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List of narrative techniques
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A narrative technique (also known more narrowly for literary fictional narratives as a literary technique, literary device, or fictional device) is any of several specific methods the creator of a narrative uses to convey what they want[1]—in other words, a strategy used in the making of a narrative to relay information to the audience and, particularly, to "develop" the narrative, usually in order to make it more complete, complicated, or interesting. Literary techniques are distinguished from literary elements, which exist inherently in works of writing.
Contents
[hide]
1 Setting
2 Plots
3 Perspective
4 Style
5 Theme
6 Character
7 References
Setting[edit]
Name
Definition
Example
Setting The setting is both the time and geographic location within a narrative or within a work of fiction. A literary element, the setting initiates the main backdrop and mood of a story, often referred to as the story world. The novel Ulysses by James Joyce is set in Dublin, Ireland, the action taking place on a single day, 16 June 1904. The action of the novel takes place from one side of Dublin Bay to the other, opening in Sandycove to the South of the city and closing on Howth Head to the North. While the novel parallels the story of Odysseus, the hero of Homer's epic poem Odyssey, whose role is carried by Leopold Bloom, much of the setting is described realistically, with great attention to detail. The locations within Dublin also represent locations in the Odyssey. Bloom’s home is at 7 Eccles Street, and at the same time, Ithaca, the home of Odysseus. The Post office, Westland Row and Sweny’s pharmacy in Lombard Street represent the Dublin location for Episode 5, Lotus Eaters; the National Library of Ireland parallels Episode 9, Scylla and Charybdis and so on.
Plots[edit]
Name
Definition
Example
Backstory Story that precedes events in the story being told—past events or background that add meaning to current circumstances Though The Lord of the Rings trilogy takes place in a relatively short period towards the end of the 3021-year Third Age, the narration gives glimpses of the mythological and historical events which took place earlier in the Third age leading up to the action in the novel, and in the First and Second Age.
Cliffhanger The narrative ends unresolved, to draw the audience back to a future episode for the resolution. Almost every episode of the TV shows like Dexter and Breaking Bad[2] ends with one of the characters in a predicament (about to be caught by thugs, about to be exposed by the authority, or a family member or a friend finds out the main character's dirty secret).
Deus ex machina (a machination, or act of god; lit. “god out of the machine”) Resolving the primary conflict by a means unrelated to the story (e.g., a god appears and solves everything). This device dates back to ancient Greek theater, but can be a clumsy method that frustrates the audience. The phrase originates from Medea, an ancient Greek drama. An example occurs in Mighty Aphrodite and the Tamil movie Inga Enna Solluthu.
Eucatastrophe Coined by J. R. R. Tolkien, a climactic event through which the protagonist appears to be facing a catastrophic change. However, this change does not materialize and the protagonist finds himself as the benefactor of such a climactic event; contrast peripety/peripateia. At the end of The Lord of the Rings, Gollum forcibly takes away the Ring from Frodo, suggesting that Sauron would eventually take over Middle Earth. However, Gollum celebrates too eagerly and clumsily falls into the lava, whereby the ring is destroyed and with it Sauron's power. In a way, Gollum does what Frodo and the Fellowship of the Ring intended to do through the whole plot of the trilogy, which was to throw the ring into the lake of fire in the heart of Mount Doom.
Flashback (or analeptic reference) General term for altering time sequences, taking characters back to the beginning of the tale, for instance The story of "The Three Apples" in Arabian Nights tale begins with the discovery of a young woman's dead body. After the murderer later reveals himself, he narrates his reasons for the murder as a flashback of events leading up to the discovery of her dead body at the beginning of the story.
Flashforward Also called prolepsis, a scene that temporarily jumps the narrative forward in time. Flashforwards often represent events expected, projected, or imagined to occur in the future. They may also reveal significant parts of the story that have not yet occurred, but soon will in greater detail. Occurs in A Christmas Carol when Mr. Scrooge visits the ghost of the future. It is also frequent in the later seasons of the television series Lost.
Foreshadowing Implicit yet intentional efforts of an author to suggest events which have yet to take place in the process of narration. See also repetitive designation and Chekhov's gun A narration might begin with a male character who has to break up a schoolyard fight among some boys who are vying for the attention of a girl, which was introduced to foreshadow the events leading to a dinner time squabble between the character and his twin brother over a woman, whom both are courting at the same time.
Frame story, or a story within a story A main story that hatches a linking series of shorter stories. Early examples include Panchatantra, Kalila and Dimna, Arabian Nights, and The Decameron. More modern examples are Brian Jacques’s 1999 The Legend of Luke and Ramsay Wood’s 2011 Kalila and Dimna update, subtitled Fables of Conflict and Intrigue.
Framing device A single action, scene, event, setting, or any element of significance at the beginning and end of a work. The use of framing devices allows frame stories to exist. In Arabian Nights, Scheherazade, the newly wed wife to the King, is the framing device. As a character, she is telling the "1,001 stories" to the King, in order to delay her execution night by night. However, as a framing device her purpose for existing is to tell the same 1,001 stories to the reader.
MacGuffin A plot device coined by Alfred Hitchcock referring to some goal, desired object, or other motivator that the protagonist pursues, often with little or no narrative explanation as to why it is considered so important. In Hitchcock’s The 39 Steps the MacGuffin is a mysterious set of “military secrets.” No one knows what they are, and in the end they mean almost nothing. For all its power, mystery, and danger, The One Ring in Lord of the Rings is a MacGuffin that saves the world. The stuff that dreams are made of. The Maltese Falcon is a powerful MacGuffin in the film of the same name, a supposedly jewel encrusted black bird which creates the greed which propels every character, even the hero.
In medias res Beginning the story in the middle of a sequence of events. A specific form of narrative hook. The Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer are prime examples. The latter work begins with the return of Odysseus to his home of Ithaka and then in flashbacks tells of his ten years of wandering following the Trojan War.
Narrative hook Story opening that "hooks" readers' attention so they will keep reading Any non-fiction book is often introduced with an interesting factoid.
Ochi A sudden interruption of the wordplay flow indicating the end of a rakugo or a kobanashi. A Rakugo is a Japanese verbal entertainment usually lasting 30 minutes which ends with a surprise punch line, a narrative stunt known as ochi (fall) or sage(lowering). Twelve kinds of ochi are codified and recognized. The earlier kobanashi was a short comical vignette ending with an ochi.
Plot twist Unexpected change ("twist") in the direction or expected outcome of the plot. See also twist ending. An early example is the Arabian Nights tale "The Three Apples". A locked chest found by a fisherman contains a dead body, and two different men claim to be the murderer, which turns out to be the investigator's own slave.
Poetic justice Virtue ultimately rewarded, or vice punished, by an ironic twist of fate related to the character's own conduct Wile E. Coyote coming up with a contraption to catch the Road Runner, only to be foiled and caught by his own devices. Each sin's punishment in Dante's Inferno is a symbolic instance of poetic justice.
Predestination paradox Time travel paradox where a time traveler is caught in a loop of events that "predestines" them to travel back in time In Doctor Who, the main character repeatedly finds himself under the obligation of having to travel back in time because of something his future character has done.
Quibble Plot device based on an argument that an agreement's intended meaning holds no legal value, and that only the exact, literal words agreed on apply. For example, William Shakespeare used a quibble in The Merchant of Venice: Portia saves Antonio in a court of law by pointing out that the agreement called for a pound of flesh, but no blood, so Shylock can collect only if he sheds no blood.
Red herring Diverting attention away from an item of significance. For example, in mystery fiction, an innocent party may be purposefully cast as highly suspicious through emphasis or descriptive techniques to divert attention from the true guilty party.
Self-fulfilling prophecy Prediction that, by being made, makes itself come true. Early examples include the legend of Oedipus, and the story of Krishna in the Mahabharata. There is also an example of this in Harry Potter when Lord Voldemort heard a prophecy (made by Sybill Trelawney to Dumbledore) that a boy born at the end of July, whose parents had defied Voldemort thrice and survived, would be made marked as his equal. Because of this prophecy, Lord Voldemort sought out Harry Potter (believing him to be the boy spoken of) and tried to kill him. His parents died protecting him, and when Voldemort tried to cast a killing curse on Harry, it rebounded and took away most of his strength, and gave Harry Potter a unique ability and connection with the Dark Lord thus marking him as his equal.
Story within a story (Hypodiegesis) A story told within another story. See also frame story. In Stephen King's The Wind Through the Keyhole, of the Dark Tower series, the protagonist tells a story from his past to his companions, and in this story he tells another relatively unrelated story.
Ticking clock scenario Threat of impending disaster—often used in thrillers where salvation and escape are essential elements In the TV show "24", the main character, Jack Bauer often finds himself interrogating a terrorist who is caught in order to disarm a bomb.
Chekhov's gun A dramatic principle that requires every element in a narrative to be irreplaceable, with anything else removed. "Remove everything that has no relevance to the story. If you say in the first chapter that there is a rifle hanging on the wall, in the second or third chapter it absolutely must go off. If it's not going to be fired, it shouldn't be hanging there." — Anton Chekhov
Unreliable narrator The narrator of the story is not sincere, or introduces a bias in their narration and possibly misleads the reader, hiding or minimizing events, characters, or motivations. An example is The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. The novel includes an unexpected plot twist at the end of the novel. In the last chapter, Sheppard describes how he was an unreliable narrator.
Perspective[edit]
Name
Definition
Example
Audience surrogate A character who expresses the questions and confusion of the audience, with whom the audience can identify. Frequently used in detective fiction and science fiction, where the character asks a central character how he or she accomplished certain deeds, for the purpose of inciting that character to explain (for the curious audience) his or her methods, or a character asking a relatively educated person to explain what amounts to the backstory. Dr Watson in the Sherlock Holmes stories. Scott Evil, played by Seth Green, son of Dr. Evil on the Austin Powers movies.
Author surrogate Characters which are based on authors, usually to support their personal views. Sometimes an intentionally or unintentionally idealized version of them. A variation is the Mary Sue or Gary Stu, which primarily serves as an idealized self-insertion. Socrates in the writings of Plato. Plato never speaks in his own voice in his dialogues. In the Second Letter, it says, "no writing of Plato exists or ever will exist, but those now said to be his are those of a Socrates become beautiful and new”.
Breaking the fourth wall An author or character addresses the audience directly (also known as direct address). This may acknowledge to the reader or audience that what is being presented is fiction, or may seek to extend the world of the story to provide the illusion that they are included in it. The characters in Sesame Street often break the fourth wall when they address their viewers as part of the ongoing storyline, which is possible because of the high level of suspension of belief afforded by its audience—children. The American political drama show House of Cards also uses this technique frequently to let the viewers know what the main character Frank Underwood is thinking and planning.
Defamiliarization Taking an everyday object and presenting it in a way that is weirdly unfamiliar so that we see the object in a new way. Coined by the early 20th-century Russian literary critic Viktor Shklovsky in "Art as Technique." In, Swift’s Gulliver's Travels when Gulliver visits the land of the giants and sees a giant woman’s skin he sees it is anything but smooth and beautiful when viewed up close.[3]
First-person narration A text presented from the point of view of a character, especially the protagonist, as if the character is telling the story themselves. (Breaking the fourth wall is an option, but not a necessity, of this format.) Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn uses the title character as the narrator, while Sherlock Holmes is primarily told from Watson's perspective.
Magical realism Describing events in a real-world setting but with magical trappings, often incorporating local customs and invented beliefs. Different from urban fantasy in that the magic itself is not the focus of the story. Particularly popular with Latin American authors like Gabriel García Márquez and Jorge Luis Borges. Elsewhere, Salman Rushdie's work provides good examples.
Multiperspectivity A narrative that is told from the viewpoints of multiple characters that incorporate various perspectives, emotions, and views from witnesses or actors to varying particular events or circumstances that might not be felt by other characters in the story. The films of Robert Altman. 2666 by Roberto Bolano features European literary critics, a Chilean philosophy professor, an African-American journalist, detectives investigating Santa Teresa murders and an obscure German writer named Benno Von Archimboldi. Pale Fire by Vladimir Nabokov features literature professor John Shade, Charles Kinbote, a neighbor and colleague of Shade’s and Charles the Beloved, king of Zembla. Kinbote is the ultimate unreliable commentator.
Second-person narration A text written in the style of a direct address, in the second-person. Rape: A Love Story.
Stream of consciousness The author uses narrative and stylistic devices to create the sense of an unedited interior monologue, characterized by leaps in syntax and punctuation that trace a character's fragmentary thoughts and sensory feelings. The outcome is a highly lucid perspective with a plot. Not to be confused with free writing. An example is Ulysses. At one point Leopold Bloom saunters through Dublin musing on “Pineapple rock, lemon platt, butter scotch. A sugar-sticky girl shovelling scoopful of creams for a Christian brother. Some school treat. Bad for their tummies.”
Third-person narration A text written as if by an impersonal narrator who is not affected by the events in the story. Can be omniscient or limited, the latter usually being tied to a specific character, a group of characters, or a location. A Song of Ice and Fire is written in multiple limited third-person narrators that change with each chapter. The Master and Margarita uses an omniscient narrator.
Style[edit]
See also: Figure of speech
Name
Definition
Example
Allegory A symbolic fiction story. C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe is a religious allegory with Aslan as Christ and Edmund as Judas.[4]
Alliteration Repeating the same letter or consonant sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words. In the film V for Vendetta the main character performs a couple of soliloquies with a heavy use of alliteration, e.g., "Voilà! In view, a humble vaudevillian veteran, cast vicariously as both victim and villain by the vicissitudes of Fate. This visage, no mere veneer of vanity, is a vestige of the vox populi, now vacant, vanished, as the once vital voice of the verisimilitude now venerates what they once vilified. However, this valorous visitation of a bygone vexation stands vivified, and has vowed to vanquish these venal and virulent vermin vanguarding vice and vouchsafing the violently vicious and voracious violation of volition. The only verdict is vengeance; a vendetta held as a votive, not in vain, for the value and veracity of such shall one day vindicate the vigilant and the virtuous. Verily, this vichyssoise of verbiage veers most verbose vis-à-vis an introduction, and so it is my very good honor to meet you and you may call me V."
Amplification (rhetoric) Amplification refers to a literary practice wherein the writer embellishes the sentence by adding more information to it in order to increase its worth and understanding. E.g., Original sentence: The thesis paper was difficult. After amplification: The thesis paper was difficult: it required extensive research, data collection, sample surveys, interviews and a lot of fieldwork.
Anagram Rearranging the letters of a word or a phrase to form a new phrase or word. E.g., An anagram for "debit card" is "bad credit". As you can see, both phrases use the same letters. By mixing the letters a bit of humor is created.
Asyndeton When sentences do not use conjunctions (e.g., and, or, nor) to separate clauses, but run clauses into one another, usually marking the separation of clauses with punctuation. An example is when John F. Kennedy said on January 20, 1961 "...that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty."
Bathos An abrupt transition in style from the exalted to the commonplace, producing a ludicrous effect. While often unintended, bathos may be used deliberately to produce a humorous effect.[5][6] : The ballerina rose gracefully en pointe and extended one slender leg behind her, like a dog at a fire hydrant.
(Jennifer Hart, Arlington)[7]
Caesura A break, especially a sense pause, usually near the middle of a verse, and marked in scansion by a double vertical line. This technique frequently occurs within a poetic line grammatically connected to the end of the previous line by enjambment. E.g., in "Know then thyself. ‖ Presume not God to scan."
Distancing effect Deliberately preventing the audience from identifying with characters in order to let them be coolly scrutinized.[8] Popularized by 20th century playwright Bertolt Brecht.
Dramatic visualization Representing an object or character with abundant descriptive detail, or mimetically rendering gestures and dialogue to make a scene more visual or imaginatively present to an audience. This technique appears at least as far back as the Arabian Nights.[9]
Euphuism An artificial, highly elaborate way of writing or speaking. Named from Euphues (1579) the prose romance by John Lyly. "Is it not far better to abhor sins by the remembrance of others' faults, than by repentance of thine own follies?" (Euphues, 1, lecture by the wise Neapolitan)
Hyperbole Exaggeration used to evoke strong feelings or create an impression which is not meant to be taken literally. Sally could no longer hide her secret. Her pregnant belly was bigger than the planet on which she stood.
Imagery Forming mental images of a scene using descriptive words, especially making use of the human senses. The same as sensory detail. When the boots came off his feet with a leathery squeak, a smell of ferment and fish market immediately filled the small tent. The skin of his toes were red and raw and sensitive. The malodorous air was so toxic he thought he could almost taste his toes.
Leitwortstil Purposefully repeating words that usually express a motif or theme important to the story. This dates back at least to the Arabian Nights.[10]
Metonymy Word or phrase in a figure of speech in which a noun is referenced by something closely associated with it, rather than explicitly by the noun itself. This is not to be confused with synecdoche, in which a part of the whole stands for the thing itself. Metonomy: The boxer threw in the towel. Synecdoche: She gave her hand in marriage.
Overstatement Exaggerating something, often for emphasis (also known as hyperbole) Sally's pregnant belly most likely weighed as much as the scooter she used to ride before she got pregnant.
Onomatopoeia Word that sounds the same as, or similar to what the word means. "Boom goes the dynamite."
Oxymoron A term made of two words that deliberately or coincidentally imply each other's opposite. "terrible beauty"
Paradox A phrase that describes an idea composed of concepts that conflict. "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times." (A Tale of Two Cities)
Parody Ridicule by overstated imitation, usually humorous. MAD Magazine
Pastiche Using forms and styles from another author, generally as an affectionate tribute. Such as the many stories featuring Sherlock Holmes not written by Arthur Conan Doyle, or much of the Cthulhu Mythos.
Pathos Emotional appeal, one of the three modes of persuasion in rhetoric that the author uses to inspire pity or sorrow towards a character—typically does not counterbalance the target character's suffering with a positive outcome, as in Tragedy. In Romeo and Juliet, the two main characters each commit suicide at the sight of the supposedly dead lover, however the audience knows these actions to be rash and unnecessary. Therefore, Shakespeare makes for the emotional appeal for the unnecessary tragedy behind the young characters' rash interpretations about love and life.
Polyptoton Words derived from the same root in a sentence. "Not as a call to battle, though embattled we are." John F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961.
Polysyndeton Polysyndeton is the use of several conjunctions in close succession, this provides a sense of exaggeration designed to wear down the audience. An example of this is in the first chapter of Great Expectations by Charles Dickens: "A man who had been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and shivered, and glared and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as he seized me by the chin"
Satire The use of humor, irony or exaggeration to criticize. An example is Network. One of the earliest examples is Gullivers Travels, written by Jonathan Swift. The television program South Park is another.
Sensory detail sight, sound, taste, touch, smell. The same as imagery The boot was tough and sinewy between his hard-biting teeth. There was no flavor to speak of except for the blandness of all the dirt that the boot had soaked up over the years. The only thing the boot reminded him of was the smell of a wet-dog.
Understatement A diminishing or softening of a theme or effect. The broken ends of the long bone were sticking through the bleeding skin, but it wasn't something that always killed a man.
Theme[edit]
Name
Definition
Example
Irony This discrepancy between expectation and reality occurs in three forms: situational irony, where a situation features a discrepancy between what is expected and what is actualized; dramatic irony, where a character is unaware of pivotal information already revealed to the audience (the discrepancy here lies in the two levels of awareness between the character and the audience); and verbal irony, where one states one thing while meaning another. The difference between verbal irony and sarcasm is exquisitely subtle and often contested. The concept of irony is too often misunderstood in popular usage. Unfortunate circumstances and coincidences do not constitute irony (nor do they qualify as being tragic). See the Usage controversy section under irony, and the term tragedy. A person hears a prophecy about himself. His endeavor to stop the prophecy from coming true, makes it come true.
Metaphor Evoking imagination by means of using figurative language. Her tears were a river flowing down her cheeks.
Thematic patterning Distributing recurrent thematic concepts and moralistic motifs among various incidents and frames of a story. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may emphasize the unifying argument or salient idea disparate events and disparate frames have in common. Each of the chapters of Ulysses by James Joyce.
Character[edit]
Name
Type
Notes
Anthropomorphism Form of personification that applies human-like characteristics to animals and objects The Adventures of Pinocchio by Carlo Collodi or the Cheshire Cat of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll
Hamartia The character flaw of an initially rich and powerful hero that leads to his tragic downfall. This is also referred to as the tragic flaw. Oedipus kills his own father because he doesn't understand his true parentage.
Pathetic fallacy Reflecting a character's (usually the protagonist) mood in the atmosphere or inanimate objects. Related to anthropomorphism and projection For example, the storm in William Shakespeare's King Lear, which mirrors Lear's mental deterioration.
Personification Using comparative metaphors and similes to give living characteristics to abstract concepts and non-human entities Taken from Act I, Scene II of Romeo and Juliet: “When well-appareled April on the heel / Of limping winter treads.”[11]
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Orehovec, Barbara (2003). Revisiting the Reading Workshop: A Complete Guide to Organizing and Managing an Effective Reading Workshop That Builds Independent, Strategic Readers (illustrated ed.). Scholastic Inc. p. 89. ISBN 0439444047.
Jump up ^ Demchick, Harrison (2013-09-26). "Techniques and Tension in Breaking Bad". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Literature Glossary - Defamiliarization". www.shmoop.com. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ "Allegory Examples". YourDictionary. Retrieved 2017-11-14.
Jump up ^ Fiske, Robert Hartwell (1 November 2011). Robert Hartwell Fiske's Dictionary of Unendurable English: A Compendium of Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Spelling with commentary on lexicographers and linguists. Scribner. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-4516-5134-8.
Jump up ^ Abrams, Meyer Howard; Harpham, Geoffrey Galt (2009). A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-4130-3390-8.
Jump up ^ High School Analogies
Jump up ^ Graham Allen (2 June 2004). Roland Barthes. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 1-134-50341-5.
Jump up ^ Heath, Peter (May 1994), "Reviewed work(s): Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights by David Pinault", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Cambridge University Press, 26 (2): 358–360, doi:10.1017/s0020743800060633
Jump up ^ Heath (1994) p. 360
Jump up ^ "Personification - Examples and Definition of Personification". 2013-06-27. Retrieved 2016-08-16.
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Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Ladies' singles
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Ladies' singles
at the XXIII Olympic Winter Games
Venue
Gangneung Ice Arena
Gangneung, South Korea
Dates
21–23 February
Competitors
30 from 20 nations
Winning score
239.57
Medalists
01 !
Alina Zagitova Olympic Athletes from Russia
02 !
Evgenia Medvedeva Olympic Athletes from Russia
03 !
Kaetlyn Osmond Canada
← 2014
2022 →
Figure skating at the
2018 Winter Olympics
Qualification
Singles
men ladies
Pairs
mixed
Ice dancing
mixed
Team event
mixed
v
t
e
The ladies' single figure skating competition of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung, South Korea.[1] The short program was held on 21 February, and the free skating was held on 23 February.[2][3]
Contents
[hide]
1 Records
2 Qualification
3 Schedule
4 Results
4.1 Short program
4.2 Free skating
4.3 Overall
5 References
Records[edit]
See also: World and Olympic records set at the 2018 Winter Olympics
For a complete list of figure skating records, see list of highest scores in figure skating.
The following new best scores were set during this competition:
Component
Skaters
Score
Date
Ref
Short program Evgenia Medvedeva (OAR) 81.61 21 February 2018 [4][5]
Alina Zagitova (OAR) 82.92
The Olympic Athletes from Russia set two subsequent world records in the short program on February 21, with Evgenia Medvedeva scoring 81.61 and then Alina Zagitova scoring 82.92 ten minutes later.[4][5]
Qualification[edit]
Main article: Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics – Qualification
A total of 30 skaters qualified to compete in the event, with each country allowed to only enter a maximum of three. 24 quotas were handed out during the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships and the remaining six were given out at the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy. Each country decided the entry of its teams, and athletes winning the quota were not necessarily granted the right to compete.[6] All athletes competing must have met the minimum total elements score, which does not include component scores. For the short program this was 20.00 and the free skate 36.00.[7]
Schedule[edit]
All times are (UTC+9).
Date
Time
Round
21 February 10:00[2] Short program
23 February 10:00[2] Free skating
Results[edit]
Short program[edit]
The short program was held on 21 February.[2][8]
Pl.
Name
Nation
TSS
TES
PCS
SS
TR
PE
CH
IN
Ded
StN
1
Alina Zagitova Olympic Athletes from Russia 82.92 WR 45.30 37.62 9.36 9.18 9.64 9.43 9.43 0.00 28
2
Evgenia Medvedeva Olympic Athletes from Russia 81.61 43.19 38.42 9.54 9.39 9.71 9.68 9.71 0.00 25
3
Kaetlyn Osmond Canada 78.87 41.83 37.04 9.32 9.00 9.36 9.29 9.32 0.00 27
4
Satoko Miyahara Japan 75.94 40.25 35.69 8.96 8.75 9.00 8.86 9.04 0.00 26
5
Kaori Sakamoto Japan 73.18 40.36 32.82 8.43 7.96 8.29 8.18 8.18 0.00 19
6
Carolina Kostner Italy 73.15 35.06 38.09 9.46 9.32 9.54 9.61 9.68 0.00 29
7
Gabrielle Daleman Canada 68.90 35.90 33.00 8.32 8.04 8.18 8.25 8.46 0.00 21
8
Choi Da-bin South Korea 67.77 37.54 30.23 7.75 7.29 7.68 7.5 7.57 0.00 24
9
Mirai Nagasu United States 66.93 37.24 30.69 8.04 7.36 7.61 7.68 7.68 -1.00 20
10
Karen Chen United States 65.90 33.53 32.37 8.07 7.89 8.14 8.11 8.25 0.00 22
11
Bradie Tennell United States 64.01 35.50 29.51 7.57 7.25 7.25 7.43 7.39 -1.00 1
12
Maria Sotskova Olympic Athletes from Russia 63.86 31.47 33.39 8.46 8.21 8.21 8.46 8.39 -1.00 30
13
Nicole Rajičová Slovakia 60.59 32.36 28.23 7.18 6.82 7.21 7.00 7.07 0.00 18
14
Nicole Schott Germany 59.20 31.62 27.58 6.96 6.61 7.07 6.86 6.96 0.00 17
15
Elizabet Tursynbayeva Kazakhstan 58.82 29.14 29.68 7.46 7.18 7.50 7.43 7.54 0.00 23
16
Kailani Craine Australia 56.77 30.36 26.41 6.61 6.32 6.71 6.57 6.79 0.00 13
17
Isadora Williams Brazil 55.74 29.83 25.91 6.54 6.29 6.64 6.46 6.46 0.00 2
18
Emmi Peltonen Finland 55.28 28.48 27.80 7.00 6.64 6.96 7.07 7.07 -1.00 10
19
Alexia Paganini Switzerland 55.26 29.99 25.27 6.39 6.14 6.39 6.39 6.29 0.00 8
20
Loena Hendrickx Belgium 55.16 27.79 27.37 7.04 6.64 6.82 6.82 6.89 0.00 16
21
Kim Ha-nul South Korea 54.33 29.41 24.92 6.36 6.00 6.32 6.29 6.18 0.00 5
22
Maé-Bérénice Méité France 53.67 28.24 25.43 6.57 6.14 6.46 6.29 6.32 0.00 12
23
Ivett Tóth Hungary 53.22 27.60 25.62 6.54 6.18 6.43 6.39 6.50 0.00 14
24
Li Xiangning China 52.46 27.27 26.19 6.64 6.29 6.54 6.64 6.64 -1.00 7
Did not advance to free skating
25
Larkyn Austman Canada 51.42 25.93 26.49 6.71 6.32 6.61 6.71 6.75 -1.00 11
26
Diāna Ņikitina Latvia 51.12 26.35 24.77 6.29 5.93 6.18 6.32 6.25 0.00 4
27
Giada Russo Italy 50.88 25.90 25.98 6.57 6.25 6.50 6.54 6.61 -1.00 15
28
Anita Östlund Sweden 49.14 25.35 23.79 6.14 5.82 5.93 5.93 5.93 0.00 6
29
Anna Khnychenkova Ukraine 47.59 26.66 22.93 5.86 5.54 5.61 5.82 5.82 -2.00 3
30
Aiza Mambekova Kazakhstan 44.40 21.29 23.11 5.71 5.46 5.82 5.89 6.00 0.00 9
Notes:
WR - World record
TSS - Total Segment Score; TES - Technical Element Score; PCS - Program Component Score
SS - Skating Skills; TR - Transitions; PE - Performance/Execution
CH - Choreography; IN - Interpretation; Ded - Deduction; StN - Starting Number
Free skating[edit]
The free skating was held on 23 February.[2][9]
Pl.
Name
Nation
TSS
TES
PCS
SS
TR
PE
CH
IN
Ded
StN
1
Evgenia Medvedeva Olympic Athletes from Russia * 156.65 * 79.18 * 77.47 * 9.57 9.43 9.82 9.71 9.89 0.00 24
2
Alina Zagitova Olympic Athletes from Russia * 156.65 * 81.62 * 75.03 * 9.32 9.21 9.61 9.29 9.46 0.00 22
3
Kaetlyn Osmond Canada 152.15 76.50 75.65 9.50 9.21 9.57 9.39 9.61 0.00 23
4
Satoko Miyahara Japan 146.44 75.20 71.24 8.93 8.64 9.07 8.89 9.00 0.00 19
5
Carolina Kostner Italy 139.29 63.64 75.65 9.46 9.25 9.43 9.57 9.57 0.00 20
6
Kaori Sakamoto Japan 136.53 68.42 68.11 8.57 8.36 8.50 8.57 8.57 0.00 21
7
Maria Sotskova Olympic Athletes from Russia 134.24 66.94 67.30 8.39 8.14 8.54 8.43 8.57 0.00 13
8
Choi Da-bin South Korea 131.49 68.74 62.75 7.86 7.57 8.04 7.86 7.89 0.00 17
9
Bradie Tennell United States 128.34 65.41 62.93 7.93 7.68 7.79 7.93 8.00 0.00 15
10
Kim Ha-nul South Korea 121.38 67.03 54.35 6.96 6.46 7.00 6.68 6.86 0.00 4
11
Karen Chen United States 119.75 56.65 64.10 8.18 7.64 7.96 8.07 8.21 -1.00 14
12
Mirai Nagasu United States 119.61 57.56 62.05 8.14 7.50 7.71 7.75 7.68 0.00 18
13
Elizabet Tursynbayeva Kazakhstan 118.30 60.50 58.80 7.39 7.11 7.39 7.43 7.43 -1.00 7
14
Loena Hendrickx Belgium 116.72 60.73 55.99 7.07 6.71 7.11 6.96 7.14 0.00 2
15
Nicole Rajičová Slovakia 114.60 57.80 56.80 7.11 6.89 7.25 7.25 7.21 0.00 11
16
Kailani Craine Australia 111.84 57.89 57.89 6.68 6.54 7.00 6.64 6.86 0.00 9
17
Nicole Schott Germany 109.26 52.68 56.58 7.04 6.82 7.04 7.18 7.29 0.00 10
18
Maé-Bérénice Méité France 106.25 55.13 52.12 6.50 6.29 6.61 6.54 6.64 -1.00 3
19
Gabrielle Daleman Canada 103.56 45.81 61.75 8.00 7.64 7.39 7.93 7.64 -4.00 16
20
Li Xiangning China 101.97 50.56 51.41 6.57 6.21 6.46 6.39 6.50 0.00 5
21
Emmi Peltonen Finland 101.86 46.41 56.45 7.14 6.79 7.00 7.07 7.29 -1.00 8
22
Alexia Paganini Switzerland 101.00 50.94 50.06 6.43 6.00 6.29 6.32 6.25 0.00 1
23
Ivett Tóth Hungary 97.21 49.82 50.39 6.32 6.29 6.21 6.39 6.29 -3.00 6
24
Isadora Williams Brazil 88.44 38.39 51.05 6.43 6.18 6.36 6.43 6.50 -1.00 12
* Evgenia Medvedeva finished at higher place due to better program component score
Overall[edit]
The skaters were ranked according to their overall score.[10]
TP - Total points; SP - Short program; FS - Free skating
Rank
Name
Nation
Total points
SP
FS
01 !
Alina Zagitova Olympic Athletes from Russia 239.57 82.92 1 156.65 2
02 !
Evgenia Medvedeva Olympic Athletes from Russia 238.26 81.61 2 156.65 1
03 !
Kaetlyn Osmond Canada 231.02 78.87 3 152.15 3
4
Satoko Miyahara Japan 222.38 75.94 4 146.44 4
5
Carolina Kostner Italy 212.44 73.15 6 139.29 5
6
Kaori Sakamoto Japan 209.71 73.18 5 136.53 6
7
Choi Da-bin South Korea 199.26 67.77 8 131.49 8
8
Maria Sotskova Olympic Athletes from Russia 198.10 63.86 12 134.24 7
9
Bradie Tennell United States 192.35 64.01 11 128.34 9
10
Mirai Nagasu United States 186.54 66.93 9 119.61 12
11
Karen Chen United States 185.65 65.90 10 119.75 11
12
Elizabet Tursynbayeva Kazakhstan 177.12 58.82 15 118.30 13
13
Kim Ha-nul South Korea 175.71 54.33 21 121.38 10
14
Nicole Rajičová Slovakia 175.19 60.59 13 114.60 15
15
Gabrielle Daleman Canada 172.46 68.90 7 103.56 19
16
Loena Hendrickx Belgium 171.88 55.16 20 116.72 14
17
Kailani Craine Australia 168.61 56.77 16 111.84 16
18
Nicole Schott Germany 168.46 59.20 14 109.26 17
19
Maé-Bérénice Méité France 159.92 53.67 22 106.25 18
20
Emmi Peltonen Finland 157.14 55.28 18 101.86 21
21
Alexia Paganini Switzerland 156.26 55.26 19 101.00 22
22
Li Xiangning China 154.43 52.46 24 101.97 20
23
Ivett Tóth Hungary 150.43 53.22 23 97.21 23
24
Isadora Williams Brazil 144.18 55.74 17 88.44 24
Did not advance to free skating
25
Larkyn Austman Canada N/A 51.42 25 N/A N/A
26
Diāna Ņikitina Latvia N/A 51.12 26 N/A N/A
27
Giada Russo Italy N/A 50.88 27 N/A N/A
28
Anita Östlund Sweden N/A 49.14 28 N/A N/A
29
Anna Khnychenkova Ukraine N/A 47.59 29 N/A N/A
30
Aiza Mambekova Kazakhstan N/A 44.40 30 N/A N/A
References[edit]
Jump up ^ "Venues". www.pyeongchang2018.com/. Pyeongchang 2018 Olympic Organizing Committee for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e "Schedule". Retrieved 6 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Start list
^ Jump up to: a b Bieler, Des; Janes, Chelsea (21 February 2018). "Alina Zagitova tops Russian teammate Evgenia Medvedeva's world-record short program score". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
^ Jump up to: a b "Russia's Zagitova beats Medvedeva's short program world record at Olympics". TASS. 21 February 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2018.
Jump up ^ "Qualification Systems for XXIII Olympic Winter Games, PyeongChang 2018, Figure skating". International Skating Union (ISU). 17 May 2016. Retrieved 20 January 2018.
Jump up ^ "Extract from ISU Communication 2097". www.iceskating.org.uk/. National Ice Skating Association (UK). Retrieved 20 January 2018.
Jump up ^ Short program results
Jump up ^ Free skating results
Jump up ^ Final results
[show]
v
t
e
Olympic champions in figure skating – Ladies' singles
1908: Madge Syers (GBR)
1920: Magda Julin (SWE)
1924: Herma Szabo (AUT)
1928: Sonja Henie (NOR)
1932: Sonja Henie (NOR)
1936: Sonja Henie (NOR)
1948: Barbara Ann Scott (CAN)
1952: Jeannette Altwegg (GBR)
1956: Tenley Albright (USA)
1960: Carol Heiss (USA)
1964: Sjoukje Dijkstra (NED)
1968: Peggy Fleming (USA)
1972: Trixi Schuba (AUT)
1976: Dorothy Hamill (USA)
1980: Anett Pötzsch (GDR)
1984: Katarina Witt (GDR)
1988: Katarina Witt (GDR)
1992: Kristi Yamaguchi (USA)
1994: Oksana Baiul (UKR)
1998: Tara Lipinski (USA)
2002: Sarah Hughes (USA)
2006: Shizuka Arakawa (JPN)
2010: Yuna Kim (KOR)
2014: Adelina Sotnikova (RUS)
2018: Alina Zagitova (OAR)
[show]
v
t
e
Record scores in figure skating
Combined total (Total)
Short program (SP)
Free skating (FS)
Short dance (SD)
Free dance (FD)
Juniors (J)
Men
Total: Yuzuru Hanyu 330.43
SP: Yuzuru Hanyu 112.72
FS: Yuzuru Hanyu 223.20
Total (J): Vincent Zhou 258.11
SP (J): Shoma Uno 84.87
FS (J): Vincent Zhou 179.24
Ladies
Total: Evgenia Medvedeva 241.31
SP: Alina Zagitova 82.92
FS: Evgenia Medvedeva 160.46
Total (J): Alexandra Trusova 225.52
SP (J): Alexandra Trusova 73.25
FS (J): Alexandra Trusova 153.49
Pairs
Total: Aliona Savchenko / Bruno Massot 245.84
SP: Tatiana Volosozhar / Maxim Trankov 84.17
FS: Savchenko / Massot 162.86
Total (J): Anna Dušková / Martin Bidař 181.82
SP (J): Amina Atakhanova / Ilia Spiridonov 64.79
FS (J): Sui Wenjing / Han Cong 118.54
Ice dance
Total: Gabriella Papadakis / Guillaume Cizeron 207.20
SD: Papadakis / Cizeron 83.73
FD: Papadakis / Cizeron 123.47
Total (J): Rachel Parsons / Michael Parsons 164.83
SD (J): R. Parsons / M. Parsons 67.88
FD (J): R. Parsons / M. Parsons 97.54
See also
Progression of record scores
Record technical and component scores
Highest technical element scores
Highest program component scores
See also (J)
Record junior scores
Progression of record scores (J)
Record technical and component scores (J)
Highest technical element scores (J)
Highest program component scores (J)
[show]
v
t
e
2017–18 figure skating season
Olympics
Qualification
Men's singles
Ladies' singles
Pair skating
Ice dancing
Team event
ISU Championships
European Championships
Four Continents Championships
World Junior Championships
World Championships
ISU Grand Prix
Rostelecom Cup
Skate Canada International
Cup of China
NHK Trophy
Internationaux de France
Skate America
Grand Prix Final
ISU Challenger Series
U.S. Classic
Lombardia Trophy
Autumn Classic
Ondrej Nepela Trophy
Nebelhorn Trophy
Finlandia Trophy
Minsk-Arena Ice Star
Warsaw Cup
Tallinn Trophy
Golden Spin of Zagreb
Junior internationals
ISU Junior Grand Prix
Junior Grand Prix Final
National championships
Canada
China
Germany
Japan
Russia
South Korea
United States
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Figure_skating_at_the_2018_Winter_Olympics_–_Ladies%27_singles&oldid=827594424"
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I before E except after C
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see I before E except after C (disambiguation).
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
"I before E, except after C" is a mnemonic rule of thumb for English spelling. If one is unsure whether a word is spelled with the sequence ei or ie, the rhyme suggests that the correct order is ie unless the preceding letter is c, in which case it is ei. For example:
ie in believe, fierce, collie, die, friend
ei after c in receive, ceiling, receipt, ceilidh
The rule is very well known; Edward Carney calls it "this supreme, and for many people solitary, spelling rule".[1] However, the short form quoted above has many common exceptions; for example:
ie after c: species, science, sufficient
ei not preceded by c: seize, vein, weird, their, feisty, foreign
The proportion of exceptions can be reduced by restricting application of the rule based on the sound represented by the spelling. Two common restrictions are:
excluding cases where the spelling represents the "long a"[n 1] sound (the lexical sets of FACE /eɪ/ and perhaps SQUARE /ɛər/). This is commonly expressed by continuing the rhyme "or when sounding like A, as in neighbor or weigh"
including only cases where the spelling represents the "long e"[n 1] sound (the lexical sets of FLEECE /iː/ and perhaps NEAR /ɪər/ and happY /i/).
Some authorities deprecate the rule as having too many exceptions to be worth learning.[2][3][4][5]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 History of the spellings
1.2 History of the mnemonic
2 Modern views
3 Exceptions
3.1 cie
3.1.1 With the "long e" vowel
3.1.2 With other sounds
3.2 ei not preceded by c
3.2.1 With the "long e" vowel
3.2.2 With the "long a" vowel
3.2.3 With other sounds
4 Popular culture
5 Footnote
6 References
6.1 Sources
6.2 Citations
History[edit]
History of the spellings[edit]
The Middle English language evolved from Old English after the Norman conquest, adding many loanwords from Norman French, whose sounds and spellings changed and were changed by the older English customs. In French loanwords, the digraph <ie> generally represented the sound [eː], while <ei> represented [ɛː]. However, Early Modern English spelling was not fixed; many words were spelled with <ie> and <ei> interchangeably, in printed works of the seventeenth century and private correspondence of educated people into the nineteenth century. In the Great Vowel Shift, sounds [eː] and [ɛː] were raised to [iː] and [eː] respectively, with the latter subsequently becoming the diphthong [eɪ]. Exceptionally, words in -ceive and their derivatives evolved from [eː] to [iː] rather than [eɪ].[6][7]
History of the mnemonic[edit]
The mnemonic (in its short form) is found as early as 1866, as a footnote in Manual of English Spelling,[8] edited by schools inspector James Stuart Laurie from the work of a Tavistock schoolmaster named Marshall.[9] Michael Quinion surmises the rhyme was already established before this date.[10] An 1834 manual states a similar rule in prose;[11] others in 1855 and 1862 use different rhymes.[12][13] Many textbooks from the 1870s on use the same rhyme as Laurie's book.[10]
The restriction to the "long e" sound is explicitly made in the 1855 and 1862 books, and applied to the "I before E except after C" rhyme in an 1871 manual.[14] Mark Wainwright's FAQ posting on the alt.usage.English newsgroup characterises this restricted version as British.[15] The restriction may be implicit, or may be explicitly included as an extra line such as "when the sound is e" placed before[15] or after[16] the main part of the rhyme.
A longer form excluding the "long a" sound is found in Rule 37 of Ebenezer Cobham Brewer's 1880 Rules for English Spelling, along with a list of the "chief exceptions":[17]
The following rhymes contain the substance of the last three rules : —
i before e,
Except after c,
Or when sounded as "a,"
As in neighbour and weigh.
"Dr Brewer" is credited as the author by subsequent writers quoting this form of the rhyme,[18][19][20] which became common in American schools.[10]
A Dictionary of Modern English Usage discusses "i before e except after c". Henry Watson Fowler's original 1926 edition called the rule "very useful", restricting it to words with the "long e" sound, stating further that "words in which that sound is not invariable, as either, neither, inveigle, do not come under it", and calling seize "an important exception".[21] The entry was retained in Ernest Gowers's 1965 revision.[22] Robert Burchfield rewrote it for the 1996 edition, stating 'the rule can helpfully be extended "except when the word is pronounced with /eɪ/"', and giving a longer list of exceptions, including words excluded from Fowler's interpretation.[23] Robert Allen's 2008 pocket edition states, "The traditional spelling rule ' i before e except after c ' should be extended to include the statement 'when the combination is pronounced -ee- '".[24]
In 1932 Leonard B. Wheat examined the rules and word lists found in various American elementary school spelling books. He calculated that, of the 3,876 words listed, 128 had ei or ie in the spelling; of these, 83 conformed to I-before-E, 6 to except-after-C, and 12 to sounded-like-A. He found 14 words with i-e in separate syllables, and 2 with e-i in separate syllables. This left 11 "irregular" words: 3 with cie (ancient, conscience, efficiency) and 8 with ei (either, foreign, foreigner, height, leisure, neither, seize, their). Wheat concluded, "If it were not for the fact that the jingle of the rule makes it easy to remember (although not necessarily easy to apply), the writer would recommend that the rule be reduced to 'I usually comes before e,' or that it be discarded entirely".[2]
Modern views[edit]
Sandra Wilde in 1990 claimed the sounded-like-E version of the rule was one of only two sound–letter correspondence rules worth teaching in elementary schools.[26] The rule was covered by five of nine software programs for spelling education studied by Barbara Mullock in 2012.[25]
Edward Carney's 1994 Survey of English Spelling describes the ["long-e" version of the] rule as "peculiar":[1]
Its practical use is ... simply deciding between two correspondences for /iː/ that are a visual metathesis of each other. It is not a general graphotactic rule applicable to other phonemes. So, although seize and heinous (if you pronounce it with /iː/ rather than /eɪ/) are exceptions, heifer, leisure with /e/≡<ei> or rein, vein with /eɪ/≡<ei> are not exceptions; <ie> is not a usual spelling of /e/ or /eɪ/.
As to the usefulness of the rule, he says:[27]
Such rules are warnings against common pitfalls for the unwary. Nevertheless, selection among competing correspondences has never been, and could never be, covered by such aids to memory.
The converse of the "except after c" part is Carney's spelling-to-sound rule E.16: in the sequence <cei>, the <ei> is pronounced /iː/.[28] In Carney's test wordlist, all eight words with <cei> conform to this rule, which he thus describes as being a "marginal" rule with an "efficiency" of 100%.[28] Rarer loanwords not in the wordlist may not conform; e.g. the Gaelic word ceilidh is pronounced /keɪliː/.
Mark Wainwright's FAQ posting interprets the rule as applying only to the FLEECE vowel, not the NEAR vowel; he regards it as useful if "a little common sense" is used for the exceptions.[15] The FAQ includes a 1996 response to Wainwright by an American, listing variations on the rule and their exceptions, contending that even the restricted version has too many exceptions, and concluding "Instead of trying to defend the 'rule' or 'guideline', "'i' before 'e' except after 'c'", why don't we all just agree that it is dumb and useless, and be content just to laugh at it?"[29]
Kory Stamper of Merriam-Webster has said the neighbor-and-weigh version is "chocked with tons of exceptions", listing several types.[3] On Language Log in 2006, Mark Liberman suggested that the alternative "i before e, no matter what" was more reliable than the basic rule.[4] On the same blog in 2009, Geoff Pullum wrote, 'The rule is always taught, by anyone who knows what they are doing, as "i before e except after c when the sound is 'ee'."'[16]
The 2009 edition of Support for Spelling, by the English Department for Education,[5] suggests an "Extension activity" for Year Five (nine-year-olds):
Children investigate the rule i before e except after c. Does this always apply? What sound does ie make in these words?
In the Appendix, after a list of nine "useful spelling guidelines", there is a note:
The i before e except after c rule is not worth teaching. It applies only to words in which the ie or ei stands for a clear /ee/ sound and unless this is known, words such as sufficient, veil and their look like exceptions. There are so few words where the ei spelling for the /ee/ sound follows the letter c that it is easier to learn the specific words: receive, conceive, deceive (+ the related words receipt, conceit, deceit), perceive and ceiling.
There were widespread media reports of this recommendation, which generated some controversy. [10][16]
The Oxford Dictionaries website of Oxford University Press states "The rule only applies when the sound represented is ‘ee’, though. It doesn’t apply to words like science or efficient, in which the –ie- combination does follow the letter c but isn’t pronounced ‘ee’."[30]
David Crystal discusses the rule in his 2012 history of English spelling.[31] He first restricts it to the /iː/ vowel, then accounts for several classes of exception. He states that, while the exceptions are fewer and rarer than the words that follow the rule, there are too many to learn by heart; the factors are "too great to reduce to a simple rule", but "a basic knowledge of grammar and word-history" can handle them.[31]
Exceptions[edit]
The following sections list exceptions to the basic form; many are not exceptions to the augmented forms.
Words which break both the "I before E" part and the "except after C" part of the rule include cheiromancies, cleidomancies, eigenfrequencies, obeisancies, oneiromancies.
cie[edit]
Some large groups of words have cie in the spelling. Few common words have the cei spelling handled by the rule: verbs ending -ceive and their derivatives (perceive, deceit, transceiver, receipts, etc.), and ceiling. The BBC trivia show QI claimed there were 923 words spelled cie, 21 times the number of words which conform to the rule's stated exception by being written with cei.[32] These figures were generated by a QI fan from a Scrabble wordlist.[33] The statistic was repeated by UberFacts.[34]
With the "long e" vowel[edit]
The vowel represented by ie in words spelled cie is rarely the "long e" vowel of FLEECE (/iː/), so few words are exceptions to the version of the rule restricted to that sound. Among them are specie, species.
For those with happy-tensing accents, the final y in words ending -cy has the FLEECE vowel, and therefore so do inflected forms ending -cies or -cied (fancied, policies, etc.).
If the vowel of NEAR (/ɪər/) is considered as "long e", then words ending -cier may also be exceptions. Possible examples include: fancier, if pronounced with two rather than three syllables; or financier, if stressed on the final syllable or pronounced with a happy-tensing accent.
With other sounds[edit]
These are exceptions to the basic and "long a" versions of the rhyme, but not to the "long e" version.
Types include:
Adding suffix -er to root in -cy, giving a two-syllable ending -cier; For example, fancier (adjective "more fancy", or noun "one who fancies")
Words of Latin origin with a root ending in c(i) followed by a suffix or inflexion starting in (i)e; such as
fac or fic "do; make" (efficient, stupefacient, etc.)
soc "sharing; kin" (society)
sci "know" (science, prescient, etc.)
Others: ancient, concierge, glacier
ei not preceded by c[edit]
Many words have ei not preceded by c. In the sections which follow, most derived forms are omitted; for example, as well as seize, there exist disseize and seizure. Words are grouped by the phonemes (sounds) corresponding to ei or ie in the spelling; each phoneme is represented phonetically as at Help:IPA/English and, where applicable, by the keyword in John C. Wells' lexical sets.
An asterisk* after a word indicates the pronunciation implied is one of several found. Some have an /iː/ variant more common in America than Britain (e.g. sheikh, leisure, either have /eɪ/, /ɛ/, /aɪ/ respectively).
With the "long e" vowel[edit]
Words where ei, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of FLEECE (/iː/), are the only exceptions to the strictest British interpretation of the "long e" version of the rhyme. Less strict interpretations admit as exceptions those words where eir, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of NEAR (/ɪər/).
Some categories of exception:
Many proper names, often because they are adopted from other languages. Fowler says the rule "is useless with proper names";[21] Carney says "As one might expect of any rule, there are likely to be even more exceptions in names, many of which are Scottish":[35]
forenames and surnames Keith, Neil, Sheila, Stein, etc.
placenames Leith, Keighley, Rheims, Raleigh, etc.
Eid in the names of Muslim holidays (Eid ul-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, etc.)
others like Cassiopeia
Chemical names ending in -ein or -eine (caffeine, casein, codeine, phthalein, protein, etc.). Here -ein(e) was originally pronounced as two syllables /iː.ɪn/
Scottish English words (deil, deid, weill, etc.) Mark Wainwright writes "There are many exceptions in Scots, so speakers with a large Scots vocabulary may as well give up on this rule."[15]
Other exceptions:
/iː/ FLEECE
either*, heinous*, inveigle*, keister, leisure*, monteith, neither*, obeisance*, seize, seizin, sheikh*, teiid
/ɪər/ NEAR
madeira, weir, weird. (This sound may also be spelled ier, as in pierce.)
With the "long a" vowel[edit]
There are many words where ei, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of FACE (/eɪ/). There are a few where eir, not preceded by c, represents the vowel of SQUARE (/ɛər/). These groups of words are exceptions only to the basic form of the rhyme; they are excluded from both of the common restricted forms.
/eɪ/ FACE
With eigh spelling: eight, freight, heigh-ho*, inveigh, neigh, neighbo(u)r, sleigh, weigh
Others: abseil, beige, capoeira,[36] cleidoic, deign, dreidel, feign, feint, geisha, glei, greige, greisen, heinous*, inveigle*, nonpareil*, obeisance*, peignoir*, reign, rein, seiche, seidel, seine, sheikh*, skein, surveillance, veil, vein. (While Carney says this sound is never spelled ie,[37] the last vowel in lingerie* is often the FACE vowel.).
/ɛər/ SQUARE
heir, their. (This sound is never spelled ier)
With other sounds[edit]
These are exceptions to the basic and "long a" versions of the rhyme, but not to the "long e" version.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
/aɪ/ PRICE
eider, either*, einsteinium, feisty, gneiss, heigh-ho*, height, heist, kaleidoscope, leitmotiv, neither*, Rottweiler, seismic, sleight, stein, zeitgeist. (This sound may also be spelled ie, but only at the end of a morpheme as in die, pies, cried.[38])
/ɪ/ or /ə/ (see weak-vowel merger)
counterfeit, foreign, forfeit, reveille*, sovereign, surfeit
/ɛ/ DRESS
heifer, leisure*, nonpareil*, peignoir*. (This sound is spelled ie in the word friend.)
/æ/ TRAP
reveille*
/ɜ/ NURSE
O'Beirne
e and i in separate segments (and often separate syllables or morphemes)
Prefixes de- or re- before words starting with i (deindustrialize, reignite, etc.)
Inflection -ing of those verbs with roots ending in -e which do not drop the e (being, seeing, swingeing, etc.)
Others: albeit, atheism, deify, deity, herein, nuclei, onomatopoeia
Popular culture[edit]
The rhyme is mentioned in several films and TV episodes about spelling bees, including A Boy Named Charlie Brown, The Simpsons episode "I'm Spelling as Fast as I Can", and an episode of Arthur; and also in the musical The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, when Huck Finn is being taught how to read. The rhyme was used as a climactic plot device in the 1990 TaleSpin episode "Vowel Play" when Kit corrects Baloo's spelling by reciting the second half ("or when sounding like A, as in neighbour or weigh") of the mnemonic.
I Before E (Except After C): Old-School Ways To Remember Stuff was a miscellany released in the UK for the Christmas 2007 "stocking filler" market,[39] which sold well.[40]
"I Before E Except After C" is a song on Yazoo's 1982 album Upstairs at Eric's. The Jackson 5's 1970 hit "ABC" has the lyric "I before E except after C". "I before E except after C" was a 1963 episode of the TV series East Side/West Side.
I Before E is the name of both a short-story collection by Sam Kieth and a music album by Carissa's Wierd, in each case alluding to the unusual spelling of the creator's name. Until the 1930s, Pierce City, Missouri was named "Peirce City", after Andrew Peirce. A 1982 attempt to revert to the original spelling was rejected by the United States Census Bureau.[41]
Comedian Brian Regan employs the rule in a joke on his debut CD Live in the track Stupid in School.[42]
Footnote[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b The labels "long a" and "long e", discredited among educators, are used here as umbrella terms for multiple lexical sets and diaphonemes.
References[edit]
Sources[edit]
Carney, Edward (1994). A survey of English spelling. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-09270-8. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
Upward, Christopher; Davidson, George (2011-09-15). The History of English Spelling. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444342970. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
Citations[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b Carney 1994, §2.8.2 pp.67–68
^ Jump up to: a b Wheat, Leonard B. (May 1932). "Four Spelling Rules". The Elementary School Journal. University of Chicago Press. 32 (9): 697–706. doi:10.1086/456796. JSTOR 996052.
^ Jump up to: a b Stamper, Kory. "I before E" (Adobe Flash). Ask the Editor. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Liberman, Mark (18 November 2006). "Mrs. Olsen gets a D". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b "Support for Spelling" (PDF). The National Strategies: Primary Framework: Literacy Framework. Department for Education. February 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Scragg, D. G. (1974). A History of English Spelling. Manchester University Press. pp. 49 (text and fn.1). ISBN 9780719005534. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
Jump up ^ Upward and Davidson 2011, pp.127–8
Jump up ^ Laurie, James Stuart (1866). Manual of English spelling. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co. p. 59. OCLC 266992241. Retrieved 4 April 2013. Laurie's book erroneously lists conscience, seine, seize, and seizure under "ei" rather than under "exceptions".
Jump up ^ "Laurie's Manual of English Spelling". The Bookseller. J. Whitaker (109): 15. 31 January 1867. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Quinion, Michael (4 July 2009). "I before E except after C". World Wide Words. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Tallant, Anne (1834). The practice book; containing lessons in dictating, with questions, intended to remove difficulties in English instruction, and to communicate interesting historical and natural facts (2nd ed.). London: J. Hatchard & Son. p. 68, fn. Retrieved 27 February 2011. As a little confusion is experienced by scholars, when spelling dissyllable verbs ending in ie, it is well to remember that when the diphthong is preceded by c, it is invariably ei,—ex: perceive, deceive, conceive, &c, and when preceded by any other consonant, ie, ex:—believe, reprieve, retrieve, &c.
Jump up ^ Michôd, John (1855). "Vowels: Rule 5". Orthographic aids; or, Mnemonics for spelling and exercises in derivation. London: Longman. p. 9. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
The Diphthong ei when it sounds like long e,
Most frequently follows the consonant c;
Reverse it, and then if it still sound the same,
It follows a consonant not c by name,
Except in such words as—counterfeit, seizure,
Plebeian and Proper Names such as Madeira.
Jump up ^ Mongan, James Roscoe (1862). The practical spelling book (2nd ed.). London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co. pp. 13, fn. Retrieved 27 February 2011. Unless preceded by a c, / The i is placed before the e.
Jump up ^ Colquhoun, John Stuart (1871). "Rules for Spelling English Words". A compendious grammar and philological hand-book of the English language. Griffith & Farran. p. 15. Retrieved 27 November 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Wainwright, Mark (September 1997). "I before E except after C". alt.english.usage. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b c Pullum, Geoff (22 June 2009). "I before E". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham (1880). Rules for English spelling. p. 48. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Reed, Alonzo (1884). Word lessons: A complete speller adapted for use in the higher primary, intermediate, and grammar grades. Clark & Maynard. pp. 101–102: §§143–146. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ California State Board of Education (1886). Speller. State Printing Office. p. 127. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Gillingham, Anna; Stillman, Bessie Whitmore (1970). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling, and penmanship. Educators Publishing Service. p. 173. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Fowler, Henry Watson (1926). "Spelling points; §4: Miscellaneous". A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1st ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 556. OCLC 318492.
Jump up ^ Fowler, Henry Watson (1965). "Spelling points; §4: Miscellaneous". Fowler's Modern English Usage. Edited by Sir Ernest Gowers (2nd ed.). Great Britain: Oxford University Press. pp. 577–578. OCLC 318483.
Jump up ^ Burchfield, Robert William (1996). "i before e except after c". The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-869126-2. OCLC 36063311.
Jump up ^ Allen, Robert (2008-06-26). "i before e". Pocket Fowler's Modern English Usage. OUP Oxford. p. 348. ISBN 9780199232581. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b Mullock, Barbara (2012). "An Examination of Commercial Spelling Programs for Upper Primary Level students". Australasian Journal of Special Education. 36 (2): 172–195. doi:10.1017/jse.2012.14. ISSN 1030-0112.
Jump up ^ Wilde, Sandra (1990). "Spelling textbooks: A critical review". Linguistics and Education. 2 (3): 259–280. doi:10.1016/S0898-5898(05)80022-1. ISSN 0898-5898. cited in Mullock.[25]
Jump up ^ Carney 1994, p.74
^ Jump up to: a b Carney 1994, p.314
Jump up ^ Cunningham, Bob (23 February 2002). "Exceptions to the rule 'I before E except after C'". FAQ. alt.usage.english. Archived from the original on 23 December 2010. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "i before e except after c". Oxford Dictionaries Online. Oxford University Press. 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
^ Jump up to: a b Crystal, David (2012-09-06). "Ch.24: Spelling 'rules'". Spell It Out: The singular story of English spelling. Profile Books. pp. 177–186. ISBN 1846685680. Retrieved 31 May 2014.
Jump up ^ "I Before E Except After C". QI Series 8 Ep 14 Hocus Pocus Preview. YouTube. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "Series H, Episode 14: Hocus Pocus". QI Talk Forum. 21 December 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
Jump up ^ UberFacts (6 July 2014). "Tweet 485804692292009985". Twitter. Retrieved 9 November 2016. There are 923 words in the English language that break the “I before E” rule. Only 44 words actually follow that rule.
Jump up ^ Carney 1994, §3.3.2.2 p.161
Jump up ^ "Definition of capoeira". Collins English Dictionary. Collins. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
Jump up ^ Carney 1994, p.168
Jump up ^ Carney 1994, §3.3.2.1 pp.151–2
Jump up ^ "Mnemony clever ways to remember stuff". The Daily Telegraph. 12 December 2007. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
Jump up ^ "BA book prize lists 20". The Bookseller. 26 August 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2011.
Jump up ^ United Press International (1 September 1982). "Bureau sticks with 'i' before 'e'". The Bulletin. Bend, Oregon. p. 15. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
Jump up ^ Wikiquote:Brian Regan
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