subtly, on occasion dramatically, the way the sonata form is viewed. It has led to changes in how works are edited; for example, the phrasing of Beethoven's piano works has undergone a shift to longer and longer phrases that are not always in step with the cadences and other formal markers of the sections of the underlying form. Comparing the recordings of Schnabel, from the beginning of modern recording, with those of Barenboim and then Pratt shows a distinct shift in how the structure of the sonata form is presented to the listener over time.
For composers, the sonata form is like the plot of a play or movie script, describing when the crucial plot points are, and the kinds of material that should be used to connect them into a coherent and orderly whole. At different times the sonata form has been taken to be quite rigid, and at other times a freer interpretation has been considered permissible.
In the theory of sonata form it is often asserted that other movements stand in relation to the sonata-allegro form, either, per Charles Rosen that they are really "sonata forms", plural—or as Edward T. Cone asserts, that the sonata-allegro is the ideal to which other movement structures "aspire". This is particularly seen to be the case with other movement forms that commonly occur in works thought of as sonatas. As a sign of this the word "sonata" is sometimes prepended to the name of the form, in particular in the case of the "sonata-rondo" form. Slow movements, in particular, are seen as being similar to sonata-allegro form, with differences in phrasing and less emphasis on the development.
However, Schoenberg and other theorists who used his ideas as a point of departure see the theme and variations as having an underlying role in the construction of formal music, calling the process continuing variation, and argue from this idea that the sonata-allegro form is a means of structuring the continuing variation process. Theorists of this school include Erwin Ratz and William E. Caplin.
Subsections of works are sometimes analyzed as being in sonata form, in particular single movement works, such as the Konzertstück in F minor of Carl Maria von Weber.
From the 1950s onward, Hans Keller developed a 'two-dimensional' method of analysis that explicitly considered form and structure from the point of view of listener expectations. In his work, the sonata-allegro was a well-implied 'background form' against whose various detailed features composers could compose their individual 'foregrounds'; the 'meaningful contradiction' of expected background by unexpected foreground was seen as generating the expressive content. In Keller's writings, this model is applied in detail to Schoenberg's 12-note works as well as the classical tonal repertoire. In recent times, two other musicologists, James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy, have presented, without reference to Keller, their analysis, which they term Sonata Theory, of the sonata-allegro form and the sonata cycle in terms of genre expectations, and categorized both the sonata-allegro movement and the sonata cycle by the compositional choices made to respect or depart from conventions. Their study focuses on the normative period of sonata practice, notable ones being the works of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and their close contemporaries, projecting this practice forward to development of the sonata-allegro form into the 19th and 20th centuries.
Musical criticism and sonata form[edit]
This section contains weasel words: vague phrasing that often accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should be clarified or removed. (July 2016)
Because of its centrality to classical music, the sonata form has been a topic of interest to music critics since its origin. Contentious opinions include those of prominent critics such as Eduard Hanslick,[citation needed] who praised the form for its intelligibility.
See also[edit]
Closely related key
Slow movement (music)
Sonata rondo form
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d White, John D. (1976). The Analysis of Music. ISBN 0-13-033233-X.
Jump up ^ White, John D. (1994). Comprehensive Musical Analysis. Scarecrow Press. p. 101. ISBN 9781461657668.
Jump up ^ Kostka, Stefan; Payne, Dorothy (1995). Tonal Harmony (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 346. ISBN 0-07-300056-6.
Jump up ^ Benjamin, Thomas; Horvit, Michael; Nelson, Robert (2003). Techniques and Materials of Music (7th ed.). Thomson Schirmer. p. 289. ISBN 0495500542.
^ Jump up to: a b Rosen, Charles (1988) [1980]. Sonata Forms (revised ed.). New York: Norton. p. 1. [ISBN missing]
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g Benward; Saker (2009). Music in Theory and Practice: Volume II (8th ed.). ISBN 978-0-07-310188-0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Webster, James. "Sonata form". In Macy, L. Grove Music Online. Retrieved 2008-03-27.
Jump up ^ Wolff, Christoph (1982). "song". In Badura-Skoda; Branscombe. Schubert Studies: Problems of Style and Chronology. pp. 143–171. [ISBN missing]
Jump up ^ Marston, Nicholas (2000). "Schubert's Homecoming". Journal of the Royal Musical Association. 125: 248–270.
Further reading[edit]
Caplin, William E. (2000). Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514399-X.
Hepokoski, James; Darcy, Warren (2006). Elements of Sonata Theory: Norms, Types, and Deformations in the Late-Eighteenth-Century Sonata. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514640-9.
Newman, William S. (1972). The Sonata in the Baroque Era. ISBN 0-393-00622-0.
Newman, William S. (1980). Sonata in the Classic Era (A History of the Sonata Idea). ISBN 0-393-00623-9.
Newman, William S. (1983). The Sonata in the Classic Era. ISBN 0-393-95286-X.
Newman, William S. (1983). The Sonata Since Beethoven. ISBN 0-393-95290-8.
Newman, William S. (1995). Beethoven on Beethoven: Playing His Piano Music His Way. ISBN 0-393-30719-0.
Rosen, Charles (1997). The Classical Style (2nd ed.). New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.
Rosen, Charles (1998). The Romantic Generation. ISBN 0-674-77934-7.
Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1988). The Grove Concise Dictionary of Music. ISBN 0-333-43236-3.
Salzer, Felix (1962). Structural Hearing: Tonal Coherence in Music. ISBN 0-486-22275-6.
Schoenberg, Arnold (1967). Fundamentals of Musical Composition. ISBN 0-571-09276-4.
Schoenberg, Arnold (2010). Harmonielehre (in German). ISBN 1-147-25802-3.
Schenker, Heinrich (2001). Der freie Satz [Free Composition]. Translated by Oster, Ernst. vol. 1. ISBN 1-57647-074-1.
Smith, Michael Paul (2014). "A Guide to Sonata Form". Tchaikovsky Life and Works.
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