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Director's cut
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A director's cut is an edited version of a film (or television episode, music video, commercial, or video game) that is supposed to represent the director's own approved edit. 'Cut' explicitly refers to the process of film editing; in preparing a film for release, the director's cut is preceded by the assembly and rough editor's cut and usually followed by the final cut meant for the public film release.
Director's cuts of film are not generally released to the public, because on most films the director does not have a final cut privilege. The production company, distributors, and/or studio (anybody with money invested in the film) can impose changes that they think will make the film profit more at the box office. This sometimes means a happier ending or less ambiguity, or excluding scenes that would earn a more audience-restricting rating, but more often means that the film is simply shortened to provide more screenings per day.
With the rise of home video, the phrase became more generically used as a marketing term (including things such as comic books and music albums, neither of which actually have directors), and the most commonly seen form of director's cut is a cut where extra scenes and characters are added in, often making the director's cut considerably longer than the final cut.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origin of the phrase
2 Inception
3 Criticism
4 Extended cuts and special editions
5 Music video director's cut
6 Expanded usage in pop culture
6.1 Video games
6.2 Music "director's cuts"
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Origin of the phrase[edit]
Traditionally, the "director's cut" is not, by definition, the director's ideal or preferred cut. The editing process of a film is broken into stages: First is the assembly/rough cut, where all selected takes are put together in the order in which they should appear in the film. Next, the editor's cut is reduced from the rough cut; the editor may be guided by his own tastes or following notes from the director or producers. Eventually is the final cut, which actually gets released or broadcast. In between the editor's cut and the final cut can come any number of fine cuts, including the director's cut. The director's cut may include unsatisfactory takes, a preliminary soundtrack, a lack of desired pick-up shots etc., which the director would not like to be shown but uses as a placeholder until satisfactory replacements can be inserted. This is still how the term is used within the film industry, as well as commercials, television, and music videos.
Inception[edit]
The trend of releasing alternate cuts of films for artistic reasons became prominent in the 1970s; in 1974, the "director's cut" of The Wild Bunch was shown theatrically in Los Angeles to sold-out audiences.[1] The theatrical release of the film had cut ten minutes to get an R-rating, but this cut was hailed as superior and has now become the definitive one. Other early examples include George Lucas's first two films being re-released following the success of Star Wars, in cuts which more closely resembled his vision, or Peter Bogdanovich re-cutting The Last Picture Show several times. Charlie Chaplin also re-released all of his films in the 1970s, several of which were re-cut (Chaplin's re-release of The Gold Rush in the 1940s is almost certainly the earliest prominent example of a director's re-cut film being released to the public). A theatrical re-release of Close Encounters of the Third Kind used the phrase "Special Edition" to describe a cut which was closer to Spielberg's intent but had a compromised ending demanded by the studio. As the home video industry rose in the early 1980s, video releases of director's cuts were sometimes created for the small but dedicated cult fan market. Los Angeles cable station Z Channel is also cited as significant in the popularization of alternate cuts. Early examples of films released in this manner include Michael Cimino's Heaven's Gate, where a longer cut was recalled from theaters but subsequently shown on cable and eventually released to home video; James Cameron's Aliens, where a video release restored 20 minutes the studio had insisted on cutting; James Cameron's The Abyss, where Cameron voluntarily made cuts to the theatrical version for pacing but restored them for a video release; Shim Hyung-rae's Yonggary, where Shim made cuts to the theatrical version for how close to the American Godzilla it was and added in aliens and another monster, Cyker. That version was released stateside as Reptilian and, most famously, Ridley Scott's Blade Runner, where an alternate workprint version was released to fan acclaim, ultimately resulting in the 1992 recut, the first film to use the term "Director's Cut" as a marketing description (and the first time it was used to describe a cut that the director was not involved in preparing).
Criticism[edit]
Once distributors discovered that consumers would buy alternate versions of films, it became common for films to receive multiple releases. There is no standardization for labelling, leading to so-called "director's cuts" of films despite where the director prefers the theatrically released version, or when the director had actual final cut privilege. These were often assembled by simply restoring deleted scenes, sometimes adding as much as a half-hour to the length of the film without regard to pacing and storytelling.
As a result, the "director's cut" is often considered a mixed bag, with an equal share of supporters and detractors. Roger Ebert approved of the use of the label in unsuccessful films that had been tampered with by studio executives, such as Sergio Leone's original cut of Once Upon a Time in America,[2] and the moderately successful theatrical version of Daredevil,[citation needed] which were altered by studio interference for their theatrical release. Other well-received director's cuts include Ridley Scott's Kingdom of Heaven (with Empire magazine stating: "The added 45 minutes in the Director’s Cut are like pieces missing from a beautiful but incomplete puzzle"[3]), or Sam Peckinpah's Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid, where the restored 115 minute cut is closer to the director's intent than the theatrical 105 minute cut (the actual director's cut was 122 minutes; it was never completed to Peckinpah's satisfaction, but was used as a guide for the restoration that was done after his death).
However, Ebert considers adding such material to a successful film a waste.[citation needed] Even Ridley Scott stated on the director's commentary track of Alien that the original theatrical release was his director's cut, and that the new version was released as a marketing ploy.[4] Director Peter Bogdanovich, no stranger to director's cuts himself, cites Red River as an example where "MGM have a version of Howard Hawks's Red River that they're calling the Director's Cut and it is absolutely not the director's cut. It's a cut the director didn't want, an earlier cut that was junked. They assume because it was longer that it's a director's cut. Capra cut two reels off Lost Horizon because it didn't work and then someone tried to put it back. There are certainly mistakes and stupidities in reconstructing pictures." [5]
In rare instances, such as Peter Weir's Picnic at Hanging Rock, John Cassavetes's The Killing of a Chinese Bookie, and Blake Edwards's Darling Lili, changes made to a director's cut result in a shorter, more compact cut. This generally happens when a distributor insists that a film be completed in order to meet a release date, but sometimes it is the result of removing scenes that the distributor insisted on inserting, as opposed to restoring scenes they insisted on cutting.
Another way that released director's cuts can be compromised is when directors were never allowed to even shoot their vision, and thus when the film is re-cut, they must make do with the footage that exists. Examples of this include Terry Zwigoff's Bad Santa, Brian Helgeland's Payback, and most notably the Richard Donner re-cut of Superman II. Donner completed about 75% of the shooting of the sequel during the shooting of the first one but was fired from the project. His director's cut of the film includes, among other things, screen test footage of stars Christopher Reeve and Margot Kidder, footage used in the first film, and entire scenes that were shot by replacement director Richard Lester which Donner dislikes but were required for story purposes.
Extended cuts and special editions[edit]
Some directors explicitly dislike the phrase "director's cut" because it implies that they disapprove of the theatrically released cut. James Cameron and Peter Jackson are two directors who publicly reject the label, preferring "extended edition" or "special edition". While Jackson considers the theatrical releases of The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies to be a final "director's cut" within the constraints of theatrical exhibition, the extended cuts were produced so that fans of the material could see nearly all of the scenes shot for the script to develop more of J. R. R. Tolkien's world, but which were originally cut for running time, or other reasons. New music and special effects were also added to the cuts. Cameron specified "what I put into theaters is the Director's cut. Nothing was cut that I didn't want cut. All the extra scenes we've added back in are just a bonus for the fans." (Though referring specifically to Avatar, he has expressed similar feelings on all of his films besides Piranha II: The Spawning.)
Special editions such as George Lucas's Star Wars films, and Steven Spielberg's E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial, in which special effects are redone in addition to a new edit, have also caused controversy. (See List of changes in Star Wars re-releases and E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial: The 20th Anniversary).
Extended or special editions can also apply to films that have been extended for television to fill time slots, against the explicit wishes of the director, such as the TV versions of Dune (1984), The Warriors (1979) and the Harry Potter films.
The film Caligula exists in at least 10 different officially released versions, ranging from a sub-90 minute television edit version of TV-14 (later TVMA) for cable television to an unrated full pornographic version exceeding 3.5 hours. This is believed to be the most distinct versions of a single film. Among major studio films, the record is believed to be held by Blade Runner; the magazine Video Watchdog counted no less than seven distinct versions in a 1993 issue, before director Ridley Scott later released a "Final Cut" in 2007, bringing the supposed grand total to eight differing versions.
Music video director's cut[edit]
The music video for the 2006 Academy Award-nominated song "Listen", performed by Beyoncé, received a director's cut by Diane Martel. This version of the video was later included on Knowles' B'Day Anthology Video Album (2007). Linkin Park has a director's cut version for their music video "Faint" (directed by Mark Romanek) in which one of the band members spray paints the words "En Proceso" on a wall, as well as Hoobastank also having one for 2004's "The Reason" which omits the woman getting hit by the car. Britney Spears' music video for 2007's "Gimme More" was first released as a director's cut on iTunes, with the official video released 3 days later. Many other director's cut music videos contain sexual content that can't be shown on TV thus creating alternative scenes, such as Thirty Seconds to Mars's "Hurricane", and in some cases, alternative videos, such as in the case of Spears' 2008 video for "Womanizer".
Expanded usage in pop culture[edit]
As the trend became more widely recognized, the term "director's cut" became increasingly used as a colloquialism to refer to an expanded version of other things, including video games, music, and comic books. This confusing usage only served to further reduce the artistic value of a "director's cut", and it is currently rarely used in those ways.
Video games[edit]
For video games, these expanded versions, also referred as "complete editions", will have additions to the gameplay or additional game modes and features outside the main portion of the game.
As is the case with certain high-profile Japanese-produced games, the game designers may take the liberty to revise their product for the overseas market with additional features during the localization process. These features are later added back to the native market in a re-release of a game in what is often referred as the international version of the game. This was the case with the overseas versions of Final Fantasy VII, Metal Gear Solid and Rogue Galaxy, which contained additional features (such as new difficulty settings for Metal Gear Solid), resulting in re-released versions of those respective games in Japan (Final Fantasy VII International, Metal Gear Solid: Integral and Rogue Galaxy: Director's Cut). In the case of Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty and Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, the American versions were released first, followed by the Japanese versions and then the European versions, with each regional release offering new content not found in the previous one. All of the added content from the Japanese and European versions of those games were included in the expanded editions titled Metal Gear Solid 2: Substance and Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence.
They also, similar to movies, will occasionally include extra, uncensored or alternate versions of cutscenes, as was the case with Resident Evil: Code Veronica X. In markets with strict censorship, a later relaxing of those laws occasional will result in the game being rereleased with the "Special/Uncut Edition" tag added to differentiate between the originally released censored version and the current uncensored edition.
Several of the Pokémon games have also received director's cuts and have used the term "extension," though "remake" and "third version" are also often used by many fans. These include Pocket Monsters: Blue (Japan only), Pokémon Yellow (for Pokémon Red and Green/Blue), Pokémon Crystal (for Pokémon Gold and Silver), Pokémon Emerald (for Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire), and Pokémon Platinum (for Pokémon Diamond and Pearl).
Music "director's cuts"[edit]
"Director's cuts" in music are rarely released. A few exceptions include Guided by Voices' 1994 album Bee Thousand, which was re-released as a three disc vinyl LP Director's cut in 2004, and Fall Out Boy's 2003 album Take This to Your Grave, which was re-released as a Director's cut in 2005 with two extra tracks.
In 2011 British singer Kate Bush released the album titled Director's Cut. It is made up of songs from her earlier albums The Sensual World and The Red Shoes which have been remixed and restructured, three of which were re-recorded completely.
See also[edit]
Film modification
Final cut privilege
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Jones, Ellen. "Is a 'director's cut' ever a good idea?". The Guardian.
Jump up ^ Ebert, Roger (1 January 1984). "Once Upon a Time in America". RogerEbert.com. Ebert Digital LLC. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 16 June 2016.
Jump up ^ "Directors Cuts, the Good, the Bad, and the Unnecessary". Empire. 10 January 2015.
Jump up ^ Lambie, Ryan. "The changing face of the director's cut".
Jump up ^ Jones, Ellen. "Is a 'director's cut' ever a good idea?".
External links[edit]
"Director's Cuts: Do They Make the Cut?" Article from Frontier magazine.
Movie-Censorship.com More than 1000 comparisons of different versions of films.
"Do Filmgoers Dream of Director's Cuts?" SciFi.com article detailing the cuts of Blade Runner.
If Movie Seems Too Long, Blame It On The Director
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Director%27s_cut&oldid=832213669"
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text:
National Recovery Administration
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Recovery Administration
NRA Blue Eagle poster. This would be displayed in store windows, on packages, and in ads.
Agency overview
Formed
1933, by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA)
Dissolved
May 27, 1935, by court case Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States
The National Recovery Administration was a prime New Deal agency established by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in 1933. The goal was to eliminate "cut-throat competition" by bringing industry, labor, and government together to create codes of "fair practices" and set prices. The NRA was created by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and allowed industries to get together and write "codes of fair competition." The codes were intended to reduce "destructive competition" and to help workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly hours, as well as minimum prices at which products could be sold. The NRA also had a two-year renewal charter and was set to expire in June 1935 if not renewed.[1]
In 1935, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared that the NRA law was unconstitutional, ruling that it infringed the separation of powers under the United States Constitution. The NRA quickly stopped operations, but many of its labor provisions reappeared in the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act), passed later the same year. The long-term result was a surge in the growth and power of unions, which became a core of the New Deal Coalition that dominated national politics for the next three decades.
The NRA, symbolized by the Blue Eagle, was popular with workers. Businesses that supported the NRA put the symbol in their shop windows and on their packages, though they did not always go along with the regulations entailed. Though membership to the NRA was voluntary, businesses that did not display the eagle were very often boycotted, making it seem mandatory for survival to many.
Contents
[hide]
1 Background
2 Inception
2.1 Goal
2.2 Price controls
3 Critics
4 The NRA in practice
4.1 Specific industries
4.2 Enforcement
5 Judicial review
6 Legacy
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Background[edit]
As part of the "First New Deal," the NRA was based on the premise that the Great Depression was caused by market instability and that government intervention was necessary to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. The NIRA, which created the NRA, declared that codes of fair competition should be developed through public hearings, and gave the Administration the power to develop voluntary agreements with industries regarding work hours, pay rates, and price fixing.[2] The NRA was put into operation by an executive order, signed the same day as the passage of the NIRA.
New Dealers who were part of the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt saw the close analogy with the earlier crisis handling the economics of World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917–18.
In his June 13, 1933 "Statement on the National Industrial Recovery Act," President Roosevelt described the spirit of the NRA: "On this idea, the first part of the NIRA proposes to our industry a great spontaneous cooperation to put millions of men back in their regular jobs this summer."[3][4] He further stated, "But if all employers in each trade now band themselves faithfully in these modern guilds—without exception—and agree to act together and at once, none will be hurt and millions of workers, so long deprived of the right to earn their bread in the sweat of their labor, can raise their heads again. The challenge of this law is whether we can sink selfish interest and present a solid front against a common peril."[3][4]
Inception[edit]
Director Hugh S. Johnson on the cover of Time Magazine in 1933.
The film industry supported the NRA
The first director of the NRA was Hugh S. Johnson, a retired United States Army general and a successful businessman. He was named Time magazine's "Man of the Year" in 1933. Johnson saw the NRA as a national crusade designed to restore employment and regenerate industry.
Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code": a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 to 45 hours, and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code" would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment.
To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle" publicity campaign to boost his bargaining strength to negotiate the codes with business and labor.
Historian Clarence B. Carson noted:
At this moment in time from the early days of the New Deal, it is difficult to recapture, even in imagination, the heady enthusiasm among a goodly number of intellectuals for a government planned economy. So far as can now be told, they believed that a bright new day was dawning, that national planning would result in an organically integrated economy in which everyone would joyfully work for the common good, and that American society would be freed at last from those antagonisms arising, as General Hugh Johnson put it, from "the murderous doctrine of savage and wolfish individualism, looking to dog-eat-dog and devil take the hindmost."[5]
NRA tapestry displayed at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum in Hyde Park, New York
Goal[edit]
The negotiations of a code for the bituminous coal industry came against the background of a rapidly swelling union, the United Mine Workers headed by John L. Lewis and an unstable truce in the Pennsylvania coal fields. The NRA tried to get the principals to compromise with a national code for a decentralized industry in which many companies were anti-union, sought to keep wage differentials, and tried to escape the collective bargaining provisions of section 7A. Agreement among the parties was finally reached only after the NRA threatened that it would impose a code. The code did not establish price stabilization, nor did it resolve questions of industrial self-government versus governmental supervision or of centralization versus local autonomy, but it made dramatic changes in abolishing child labor, eliminating the compulsory scrip wages and company store, and establishing fair trade practices. It paved the way for an important wage settlement.[6]
Price controls[edit]
In early 1935 the new chairman, Samuel Williams, announced that the NRA would stop setting prices, but businessmen complained. Chairman Williams told them plainly that, unless they could prove it would damage business, NRA was going to put an end to price control. Williams said, "Greater productivity and employment would result if greater price flexibility were attained."[7] Of the 2,000 businessmen on hand probably 90% opposed Mr. Williams' aim, reported Time magazine: "To them a guaranteed price for their products looks like a royal road to profits. A fixed price above cost has proved a lifesaver to more than one inefficient producer."[7] However, it was also argued NRA's price control method promoted monopolies.[8]
The business position was summarized by George A. Sloan, head of the Cotton Textile Code Authority:
"Maximum hours and minimum wage provisions, useful and necessary as they are in themselves, do not prevent price demoralization. While putting the units of an industry on a fair competitive level insofar as labor costs are concerned, they do not prevent destructive price cutting in the sale of commodities produced, any more than a fixed price of material or other element of cost would prevent it. Destructive competition at the expense of employees is lessened, but it is left in full swing against the employer himself and the economic soundness of his enterprise....But if the partnership of industry with Government which was invoked by the President were terminated (as we believe it will not be), then the spirit of cooperation, which is one of the best fruits of the NRA equipment, could not survive.[7]
Critics[edit]
Most businesses adopted the NRA without complaint, but Henry Ford was reluctant to join.[9]
The National Recovery Review Board, headed by noted criminal lawyer Clarence Darrow, a prominent liberal, was set up by President Roosevelt in March 1934 and abolished by him that same June. The board issued three reports highly critical of the NRA from the perspective of small business, charging the NRA with fostering cartels. The Darrow board, influenced by Justice Louis D. Brandeis, wanted instead to promote competitive capitalism.[10]
Representing big business, the American Liberty League, 1934–40, was run by leading industrialists who opposed the liberalism of the New Deal. Regarding the controversial NRA, the League was ambivalent. Jouett Shouse, the League president, commented that "the NRA has indulged in unwarranted excesses of attempted regulation"; on the other, he added that "in many regards [the NRA] has served a useful purpose."[11] Shouse said that he had "deep sympathy" with the goals of the NRA, explaining, "While I feel very strongly that the prohibition of child labor, the maintenance of a minimum wage and the limitation of the hours of work belong under our form of government in the realm of the affairs of the different states, yet I am entirely willing to agree that in the case of an overwhelming national emergency the Federal Government for a limited period should be permitted to assume jurisdiction of them."[12]
British journalist Alistair Cooke described Franklin Delano Roosevelt's presidency of the United States of America in the two years from his inauguration to the Supreme Court's declaration that the National Recovery Administration was unconstitutional, as a benevolent dictatorship.[13]
The NRA in practice[edit]
Chart 3: Manufacturing employment in the United States from 1920 to 1940
The NRA negotiated specific sets of codes with leaders of the nation's major industries; the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages, and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA won agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. According to some conservative economists, the NRA increased the cost of doing business by forty percent.[14] Donald Richberg, who soon replaced Johnson as the head of the NRA said:
There is no choice presented to American business between intelligently planned and uncontrolled industrial operations and a return to the gold-plated anarchy that masqueraded as "rugged individualism."...Unless industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers so that great essential industries are operated under public obligation appropriate to the public interest in them, the advance of political control over private industry is inevitable.[15]
By the time it ended in May 1935, industrial production was 22% higher than in May 1933.[citation needed]
Specific industries[edit]
Pennock (1997) shows that the rubber tire industry faced debilitating challenges, mostly brought about by changes in the industry's retail structure and exacerbated by the Depression. Segments of the industry attempted to use the NRA codes to solve these new problems and stabilize the tire market, but the tire manufacturing and tire retailing codes were patent failures. Instead of leading to cartelization and higher prices, which is what most scholars assume the NRA codes did, the tire industry codes led to even more fragmentation and price cutting.[16]
Alexander (1997) examines the macaroni industry and concludes that cost heterogeneity was a major source of the "compliance crisis" affecting a number of NRA "codes of fair competition" that were negotiated by industries and submitted for government approval under the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933. The argument boils down to assumptions that progressives at the NRA allowed majority coalitions of small, high-cost firms to impose codes in heterogeneous industries, and that these codes were designed by the high-cost firms under an ultimately erroneous belief that they would be enforced by the NRA.[17]
Storrs (2000) says the National Consumers' League (NCL) had been instrumental in the passage and legal defense of labor legislation in many states since 1899. Women activists used the New Deal opportunity to gain a national forum. General Secretary Lucy Randolph Mason and her league relentlessly lobbied the NRA to make its regulatory codes just and fair for all workers and to eliminate explicit and de facto discrimination in pay, working conditions, and opportunities for reasons of sex, race, or union status. Even after the demise of the NRA, the league continued campaigning for collective bargaining rights and fair labor standards at both federal and state levels.[18]
Enforcement[edit]
Commemorative stamp issued by the U.S. Post Office on August 15, 1933
About 23 million people were employed under the NRA codes. However, violations of codes became common and attempts were made to use the courts to enforce the NRA. The NRA included a multitude of regulations imposing the pricing and production standards for all sorts of goods and services. Individuals were arrested for not complying with these codes. For example, one small businessman was fined for violating the "Tailor's Code" by pressing a suit for 35 rather than NRA required 40 cents. Roosevelt critic John T. Flynn, in The Roosevelt Myth (1944), wrote:
“ The NRA was discovering it could not enforce its rules. Black markets grew up. Only the most violent police methods could procure enforcement. In Sidney Hillman’s garment industry the code authority employed enforcement police. They roamed through the garment district like storm troopers. They could enter a man’s factory, send him out, line up his employees, subject them to minute interrogation, take over his books on the instant. Night work was forbidden. Flying squadrons of these private coat-and-suit police went through the district at night, battering down doors with axes looking for men who were committing the crime of sewing together a pair of pants at night. But without these harsh methods many code authorities said there could be no compliance because the public was not back of it. ”
The NRA was famous for its bureaucracy. Journalist Raymond Clapper reported that between 4,000 and 5,000 business practices were prohibited by NRA orders that carried the force of law, which were contained in some 3,000 administrative orders running to over 10 million pages, and supplemented by what Clapper said were "innumerable opinions and directions from national, regional and code boards interpreting and enforcing provisions of the act." There were also "the rules of the code authorities, themselves, each having the force of law and affecting the lives and conduct of millions of persons." Clapper concluded: "It requires no imagination to appreciate the difficulty the business man has in keeping informed of these codes, supplemental codes, code amendments, executive orders, administrative orders, office orders, interpretations, rules, regulations and obiter dicta."[19]
Judicial review[edit]
On 27 May 1935, in the court case of Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, the Supreme Court held the mandatory codes section of NIRA unconstitutional,[20] because it attempted to regulate commerce that was not interstate in character, and that the codes represented an unacceptable delegation of power from the legislature to the executive. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in invalidating the industrial "codes of fair competition" which the NIRA enabled the President to issue. The Court held that the codes violated the United States Constitution's separation of powers as an impermissible delegation of legislative power to the executive branch. The Court also held that the NIRA provisions were in excess of congressional power under the Commerce Clause.[21]
The Court distinguished between direct effects on interstate commerce, which Congress could lawfully regulate, and indirect, which were purely matters of state law. Though the raising and sale of poultry was an interstate industry, the Court found that the "stream of interstate commerce" had stopped in this case: Schechter's slaughterhouses bought chickens only from intrastate wholesalers and sold to intrastate buyers. Any interstate effect of Schechter was indirect, and therefore beyond federal reach.[22]
Specifically, the Court invalidated regulations of the poultry industry promulgated under the authority of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, including price and wage fixing, as well as requirements regarding a whole shipment of chickens, including unhealthy ones, which has led to the case becoming known as "the sick chicken case." The ruling was one of a series which overturned some New Deal legislation between January 1935 and January 1936, and which ultimately caused Roosevelt to attempt to pack the Court with judges that were in favor of the New Deal.
Subsequent to the decision, the remainder of Title I was extended until April 1, 1936, by joint resolution of Congress (49 Stat. 375), June 14, 1935, and NRA was reorganized by E.O. 7075, June 15, 1935, to facilitate its new role as a promoter of industrial cooperation and to enable it to produce a series of economic studies,[20] which the National Recovery Review Board was already doing.[23] Many of the labor provisions reappeared in the Wagner Act of 1935.
Legacy[edit]
In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1933, DeBenneville "Bert" Bell formed a new National Football League franchise to replace the defunct Frankford Yellow Jackets, naming this team the Eagles in recognition of the NRA (a name the team retains to the present).[24][25]
In 1934, at the request of the Interior Secretary Ickes, who wished to use the statute criminalizing making false statements to enforce Section 9(c) of the NIRA against producers of "hot oil", oil produced in violation of production restrictions established pursuant to the NIRA, Congress passed Pub.L. 73–394, 48 Stat. 996, enacted June 18, 1934, which amended the False Claims Act of 1863 to read:[26]
… or whoever, for the purpose of obtaining or aiding to obtain the payment or approval of such claim, or for the purpose and with the intent of cheating and swindling or defrauding the Government of the United States, or any department thereof, or any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder, shall knowingly and willfully falsify or conceal or cover up by any trick, scheme, or device a material fact, or make or cause to be made any false or fraudulent statements or representations, or make or use or cause to be made or used any false bill, receipt, voucher, account, roll, claim, certificate, affidavit, or deposition, knowing the same to contain any fraudulent or fictitious statement or entry, in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States or of any corporation in which the United States of America is a stockholder …
This form of the statute, in slightly modified form, still exists today at 18 U.S.C. § 1001.
See also[edit]
Job creation program
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-01-14. Retrieved 2011-07-05.
Jump up ^ National Recovery Administration. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07
^ Jump up to: a b Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum – Our Documents
^ Jump up to: a b Franklin D. Roosevelt Statement on N.I.R.A.
Jump up ^ Carson, Clarence B. The Relics of Intervention part 4. New Deal Collective Planning
Jump up ^ James P. Johnson, "Drafting the NRA Code of Fair Competition for the Bituminous Coal Industry," Journal of American History, Vol. 53, No. 3 (Dec., 1966), pp. 521–41 in JSTOR
^ Jump up to: a b c "Dollar Men & Prices". Time. Jan 21, 1935.
Jump up ^ The National Recovery Administration | Economic History Services
Jump up ^ Dan Cooper and Brian Grinder, "We Do Our Part: Henry Ford and the NRA," Financial History, Spring 2009, Issue 94, pp. 10–35
Jump up ^ Sniegoski, Stephen J. "The Darrow Board and the Downfall of the NRA". Continuity. 1990 (14): 63–83.
Jump up ^ Ronen Shamir, Managing Legal Uncertainty: Elite Lawyers in the New Deal (1995) p. 22
Jump up ^ Shamir, pp. 24–25
Jump up ^ Cooke, Alistair (1999). Memories of the Great & the Good. New York: Arcade Publishing. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-55970-479-3.
Jump up ^ Reed, Lawrence W. Great Myths of the Great Depression Mackinac Center for Public Policy.
Jump up ^ Arthur Meier Schlesinger, Jr. The Coming of the New Deal, Houghton Mifflin Books (2003), p. 115.
Jump up ^ Pamela Pennock, "The National Recovery Administration and the Rubber Tire Industry, 1933–1935." Business History Review," 1997 71(4): 543–68 in JSTOR
Jump up ^ Alexander, Barbara J. (1997). "Failed Cooperation in Heterogeneous Industries under the National Recovery Administration". Journal of Economic History. 57 (2): 322–44. doi:10.1017/s0022050700018465. JSTOR 2951040.
Jump up ^ Landon R. Storrs, Civilizing Capitalism: The National Consumers' League, Women's Activism, and Labor Standards in the New Deal Era, (U of North Carolina Press, 2000) online edition
Jump up ^ Clapper in Washington Post, Dec. 4, 1934, quoted in Best, 79–80 (1991).
^ Jump up to: a b National Recovery Administration, Authority Record (Corporate Body) USA, Committee on Descriptive Standards, International Council on Archives. Accessed 11 November 2010
Jump up ^ Tim McNeese and Richard Jensen, The Great Depression 1929–1938 (2010) p. 90
Jump up ^ Steven Emanuel and Lazar Emanuel, Constitutional Law (2008) p. 31
Jump up ^ Executive Order 6632 Creating The National Recovery Review Board. March 7, 1934
Jump up ^ Bardhan-Quallen, Sudipta. Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A National Hero. New York: Sterling Publishing Company, 2007. ISBN 1-4027-3545-6
Jump up ^ Watkins, T.H. The Hungry Years: A Narrative History of the Great Depression in America. New York: Macmillan, 2000. ISBN 0-8050-6506-7
Jump up ^ United States v. Gilliland , 312 US 86, 93-94 (1941) (“Legislation had been sought by the Secretary of the Interior to aid the enforcement of laws relating to the functions of the Department of the Interior and, in particular, to the enforcement of regulations under Sec. 9(c) of the [NIRA].”).
Bibliography[edit]
Alexander, Barbara (1994). "The Impact of the National Industrial Recovery Act on Cartel Formation and Maintenance Costs". Review of Economics and Statistics. 76 (2): 245–54. doi:10.2307/2109879. JSTOR 2109879.
Best; Gary Dean. Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938. (1991) online edition ISBN 0-275-93524-8
Brand, Donald R. (1983). "Corporatism, the NRA, and the Oil Industry". Political Science Quarterly. 98 (1): 99–118. doi:10.2307/2150207. JSTOR 2150207. Uses corporatism model to explore the struggle between independent oil producers and major oil producers over production and price controls.
Burns, Arthur Robert (1934). "The First Phase of the National Industrial Recovery Act, 1933". Political Science Quarterly. 49 (2): 161–94. doi:10.2307/2142881. JSTOR 2142881.
Dearing, Charles L. et al. The ABC of the NRA, (1934) 200 pgs. online edition
Hawley, Ellis W. (1968). The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly. Princeton UP. ISBN 0-8232-1609-8. The classic scholarly history
Hawley, Ellis W. (1975). "The New Deal and Business". In Bremner, Robert H.; Brody, David. The New Deal: The National Level. Ohio State University Press. pp. 50–82.
Johnson; Hugh S. The Blue Eagle, from Egg to Earth 1935, memoir by NRA director online edition
Lyon, Leverett S., Paul T. Homan, Lewis L. Lorwin, George Terborgh, Charles L. Dearing, Leon C. Marshall; The National Recovery Administration: An Analysis and Appraisal The Brookings Institution, 1935. in-depth analysis by economists, online edition
Ohl, John Kennedy (1985). Hugh S. Johnson and the New Deal. ISBN 0-87580-110-2. Academic biography
Schlesinger, Arthur Meier (1958). The Coming of the New Deal. pp. 87–176.
Sniegoski, Stephen J. (1990). "The Darrow Board and the Downfall of the NRA". Continuity. 1990 (14): 63–83. ISSN 0277-1446.
Taylor, Jason E. (2007). "Cartel Code Attributes and Cartel Performance: An Industry‐Level Analysis of the National Industrial Recovery Act". Journal of Law and Economics. 50 (3): 597–624. doi:10.1086/519808.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to National Recovery Administration.
1933 Promotional Video for National Recovery Administration
Article on the NRA from EH.NET's Encyclopedia
Archive of The Bird Did Its Part by T.H. Watkins
When the Supreme Court Stopped Economic Fascism in America by Richard Ebeling
Jimmy Durante singing a promotion for the NRA
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Pulmonary circulation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The part of the circulatory system which carries blood from heart to lungs and back to the heart
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Pulmonary circulation
Human pulmonary circulation. Oxygen-rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-depleted blood in blue
Pulmonary circulation in the heart
Details
System
Circulatory system
Identifiers
Anatomical terminology
[edit on Wikidata]
The pulmonary circulation is the portion of the circulatory system which carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle of the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium and ventricle of the heart.[1] The term pulmonary circulation is readily paired and contrasted with the systemic circulation. The vessels of the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary arteries and the pulmonary veins.
A separate system known as the bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the tissue of the larger airways of the lung.
The earliest human discussions of pulmonary circulation date back to Egyptian times. Human knowledge of pulmonary circulation grew gradually over centuries, and scientists Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus, and William Harvey provided some of the first accurate descriptions of this process.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Structure
1.1 Lungs
1.2 Veins
1.3 Arteries
2 Development
3 Clinical significance
4 History
5 See also
6 External links
7 References
Structure[edit]
3D rendering of a high resolution computed tomography of the thorax. The anterior thoracic wall, the airways and the pulmonary vessels anterior to the root of the lung have been digitally removed in order to visualize the different levels of the pulmonary circulation.
Image showing main pulmonary artery coursing ventrally to the aortic root and trachea, and the right pulmonary artery passes dorsally to the ascending aorta, while the left pulmonary artery passes ventrally to the descending aorta.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the heart, goes to the lungs, and then re-enters the heart; Deoxygenated blood leaves through the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery. From the right atrium, the blood is pumped through the tricuspid valve (or right atrioventricular valve), into the right ventricle. Blood is then pumped from the right ventricle through the pulmonary valve and into the main pulmonary artery.
Lungs[edit]
The pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs, where carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is picked up during respiration. Arteries are further divided into very fine capillaries which are extremely thin-walled. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium of the heart.
Veins[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary vein
The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs through pulmonary veins, which return it to the left heart, completing the pulmonary cycle. This blood then enters the left atrium, which pumps it through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From the left ventricle, the blood passes through the aortic valve to the aorta. The blood is then distributed to the body through the systemic circulation before returning again to the pulmonary circulation.
Arteries[edit]
Main article: Pulmonary artery
From the right ventricle, blood is pumped through the semilunar pulmonary valve into the left and right main pulmonary arteries (one for each lung), which branch into smaller pulmonary arteries that spread throughout the lungs.
Development[edit]
The pulmonary circulation loop is virtually bypassed in fetal circulation. The fetal lungs are collapsed, and blood passes from the right atrium directly into the left atrium through the foramen ovale: an open conduit between the paired atria, or through the ductus arteriosus: a shunt between the pulmonary artery and the aorta. When the lungs expand at birth, the pulmonary pressure drops and blood is drawn from the right atrium into the right ventricle and through the pulmonary circuit. Over the course of several months, the foramen ovale closes, leaving a shallow depression known as the fossa ovalis.
Clinical significance[edit]
A number of medical conditions can affect the pulmonary circulation.
Pulmonary hypertension describes an increase in resistance in the pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary embolus is a blood clot, usually from a deep vein thrombosis that has lodged in the pulmonary vasculature. It can cause difficulty breathing or chest pain, is usually diagnosed through a CT pulmonary angiography or V/Q scan, and is often treated with anticoagulants such as heparin and warfarin.
Cardiac shunt is an unnatural connection between parts of the heart that leads to blood flow that bypasses the lungs.
Vascular resistance
Pulmonary shunt
History[edit]
The discovery of pulmonary circulation has been attributed to several scientists over the years. In much of modern medical literature, the discovery is credited to English physician William Harvey (1578 - 1657 CE).[3][4] Other sources credit Spanish physician Michael Servetus (c. 1509 - 1553 CE) and Arab physician Ibn al-Nafis (1213 - 1288 CE) with the discovery.[5][2] However, the first descriptions of the cardiovascular system came before these men.
The earliest known description of the role of air in circulation was produced in Egypt in 3500 BCE. At this time, Egyptians believed that the heart was the origin of many channels that connected different parts of the body and transported air as well as urine, blood, and the soul.[6] The Edwin Smith Papyrus (1700 BCE), named for American Egyptologist Edwin Smith (1822 - 1906 CE) who purchased the scroll in 1862, provided evidence that Egyptians believed that the heartbeat created a pulse that transported the above substances throughout the body.[7] A second scroll, the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE), also emphasized the importance of the heart and its connection to vessels throughout the body and described methods to detect cardiac disease through pulse abnormalities. However, despite their knowledge of the heartbeat, vessels, and pulse, the Egyptians attributed the movement of substances throughout the vessels to air that resided in these channels, rather than to the heart's force.[8] The Egyptians knew that air played an important role in circulation, but they did not yet have a concept for the precise role of the lungs.
The next addition to the human understanding of pulmonary circulation came with the Ancient Greeks. The physician Alcmaeon (520 - 450 BCE) proposed that the brain, not the heart, was the connection point for all of the vessels in the body. He believed that the function of these vessels was to bring the spirit (pneuma) and air to the brain.[6][9] Empedocles (492 - 432 BCE), a philosopher, proposed a series of pipes impermeable to blood but continuous with blood vessels which carried the pneuma throughout the body. He proposed that this spirit was internalized with pulmonary respiration.[6] The physician Hippocrates (460 - 370 BCE) developed the view that the liver and spleen produced blood, which traveled to the heart to be cooled by the lungs that surrounded it.[2] Hippocrates described the heart as having two ventricles connected by an interventricular septum. He depicted the heart as the connecting point for all the vessels of the body and proposed that some vessels carried only blood, while others also carried air. These air-carrying vessels were the pulmonary veins, which brought air to the left ventricle, and the pulmonary artery, which carried air to the right ventricle and blood to the lungs. He also proposed two atria of the heart that functioned to capture air. Hippocrates was one of the first to begin to accurately describe the anatomy of the heart and to describe the involvement of the lungs in circulation, but his descriptions of the process of pulmonary circulation and of the functions of the parts of the heart were still largely incorrect.[6]
Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE) followed Hippocrates and proposed that the heart had three ventricles, rather than two, that all connected to the lungs.[6] The Greek physician Erasistratus (315 - 240 BCE) agreed with Hippocrates and Aristotle that the heart was the origin of all of the vessels in the body but proposed a system in which air was breathed into the lungs and traveled to the left ventricle via pulmonary veins. It was transformed there into the pneuma and distributed throughout the body by arteries, which contained only air.[7] In this system, veins distributed blood throughout the body, and this blood did not circulate, but rather was consumed by the organs.[6]
The Greek physician Galen (129 - c. 210 CE) provided the next insights into pulmonary circulation. Though many of his theories, like those of his predecessors, were incorrect, his theory of pulmonary circulation dominated the medical community for hundreds of years after his death.[7] Galen contradicted Erasistratus before him by proposing that arteries carried both air and blood, rather than air alone.[2] He proposed that the liver was the point of origin for all blood vessels and that the heart was not a pumping muscle, but rather an organ which blood passed through.[7] Galen's theory included a new description of pulmonary circulation. In it, air was inhaled into the lungs where it became the pneuma. Pulmonary veins transmitted this pneuma to the left ventricle of the heart to cool the blood simultaneously arriving there. This mixture of pneuma, blood, and cooling produced the vital spirits which could then be transported throughout the body via arteries. Galen also proposed that the heat of the blood arriving in the heart produced noxious vapors which were expelled through the same pulmonary veins that first brought the pneuma.[10] He wrote that the right ventricle played a different role than the left; it transported blood to the lungs where the impurities were vented out so that clean blood could be distributed throughout the body. Though Galen's description of the anatomy of the heart was more complete than those of his predecessors, it included several mistakes. Most notably, Galen believed that blood flowed between the two ventricles of the heart through small, invisible pores in the interventricular septum.[6]
The next developments in the human understanding of pulmonary circulation did not come until centuries later. Persian polymath Avicenna (c. 980 - 1037 CE) wrote a medical encyclopedia entitled The Canon of Medicine. In this book, he translated and compiled contemporary medical knowledge and added some new information of his own.[11] However, Avicenna's description of pulmonary circulation reflected the incorrect views of Galen.[2] Another Persian physician, Ibn al-Nafis, wrote the Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon in 1242 in which he provided the first known accurate description of pulmonary circulation as it is known today. Ibn al-Nafis made two key improvements on Galen's ideas of pulmonary circulation. First, he disproved the existence of the pores in the interventricular septum that Galen had believed to allow blood flow between the left and right ventricles. Second, he followed that the only way for blood to get from the right to the left ventricle in the absence of interventricular pores was pulmonary circulation. He also described the anatomy of the lungs in clear, correct detail, which his predecessors had not.[11] However, like Aristotle and Galen, al-Nafis still believed that the vital spirit was formed in the left ventricle from a mixture of blood and air. Despite the enormity of Ibn al-Nafis's improvements on the theories of pulmonary circulation that preceded him, his commentary on The Canon was not widely known to Western scholars until the manuscript was discovered in Berlin, Germany, in 1924. As a result, Ibn al-Nafis was not widely credited with the discovery of pulmonary circulation in Western medical literature until recently.[2][11]
It took several hundred years for European scientists and physicians to reach the same conclusions that al-Nafis had. Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci (1452 - 1519 CE) was one of the first to propose that the heart was just a muscle, rather than a vessel of spirits and air, but he ascribed to Galen's ideas of circulation and defended the existence of interventricular pores.[6] The Flemish physician Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564 CE) published corrections to Galen's view of circulatory anatomy, questioning the existence of interventricular pores, in his book De humani corporis fabrica libri septem in 1543.[10] Michael Servetus after him was the first European physician to accurately describe pulmonary circulation. His assertions matched those of al-Nafis, and though he has been frequently credited with making the discovery on his own, it is likely that he had access to Ibn al-Nafis's work while writing his own texts. Servetus published his findings in Christianismi Restituto (1553), a theological work that was criticized and ignored by many Christian factions at the time.[2] Italian physician Realdo Colombo (c. 1515 - 1559 CE) published a book, De re anatomica libri XV, in 1559 that accurately described pulmonary circulation as well. It is still debated among historians as to whether or not Colombo reached his conclusions on his own or if he based his work on those of al-Nafis and Servetus.[2][6] Finally, William Harvey provided the most complete and accurate description of pulmonary circulation of any of the European physicians in his treatise Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus in 1628.[5]
See also[edit]
Underwater diving portal
External links[edit]
Official Journal of the Pulmonary Vascular Research Institute
Michael Servetus Research Study on the Manuscript of Paris with the description of the Pulmonary Circulation, and more works by Servetus.
References[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pulmonary circulation.
Jump up ^ Hine R (2008). A dictionary of biology (6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 540. ISBN 978-0-19-920462-5.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h Akmal M, Zulkifle M, Ansari A (March 2010). "Ibn nafis - a forgotten genius in the discovery of pulmonary blood circulation". Heart Views. 11 (1): 26–30. PMC 2964710  . PMID 21042463.
Jump up ^ Ribatti D (September 2009). "William Harvey and the discovery of the circulation of the blood". Journal of Angiogenesis Research. 1: 3. doi:10.1186/2040-2384-1-3. PMC 2776239  . PMID 19946411.
Jump up ^ Azizi MH, Nayernouri T, Azizi F (May 2008). "A brief history of the discovery of the circulation of blood in the human body" (PDF). Archives of Iranian Medicine. 11 (3): 345–50. PMID 18426332.
^ Jump up to: a b Bosmia A, Watanabe K, Shoja MM, Loukas M, Tubbs RS (July 2013). "Michael Servetus (1511-1553): physician and heretic who described the pulmonary circulation". International Journal of Cardiology. 167 (2): 318–21. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2012.06.046. PMID 22748500.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i Bestetti RB, Restini CB, Couto LB (December 2014). "Development of anatomophysiologic knowledge regarding the cardiovascular system: from Egyptians to Harvey". Arquivos Brasileiros De Cardiologia. 103 (6): 538–45. doi:10.5935/abc.20140148. PMC 4290745  . PMID 25590934.
^ Jump up to: a b c d ElMaghawry M, Zanatta A, Zampieri F (2014). "The discovery of pulmonary circulation: From Imhotep to William Harvey". Global Cardiology Science & Practice. 2014 (2): 103–16. doi:10.5339/gcsp.2014.31. PMC 4220440  . PMID 25405183.
Jump up ^ Nunn JF (1996). Ancient Egyptian Medicine. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0714109819.
Jump up ^ Loukas M, Tubbs RS, Louis RG, Pinyard J, Vaid S, Curry B (August 2007). "The cardiovascular system in the pre-Hippocratic era". International Journal of Cardiology. 120 (2): 145–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2006.11.122. PMID 17316844.
^ Jump up to: a b Aird WC (July 2011). "Discovery of the cardiovascular system: from Galen to William Harvey". Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis. 9 Suppl 1 (Suppl. 1): 118–29. doi:10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04312.x. PMID 21781247.
^ Jump up to: a b c West JB (December 2008). "Ibn al-Nafis, the pulmonary circulation, and the Islamic Golden Age". Journal of Applied Physiology. 105 (6): 1877–80. doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.91171.2008. PMC 2612469  . PMID 18845773.
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