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Canada–United States border
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"International Boundary" redirects here. For other boundaries between nations, see border.
Canada–United States border
The Peace Arch at the border between Surrey, British Columbia, and Blaine, Washington State
Characteristics
Entities
Canada
United States
Length
8,891 km (5,525 mi)
History
Established
September 3, 1783
Signing of the Treaty of Paris at the end of the American War of Independence
Current shape
April 11, 1908
Treaty of 1908
Treaties
Treaty of Paris, Jay Treaty, Treaty of 1818, Webster–Ashburton Treaty, Oregon Treaty
Notes
See list of current disputes
A Royal Canadian Mounted Police constable and a Vermont State Police trooper before the official ceremony commemorating the joining of the Portland–Montreal Pipe Line August 1, 1941
The Canada–United States border, officially known as the International Boundary, is the longest international border in the world between two countries. It is shared between Canada and the United States, the second- and fourth-largest countries by area, respectively. The terrestrial boundary (including portions of maritime boundaries in the Great Lakes, and on the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic coasts) is 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi) long, of which 2,475 kilometres (1,538 mi) is Canada's border with Alaska. Eight Canadian provinces and territories (Yukon, British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick), and thirteen U.S. states (Alaska, Washington, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine) are located along the border.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Treaty of Paris (1783)
1.2 Jay Treaty (1794)
1.3 Rush–Bagot Treaty (1817)
1.4 London Convention (1818)
1.5 Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)
1.6 Oregon Treaty (1846)
1.7 Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861)
1.8 International Boundary Survey (1872–1876)
1.9 Alaska boundary dispute (1903)
1.10 Treaty of 1908
2 International Boundary Commission (1925)
3 Security
3.1 Law enforcement approach
3.2 Security measures
3.3 2017 border crossing crisis
4 Smuggling
5 Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI)
6 Border lengths
7 Crossings and border straddling
7.1 Notable bridge/tunnel crossings
7.2 Other border crossings (airports, seaports, rail stations)
7.2.1 Crossborder airports
7.2.2 Cross-border buildings
8 Boundary divisions
8.1 Practical exclaves
8.1.1 Practical exclaves of Canada
8.1.2 Practical exclaves of the United States
8.2 Remaining boundary disputes
9 See also
10 Footnotes
11 References
11.1 Citations
11.2 Further reading
12 External links
History[edit]
For more details, see Aroostook War, Oregon boundary dispute, and Alaska boundary dispute.
U.S. counties sharing a land or water border with Canada
Land border
Water border
Sign welcoming drivers into the United States at the Peace Arch between Blaine, Washington and Surrey, British Columbia
The 45th parallel forms an approximate border between the Canadian province of Quebec (to the north), and the U.S. states of New York and Vermont (to the south).
Treaty of Paris (1783)[edit]
The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American Revolutionary War between Great Britain and the United States. In the second article of the Treaty the parties agreed on all of the boundaries of the United States, including but not limited to the boundary with British North America to the north. The agreed boundary included the line from the northwest angle of Nova Scotia to the northwesternmost head of Connecticut River, and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude.
That parallel had been established in the 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of Quebec and New York (including what later became the state of Vermont). It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773.[1]
The Saint Lawrence River and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west (between what is now Ontario and the United States).
Northwest of Lake Superior, the boundary followed rivers to the Lake of the Woods. From the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the Mississippi River. In fact that line never meets the river since the river's source is further south.
Jay Treaty (1794)[edit]
The Jay Treaty of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary. It also provided for removal of British military and administration from Detroit and other frontier outposts on the U.S. side. It was superseded by the Treaty of Ghent (effective 1815) concluding the War of 1812, which included pre-war boundaries.
Rush–Bagot Treaty (1817)[edit]
The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America (later Canada) and the United States.
London Convention (1818)[edit]
The 49th parallel north forms a border between the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba (to the north), and the U.S. states of Washington, Idaho, Montana, North Dakota, and Minnesota (to the south).
Westward expansion of both British North America and the United States saw the boundary extended west along the 49th parallel from the Northwest Angle at Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains under the Treaty of 1818. That treaty extinguished British claims south of that latitude to the Red River Valley, which was part of Rupert's Land. The treaty also extinguished U.S. claims to land north of that line in the watershed of the Missouri River, which was part of the Louisiana Purchase; this amounted to three small areas, consisting of the northern part of the drainages of the Milk River (today in southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan), the Poplar River (Saskatchewan), and Big Muddy Creek (Saskatchewan).[citation needed]
Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight but in practice follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots.[2]
Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)[edit]
Disputes over the interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations resulting in the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842. The treaty resolved the dispute known as the Aroostook War over the boundary between Maine on the one hand, and New Brunswick and the Province of Canada on the other. The treaty redefined the border between New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on the other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to Lake Champlain.
The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U.S. states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec, and it was surveyed again after the War of 1812. The U.S. federal government began to construct fortifications just south of the border at Rouses Point, New York, on Lake Champlain. After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) south of the surveyed line; the fort, which became known as "Fort Blunder", was in Canada. This created a dilemma for the United States that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed. The border along the Boundary Waters in present-day Ontario and Minnesota between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined.[3][4]
Oregon Treaty (1846)[edit]
Main article: Oregon Treaty
An 1844 boundary dispute during U.S. President James K. Polk's administration led to a call for the northern boundary of the U.S. west of the Rockies to be latitude 54° 40' north (related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory), but the United Kingdom wanted a border that followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. The dispute was resolved in the Oregon Treaty of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies.
Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861)[edit]
Boundary Marker No.1 on the 49th parallel north on the western shore of Point Roberts, Washington, erected in 1861
The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary, but the water boundary was not settled for some time. After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between the Gulf Islands and the San Juan Islands.
International Boundary Survey (1872–1876)[edit]
The International Boundary Survey, called the Northern Boundary Survey in the United States, began in 1872.[5] Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818. Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States. Donald Cameron headed the British team. This survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains.[6]
Alaska boundary dispute (1903)[edit]
In 1903 a joint United Kingdom – Canada – U.S. tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska.[7]
Treaty of 1908[edit]
On April 11, 1908, the United Kingdom and the United States agreed, under Article IV of the Treaty of 1908, to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the United States through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes, in accordance with modern surveying techniques, and thus accomplished several changes to the border.[8][9]
International Boundary Commission (1925)[edit]
For the bilateral commission concerning boundary waters use, see International Joint Commission.
The Oregon Country / Columbia District
Modern International Boundary Commission boundary marker at Point Roberts, Washington. The reverse side has the same wording in French.
Main article: International Boundary Commission
In 1925, the International Boundary Commission (French: Commission de la frontière internationale) was made a permanent organization responsible for surveying and mapping the boundary, maintaining boundary monuments (and buoys where applicable), and keeping the boundary clear of brush and vegetation for 6 metres (20 ft). This "border vista" extends for 3 metres (9.8 ft) on each side of the line.
The Commission is headed by two commissioners, one of whom is Canadian, the other American.[10]
Security[edit]
Law enforcement approach[edit]
A sign at the International Boundary in Point Roberts, Washington, warning against illegal crossing of the border
Rail crossing at Peace Arch Park, connecting British Columbia and Washington
Border Patrol vehicle in Montana
The International Boundary is commonly referred to as the world's longest undefended border, but this is true only in the military sense, as civilian law enforcement is present. It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls. Everyone crossing the border must be checked. The relatively low level of security measures stands in contrast to that of the United States – Mexico border (one-third as long as the Canada–U.S. border), which is actively patrolled by U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent illegal migration and drug trafficking.
Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to the maritime components of the boundary at the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic oceans. The border also runs through the middle of the Akwesasne Nation and even divides some buildings found in communities in Vermont and Quebec.[ Some recent editing activity in this paragraph is disputed. – discuss ] Such buildlings are sometimes called line houses. The Maine–New Brunswick border divides the Aroostook Valley Country Club.[11]
The actual number of U.S. and Canadian border security personnel is classified; there are in excess of 17,000 United States Border Patrol personnel on the Mexico–U.S. border alone.[12]
Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by both nations in both populated and rural areas. Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing.
As of December 2010[update], Canada and the United States are negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U.S. more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with the U.S.[13]
Security measures[edit]
The border crossing where British Columbia Highway 37A ends at Hyder, Alaska, is unmanned by United States Customs, though Canadian Customs does maintain a presence in the area
Border crossing between Yukon and Alaska
Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the six-meter-wide (almost 20 feet) boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission. They are required to report such construction to their respective governments.
Where required, fences or vehicle blockades are used. All persons crossing the border are required to report to the respective customs and immigration agencies in each country. In remote areas where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads and also scattered in wooded areas near crossing points and on many trails and railways, but there are not enough border personnel on either side to verify and stop coordinated incursions.[citation needed] There is no border zone;[14] the U.S. Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as 100 miles (160 km) into U.S. territory.[15][16]
2017 border crossing crisis[edit]
In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York, saw an influx of up to 500 illegal crossings each day, by people seeking asylum in Canada.[17] Canada increased border patrol and immigration staffing in the area, and reiterated that crossing the border illegally had no effect on one's asylum status.[18][19]
Smuggling[edit]
A U.S.B.P. agent armed with an M14 rifle tracking someone in harsh winter conditions on the northern border.
Smuggling of alcoholic beverages ("rum running") was widespread during the 1920s, when Prohibition was in effect nationally in the United States and parts of Canada.
In more recent years, Canadian officials have complained of drug, cigarette, and firearms smuggling from the United States, while U.S. officials have complained of drug smuggling from Canada.
U.S. and Canadian agents operate separately and together along the border. From 2007 to 2010 147 people were arrested on the property of one Blaine, Washington bed and breakfast inn, but agents estimate that they only catch about 5% of smugglers.[20] In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built a 360-foot (110 m) tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington that they intended to use for smuggling marijuana, the first such tunnel known on this border.[21]
Cornwall, Ontario, experiences ongoing smuggling — mostly of tobacco and firearms from the United States — due to its location. The neighbouring Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, and its First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard, United States Border Patrol, United States Coast Guard, and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within the territory.[22][23]
Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI)[edit]
Main article: Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative
In late 2006, the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced a rule regarding new identification requirements for U.S. citizens and international travelers entering the U.S. Implemented on January 23, 2007, this final rule and first phase of the WHTI specifies six forms of identification—one of which is required in order to enter the U.S. by air: a valid passport, a United States Passport Card, a state enhanced driver's license (available in Michigan, New York, Vermont, Washington, British Columbia, Manitoba, Minnesota, Ontario, and Quebec[24]) per the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative, or trusted traveler program card (NEXUS, FAST, or SENTRI); a valid Merchant Mariner Credential when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; or a valid U.S. military identification card when traveling on official orders.[25][26][27]
Since June 2009, every traveller arriving via a land or sea port-of-entry (including ferries) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification to cross the border.
Border lengths[edit]
Rank
State
Length of border with Canada
Rank
Province/Territory
Length of border with the U.S.
1 Alaska 2,475 km (1,538 mi) 1 Ontario 2,760 km (1,715 mi)
2 Michigan 1,160 km (721 mi) 2 British Columbia 2,168 km (1,347 mi)
3 Maine 983 km (611 mi) 3 Yukon 1,210 km (752 mi)
4 Minnesota 880 km (547 mi) 4 Quebec 813 km (505 mi)
5 Montana 877 km (545 mi) 5 Saskatchewan 632 km (393 mi)
6 New York 716 km (445 mi) 6 New Brunswick 513 km (318 mi)
7 Washington 687 km (427 mi) 7 Manitoba 497 km (309 mi)
8 North Dakota 499 km (310 mi) 8 Alberta 298 km (185 mi)
9 Ohio 235 km (146 mi)
10 Vermont 145 km (90 mi)
11 New Hampshire 93 km (58 mi)
12 Idaho 72 km (45 mi)
13 Pennsylvania 68 km (42 mi)
Crossings and border straddling[edit]
Notable bridge/tunnel crossings[edit]
Main article: List of Canada–United States border crossings
The Ambassador Bridge between Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario, is the busiest commercial crossing between the two countries.
Two portions of Niagara Falls. The American Falls is on the left in New York; the Horseshoe Falls on the right separates New York from Ontario.
From west to east:
Baudette–Rainy River International Bridge — Baudette, Minnesota, and Rainy River, Ontario
Fort Frances–International Falls International Bridge – Fort Frances, Ontario, and International Falls, Minnesota
Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge — Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
Blue Water Bridge — Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, Ontario
St. Clair Tunnel (rail) — Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario
Detroit–Windsor Tunnel — Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan
Michigan Central Railway Tunnel — Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan
Ambassador Bridge — Windsor, Ontario, and Detroit, Michigan
Peace Bridge — Fort Erie, Ontario, and Buffalo, New York
Rainbow Bridge — Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York
Whirlpool Rapids Bridge — Niagara Falls, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, New York
Lewiston–Queenston Bridge — Queenston, Ontario, and Lewiston, New York
Thousand Islands Bridge — Wellesley Island, New York, and Hill Island, Ontario
Ogdensburg–Prescott International Bridge — Ogdensburg, New York, and Johnstown, Ontario
Three Nations Crossing — Cornwall, Ontario, and Massena, New York
Other border crossings (airports, seaports, rail stations)[edit]
Border sign at the Rainbow Bridge, Niagara Falls
The U.S. maintains immigration offices, called pre-clearance facilities, in eight Canadian airports with international air service to the United States (Calgary, Edmonton, Halifax, Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver, and Winnipeg). This expedites travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U.S. airport without being processed as an international arrival. Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U.S. airports due to the sheer number of U.S. departure locations with Canadian-bound flights and the limited number of flights compared to the number of U.S.-bound flights that depart major Canadian airports.
Similar arrangements exist at major Canadian seaports that handle sealed direct import shipments into the U.S.
Additionally, at Vancouver's Pacific Central Station, passengers are required to pass through U.S. preclearance facilities, and to pass their baggage through an X-ray machine before being allowed to board the Seattle-bound Amtrak Cascades train, which makes no further stops before crossing the border. Preclearance facilities are not available for the popular New York City to Montreal (Adirondack) or Toronto (Maple Leaf) trains, since these lines have stops between Montreal or Toronto and the border. Instead, passengers must clear customs at a stop located at the actual border.
Ferry services operate between the province of New Brunswick and the state of Maine, as well as between the province of British Columbia and the states of Washington and Alaska. There are also several ferry services in the Great Lakes operating between the province of Ontario and the states of Michigan, New York, and Ohio. The ferry between Maine and Nova Scotia ended its operations in 2009, but resumed them in 2014.
The Boldt Castle on Heart Island in the St. Lawrence River has a border control point on the island, but no specific location on the Canadian side.[citation needed] Canadians must present identification to land on the island.
Crossborder airports[edit]
The international boundary is marked as a black line on the floor of the reading room of the Haskell Library. In this picture, Canada is on the right side of the line and the United States is on the left.
One curiosity on the Canada–U.S. border is the presence of six airports that straddle the borderline. The airports were built prior to the U.S. entry into World War II as a way to legally transfer U.S.-built aircraft such as the Lockheed Hudson to Canada under the provisions of the Lend-Lease Act. In the interest of maintaining neutrality, U.S. military pilots were forbidden to deliver combat aircraft to Canada. The aircraft were flown to the border, landed, and then at night towed on their wheels over the border by tractors or horses. The next day the planes were crewed by RCAF pilots and flown to other locations, typically airbases in Eastern Canada, from where they were often flown to the United Kingdom and deployed in the Battle of the Atlantic.[28]
Piney Pinecreek Border Airport is located in Manitoba and Minnesota. The northwest/southeast-oriented runway straddles the border, and there are two ramps; one in the U.S. and one in Canada. The airport is jointly owned by the Minnesota Department of Transportation and the local government of Piney, Manitoba. It is assigned U.S. identifier 48Y and Canadian identifier JX2.
International Peace Garden Airport is located in Manitoba and North Dakota adjacent to the International Peace Garden. The runway is entirely within North Dakota, but a ramp extends across the border to allow aircraft to access Canadian customs. While not jointly owned, it is operated as an international facility for customs clearance as part of the International Peace Garden.
Coronach/Scobey Border Station Airport is located in Saskatchewan and Montana. The east-west runway is sited exactly on the border. The airport is jointly owned by the Canadian and U.S. governments and is assigned U.S. identifier 8U3 and Canadian identifier CKK3.
Coutts/Ross International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana. Like Coronach/Scobey, the east–west runway is sited exactly on the border. It is owned entirely by the Montana Aeronautics Division. It is assigned U.S. identifier 7S8 and Canadian identifier CEP4.
Whetstone International Airport or Del Bonita/Whetstone International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana, and similarly has an east-west runway sited exactly on the border. It is assigned U.S. identifier H28 and Canadian identifier CEQ4.
Avey Field State Airport is located in Washington and British Columbia. The privately owned airfield is mostly in the U.S., but several hundred feet of the north-south runway extend into Canada, and both Canadian and U.S. customs are available. It is assigned U.S. identifier 69S but does not have a Canadian identifier.
Cross-border buildings[edit]
Main article: Line house
Half of this bench is in the United States and the other half is in Canada.
The Haskell Free Library and Opera House straddles the border in Derby Line, Vermont, and Stanstead, Quebec. Private homes are divided by the International Boundary line between Estcourt Station, Maine, and Pohénégamook, Quebec. Private homes between Beebe Plain, Quebec and Beebe Plain, Vermont; a seasonal home between Alburgh, Vermont, and Noyan, Quebec, at the intersection of Matthias Lane in Alburgh and Chemin au Bord de l'Eau in Noyan; and one house between Richford, Vermont, and Abercorn, Quebec,[29] are also divided by the border.[30]
The Halfway House, a tavern also known as Taillon's International Hotel, straddles the border between Dundee, Quebec, and Fort Covington, New York.[31] It was built in 1820, before the border was surveyed.[32]
Boundary divisions[edit]
Practical exclaves[edit]
To be a true international exclave, all potential paths of travel from the exclave to the home country must cross over only the territory of a different country or countries. Like exclaves, practical exclaves are not contiguous with the land of the home country and have land access only through another country or countries. Unlike exclaves, they are not entirely surrounded by foreign territory. Hence, they are exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition.
The term pene-exclave was defined in Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country."[33]:283 Pene-exclaves are also called functional exclaves or practical exclaves.[34]:31 Thus, a practical exclave has land borders with other territory but is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters.[35]:60 Catudal (1974)[36]:113 and Vinokurov (2007)[34]:31–33 further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts, Washington. "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada."[36] Practical exclaves can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts.[34]:47
Practical exclaves of Canada[edit]
Akwesasne: Because of the St. Lawrence River to the north, the Rivière-aux-Saumons to the east, and New York State, U.S., to the south, the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave of Canada. To travel by land to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State.
Campobello Island, located at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, adjacent to the entrance to Cobscook Bay, and within the Bay of Fundy. The island is part of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, but is actually physically connected by the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge with Lubec, Maine, the easternmost tip of the continental United States.
Practical exclaves of the United States[edit]
The State of Alaska is bounded by British Columbia and Yukon, the Arctic Ocean, the Bering Sea, and the Pacific Ocean. (Additionally, because of the terrain, several municipalities in southeast Alaska (the "Panhandle") are inaccessible by road, except via Canada.)
Specifically, the town of Hyder, Alaska is accessible only through Stewart, British Columbia, or by floatplane.
Point Roberts, Washington is bounded by British Columbia, the Strait of Georgia, and Boundary Bay.
A slice of land on the edge of Lake Metigoshe lies in North Dakota's Roland Township bordering Winchester, Canada.[37]
A peninsula juts into North Dakota within the Osthus lake in Hutchinson Township, North Dakota, 500 meters south of Gunnville Lake and 700 meters east of Wakopa Creek, in the Wakopa Wildlife Management Area,[38][39] at 48°59′54″N 99°52′44″W / 48.99833°N 99.87889°W / 48.99833; -99.87889.
Elm Point, Minnesota and two small pieces of land (Buffalo Bay Point) just to its west are bounded by Manitoba and Lake of the Woods.
The Northwest Angle in Minnesota is bounded by Manitoba and Lake of the Woods.
The Alburgh Tongue in Vermont is bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain.[a]
Province Point, the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, Vermont, is bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain.
Remaining boundary disputes[edit]
Main article: List of areas disputed by Canada and the United States
Machias Seal Island and North Rock (Maine / New Brunswick)
Dixon Entrance (Alaska / British Columbia)
Beaufort Sea (Alaska / Yukon)
Strait of Juan de Fuca (Washington / British Columbia)
See also[edit]
American entry into Canada by land
Borders of Canada
Canada Border Services Agency
Canada–United States relations
Frozen River, a 2008 feature film about smuggling across the border
Joseph Smith Harris' account of the Northwest Boundary Survey
Indian barrier state, British plans to set up a new country in the Old Northwest
List of Canada–United States border crossings
Mexico–United States border
United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints
John Lewis Tiarks, a British surveyor of the border
Northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods
Red River Colony
Province Island
Footnotes[edit]
Jump up ^ However, this peninsula and the island to its south are connected by road bridges directly to the United States mainland (as well as by a freight [and former passenger] rail line), such that it is possible to make a through journey in and out of the Alburgh Tongue without entering Canada. This is not true of the other practical exclaves listed here.
References[edit]
Citations[edit]
Jump up ^ Francis M. Carroll (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian–American Boundary, 1783–1842. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. p. 85.
Jump up ^ "Canada & The United States (Bizarre Borders Part 2)". Retrieved June 21, 2013.
Jump up ^ "British-American Diplomacy The Webster-Ashburton Treaty". Yale Law School. 1842. Retrieved March 1, 2007.
Jump up ^ Lass, William E. (1980). Minnesota's Boundary with Canada. St. Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society. p. 2. ISBN 0-87351-153-0.
Jump up ^ McManus, Sheila (2005). The Line Which Separates: Race, Gender, and the Making of the Alberta-Montana Borderlands. Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-88864-434-5.
Jump up ^ Campbell, Archibald; Twining, W. J. (1878). "Reports upon the survey of the boundary between the territory of the United States and the possessions of Great Britain from the Lake of the woods to the summit of the Rocky mountains". Authorised by an act of Congress approved March 19, 1872. Government Printing Office. Retrieved September 13, 2013.
Jump up ^ Keenlyside, Hugh LL.; Brown, Gerald S. (1952). Canada and the United States: Some Aspects of Their Historical Relations. Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 178–189.
Jump up ^ International Boundary Commission (1937). "Treaty of 1908 (included in Joint report upon the survey and demarcation of the boundary between the United States and Canada from the gulf of Georgia to the northwesternmost point of Lake of the woods. In accordance with the provisions of Articles VI and VII of the treaty signed at Washington April 11, 1908, and articles I, II, and IV of the treaty signed at Washington, February 24, 1925)". Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 6. Retrieved June 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ International Waterways Commission (1915). "Report of the International Waterways Commission upon the International Boundary between the Dominion of Canada and the United States through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes as Ascertained and Re-established pursuant to Article IV of the Treaty between Great Britain and the United States signed 11th April 1908".
Jump up ^ Organization Chart, International Boundary Commission, accessed July 27, 2007 Archived July 6, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Aroostook Valley Country Club, Club History
Jump up ^ Jeffrey, Terence P. (September 24, 2009). "Administration Will Cut Border Patrol Deployed on U.S-Mexico Border". Cybercast News Service. Archived from the original on September 28, 2009. Retrieved September 25, 2009.
Jump up ^ Mark Kennedy, PostMedia News Political Time Bombs Litter Harper's Path, December 13, 2010
Jump up ^ "Common border zone proposed". Canadian Society of Customs Brokers. June 17, 2004. Retrieved May 17, 2017.
Jump up ^ Singel, Ryan (October 22, 2008). "ACLU Assails 100-Mile Border Zone as 'Constitution-Free' – Update". Wired.com. Retrieved July 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ Woodard, Colin (January 9, 2011). "Far From Canada, Aggressive U.S. Border Patrols Snag Foreign Students". Chronicle.com. Retrieved July 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ "Number Of Asylum Seekers At Quebec Border Nearly Quadrupled In July: Officials". HuffPost Canada. 2017-08-17. Retrieved 2018-03-16.
Jump up ^ Woods, Allan (2017-08-23). "Canada is not a safe haven for asylum seekers, Trudeau warns". The Toronto Star. ISSN 0319-0781. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ "Trudeau says steps to tackle spike in asylum-seekers yielding 'positive results'". CBC News. Retrieved 2017-10-16.
Jump up ^ MacDonald, Jake (July–August 2010). "The Canada-U.S. Border". Canadian Geographic. Archived from the original on 2010-07-10.
Jump up ^ Frieden, Terry (July 22, 2006). "Drug tunnel found under Canada border: Five arrests made after agents monitored construction". CNN.com. CNN.
Jump up ^ Royal Canadian Mounted Police, "Fifteen People Arrested for Possession of Contraband Tobacco during High Intensity Enforcement Project", press release, February 25, 2009 Archived June 15, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Cockburn, Neco (November 21, 2008). "Smuggling's price". Ottawa Citizen. Archived from the original on February 12, 2012.
Jump up ^ "WHTI: Enhanced Drivers License". Getyouhome.gov. June 1, 2009. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ "DHS Announces Final Western Hemisphere Air Travel". Association of Cotpotrate Travel Executives. December 5, 2006. Archived from the original on December 16, 2007. Retrieved December 2, 2007.
Jump up ^ "Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative: The Basics". U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Archived from the original on December 26, 2007. Retrieved December 2, 2007
Jump up ^ "Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative". U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs. January 13, 2008. Retrieved January 12, 2007
Jump up ^ Places to Fly – Dunseith / International Peace Garden. Archive.copanational.org (June 8, 2007). Retrieved on July 12, 2013.
Jump up ^ Google (April 30, 2014). "1000 Drew Rd – Richford Vermont" (Map). Google Maps. Google. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Farfan, Matthew (2009). The Vermont-Quebec Border: Life on the Line. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0738565148
Jump up ^ "Wikimapia". Wikimapia. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
Jump up ^ Taillon's International Hotel, Taillon's International Hotel – straddling the US–Canada border! Archived January 17, 2010, at Archive.is
Jump up ^ Robinson, G. W. S. (September 1959). "Exclaves". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 49 (3, [Part 1]): 283–295. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1959.tb01614.x. JSTOR 2561461.
^ Jump up to: a b c Vinokurov, Evgeny (2007). The Theory of Enclaves. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD.
Jump up ^ Melamid, Alexander (1968). Sills, David, ed. "Enclaves and Exclaves". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 5. The Macmillan Company & Free Press. Contiguous territories of states which for all regular commercial and administrative purposes can be reached only through the territory of other states are called pene-enclaves (pene-exclaves). These have virtually the same characteristics as complete enclaves (exclaves).
^ Jump up to: a b Catudal, Honoré M. (1974). "Exclaves". Cahiers de géographie du Québec. 18 (43): 107–136. doi:10.7202/021178ar.
Jump up ^ Laychuk, Riley (13 July 2016). "Manitoba boaters stunned by new cross-border rule". CBC News. Retrieved 2017-06-03. In fact, some of the boat docks for Canadian cabins sit on the U.S. side of the border.
Jump up ^ "Exclave of the United States in North Dakota – Wikimapia". wikimapia.org. Retrieved 2015-08-28.
Jump up ^ Hutchinson Township. Rolette County Atlas. North Dakota: Geo. A. Ogle & Co. 1910. p. 69. Retrieved 2017-06-19. [permanent dead link]
Further reading[edit]
Anderson, Christopher G. Canadian Liberalism and the Politics of Border Control, 1867–1967 (University of British Columbia Press; 2012) 280 pages; studies pivotal episodes in Canadian immigration policy that shed light on more restrictive approaches today.
Paulus, Jeremy and Asgary, Ali. (2010) Enhancing Border Security: Local Values and Preferences at the Blue Water Bridge (Point Edward, Canada) Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management: Vol. 7 : Iss. 1, Article 77.
Culture and the Canada–US Border, an international research network dedicated to studying cultural representation, production and exchange on and around the Canada–US border.[1]
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Canada–United States border.
International Boundary Commission
1994 trip from Lake of the Woods to the Continental Divide
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Maquiladora
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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A maquila in Mexico
In Mexico, a maquiladora (Spanish pronunciation: [makilaˈðoɾa]) or maquila (IPA: [maˈkila])[1] is a manufacturing operation, where factories import certain material and equipment on a duty-free and tariff-free basis for assembly, processing, or manufacturing and then export the assembled, processed and/or manufactured products, sometimes back to the raw materials' country of origin.[citation needed] They are an example of special economic zones as seen in many countries.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Growth and development
3 Working conditions
4 Gender composition of workforce
5 Environmental effects
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
8.1 Books
8.2 Journal articles
8.3 Government/NGO reports
8.4 News
8.5 Music
8.6 Video
9 External links
History[edit]
In 1964, the Bracero Program, which allowed Mexican agricultural workers to work legally in the U.S. on a seasonal basis, came to an end.[citation needed] Less than a year after the end of the Bracero Program, the Mexican Government launched the Border Industrialization Program (BIP) or the Maquiladora Program, to solve the problem of rising unemployment along the border.[citation needed][2] The maquiladoras became attractive to US firms due to the availability of cheap labor, devaluations of the peso and favorable changes in US customs laws.[citation needed] In 1985, maquiladoras overtook tourism as the largest source of foreign exchange, and since 1996 they have been the second largest industry in Mexico behind the petroleum industry.[3]
Following the 1994 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the growth of maquila plants skyrocketed.[citation needed] During the five years before NAFTA, the maquila employment had grown at a rate of 47%; this figure increased to 86% in the next five years. The number of factories also increased dramatically. In the five years preceding NAFTA, 564 new plants opened; in the five years following, 1460 plants opened. However, the maquiladora growth is largely attributable to growth in US demand, and devaluation of the peso and not NAFTA itself.[4][5][6] In the 1970s, most maquiladoras were located around the Mexico–United States border. By 1994, these were spread in the interior parts of the country, although the majority of the plants were still near the border. Recent research indicates that the maquiladora industry affects U.S. border city employment in service sectors.[7]
Although the maquiladora industry suffered due to the early 2000s recession, maquiladoras constituted 54% of the US-Mexico trade in 2004, and by 2005, the maquiladora exports accounted for half of Mexico's exports.[6] The industry had become an important source of foreign direct investment and foreign exchange for Mexico.[citation needed]
In the 2000s, the maquila industry faced competition due to rise of other countries with availability of cheap labor, including Malaysia, India, and Pakistan. The biggest threat came from China's Special Economic Areas.[6]
Growth and development[edit]
During the later half of the sixties, maquiladora industries rapidly expanded geographically and economically and by 1985, had become Mexico’s second largest source of income from exports, behind oil.[8] Since 1973, maquiladoras have also accounted for nearly half of Mexico’s export assembly.[8] Between 1995 and 2000, exports of assembled products in Mexico tripled, and the rate of the industry’s growth amounted to about one new factory per day.[9] By the late twentieth century, the industry accounted for 25 percent of Mexico’s gross domestic product, and 17 percent of total Mexican employment.[10]
Since globalization and physical restructuring[citation needed] have contributed to the competition and advent of low-cost offshore assembly in places such as China, and countries in Central America, maquiladoras in Mexico have been on the decline since 2000: According to federal sources, approximately 529 maquiladoras shut down and investment in assembly plants decreased by 8.2 percent in 2002 after the imposition of countervailing duties on Chinese products, not available in North America, that were part of the electronics supply chain.[9] Despite the decline, over 3,000 maquiladoras still exist along the 2,000 mile-long United States–Mexico border, providing employment for approximately one million workers, and importing more than $51 billion in supplies into Mexico.[11] Research indicates that maquiladoras' post-NAFTA growth is connected to changes in Mexican wages relative to those in Asia and in the United States, and to fluctuations in U.S. industrial production.[12] As of 2006, maquiladoras still accounted for 45 percent of Mexico’s exports.[13] Maquiladoras, in general, are best represented among operations that are particularly assembly intensive.[citation needed]
Working conditions[edit]
See also: Sweatshop
One of the main goals of the Border Industrialization Program was to attract foreign investment. Mexican blue-collar labor is kept cheap and competitive with other major export countries by devaluations in the peso, often corresponding with the end of presidential terms. Mexicans work for approximately one-sixth of the U.S. hourly rate.[14]
Young women are often preferred over older women, as younger women are capable of working longer hours. Although Mexican labor law is much more stringent than American labor laws (e.g. the requirement that workers be paid three months severance after as much time on the job, should they be let go without cause), women are sometimes subjected to unsafe and unsanitary working conditions.[15] Poverty is a key factor that motivates women, in particular, to work in maquiladoras. The minimum wage set by the Mexican government is barely enough to help sustain a family. The minimum wage "buys only about a quarter of the basic necessities that are essential for a typical worker’s family".[16] Maquilas pay at much higher than the minimum wage in most markets since there is a lot of competition for the best workers, and workers will not work without transportation and other bonuses. The 2015 Minimum wage is 70.1 pesos per day in Tijuana (minimum wages vary by zone and worker classification) or about $0.55 per hour at the current exchange rate of 16 pesos per dollar,[17] while most entry level positions in maquilas pay closer to $2 per hour including bonuses and 25% Social Security and housing and retirement.[18]
Gender composition of workforce[edit]
Mexico possesses a strong system of labor laws, yet enforcement of these laws within the maquiladora industry is often lax.[19](p1) While most people who were employed under the original Bracero Program were men, the majority of maquiladora employees are young women.[19](p3)
Environmental effects[edit]
Both the United States and Mexican governments claim to be committed to environmental protection, yet environmental policies have not always been enforced.[19](p42) However, maquilas are required to be certified and to provide an environmental impact statement. In Mexico, most maquiladoras are global players that use international standards for waste treatment and disposal that exceed Mexican requirements and that require any waste generated to be re-exported. Although the La Paz Agreement signed by Mexico and the United States in 1983 requires hazardous waste created by United States corporations to be transported back to the United States for disposal, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reports that only 91 of the 600 maquiladoras located along the Texas-Mexico border have returned hazardous waste to the United States since 1987.[20] This is likely due to the fact that most maquiladoras are factories that perform sewing and assembly of consumer products and many of the materials that are considered hazardous are incorporated into those products.[citation needed]
Maquiladoras offer showers and sanitary facilities to workers that often lack running water,[clarification needed] thus reducing waste. The United States Geological Survey, the state of California, and the Imperial County Health Department—among others[21]—have all asserted that the New River, which flows from Mexicali, Baja California, Mexico near the Mexico–United States border into California's Salton Sea, is "...the dirtiest river in America."[22]
The EPA's US–Mexico Border 2012 Program has an extensive plan to help with environmental issues along that border.[23]
See also[edit]
Mexico portal
Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement
Economy of Mexico
Free Trade Area of the Americas
Free Trade
Globalization
Colonia (Mexico)
Latin American economy
Maquila Decree
Maquila Solidarity Network
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Also referred to as a "twin plant", or "in-bond" industry.[citation needed]
Jump up ^ Ferrante-Wallace, Joan (2006). Sociology: a global perspective. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-4950-0561-2. OCLC 61232264.
Jump up ^ Louie, Miriam C.Y. (2001). Sweatshop warriors: immigrant women workers take on the global factory. South End Press. p. 69. ISBN 978-0-89608-638-8.
Jump up ^ Larudee, Mehrene. "Causes of Growth and Decline in Mexico's Apparel Sector." International Review of Applied Economics, Vol 21, September 2007. pp539-559.
Jump up ^ Truett, Lila and Truett, Dale. "NAFTA and the Maquiladoras: Boon or Bane." Contemporary Economic Policy, Vol 25, July 2007. pp374-386
^ Jump up to: a b c Vietor, Richard H.K. and Veytsman, Alexander. "American Outsourcing." Harvard Business School Case Study No. 9-705-037, rev. February 2, 2007 (Boston, MA: HBS Publishing, 2005), p. 6. "The devaluation of the peso in 1994, which overnight reduced all peso-denominated manufacturing costs including energy and labor, improving the profitability of the maquiladoras, explains the growth spurt more than the changes in duties that were the result of NAFTA. US tariffs were already low, and Mexican duties were already not charged to maquiladoras."
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, The Impact of the Maquiladora Industry on U.S. Border Cities, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Stoddard, Ellwyn R. Maquila: Assembly Plants in Northern Alaska. p. 2.
^ Jump up to: a b Shorris, Earl. The Life and Times of Mexico. p. 531
Jump up ^ Hausman, Angela and Diana L Haytko. Cross-border Supply Chain Relationships: Interpretive Research of Maquiladora Realized Strategies. p. 25.
Jump up ^ Villalobos, J Rene, et al. Inbound for Mexico. p. 38.
Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, Did NAFTA Really Cause Mexico's High Maquiladora Growth?, July 2001
Jump up ^ Gruben, William C. and Sherry L. Kiser. The Border Economy: NAFTA and Maquiladoras: Is the Growth Connected?
Jump up ^ The Human Race: Escaping From History. Employee turnover is also relatively high, p. 52.
Jump up ^ Aguilar, Delia D., Lacsamana, Anne E. (2004). Women and Globalization. New York: Humanity Books. p. 130. ISBN 1591021626.
Jump up ^ Kopinak, Kathryn (1995). "Gender as a Vehicle for the Subordination of Women Maquiladora Workers in Mexico". Latin American Perspectives. 22: 36. doi:10.1177/0094582x9502200103.
Jump up ^ Minimum wage, Zeta, December 31, 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
Jump up ^ How to start, cost of business, Tijuana EDC. Retrieved 22 January 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c Kamel, Rachel; Hoffman, Anya (1999). The maquiladora reader : cross-border organizing since NAFTA. Philadelphia, PA: American Friends Service Committee. ISBN 978-0-9100-8235-8. OCLC 647067991. Archived from the original on 2015-04-05. Retrieved 2015-04-05. Master and use copy. Digital master created according to Benchmark for Faithful Digital Reproductions of Monographs and Serials, Version 1. Digital Library Federation, December 2002.
Jump up ^ Kelly, Mary E. Free Trade: The Politics of Toxic Waste. p. 48
Jump up ^ "New River Pollution in Mexico, A Historical Overview" (PDF). Regional Water Quality Control Board. December 1, 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 25, 2007. Retrieved February 16, 2007.
Jump up ^ Sklair, Leslie. Assembling For Development: The Maquila Industry in Mexico and the United States. p. 94.
Jump up ^ US-Mexico Border 2012 Program Archived 2008-05-03 at the Wayback Machine.
Further reading[edit]
Books[edit]
Baklanoff, Eric N. (2008). "Yucatan: Mexico's other maquiladora frontier". In Baklanoff, Eric N.; Moseley, Edward H. Yucatán in an era of globalization. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 978-0-8173-5476-3.
Broughton, Chad (2015). Boom, Bust, Exodus: The Rust Belt, the Maquilas, and a Tale of Two Cities. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199765614.
Shorris, Earl (2006). The Life and Times of Mexico. W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32767-0.
Sklair, Leslie (2011). Assembling for Development: The Maquila Industry in Mexico and the United States. Taylor & Francis.
Journal articles[edit]
Brown, Garrett D. "Protecting Workers’ Health and Safety in the Globalizing Economy through International Trade Treaties". International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. Apr-Jun 2005.
Choi, Dae Won and Martin Kenney. "The Globalization of Korean Industry: Korean Maquiladoras in Mexico." (Archive) Frontera Norte, January–July 1997. Volume 5, No. 7. p. 5-22. Article in English, abstract available in Spanish.
Clapp, Jennifer. Piles of Poisons: Despite NAFTA’s Green Promises, Hazardous Waste Problems are Deepening in Mexico. Alternatives Journal, Vol. 28, Iss. 2. Waterloo: Spring 2002.
Hampton, Elaine. Globalization Legacy: A View of U.S. Factory Involvement in Mexican Education. Multicultural Education. Summer 2004.
Hausman, Angela and Diana L. Haytko. Cross-Border Supply Chain Relationships: Interpretive Research of Maquiladora Realized Strategies. The Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, Vol 18, Iss. 6/7. Santa Barbara: 2003
Moffatt, Allison. Murder, Mystery and Mistreatment in Mexican Maquiladoras. Women & Environments International Magazines 66 (2006): 19.
Villalobos, J. Rene, et al., Inbound for Mexico. Industrial Engineer. Norcross: April 2004. Vol. 36, Iss. 4.
Government/NGO reports[edit]
Gruben, William C. and Sherry L. Kiser. The Border Economy: NAFTA and Maquiladoras: Is the Growth Connected? Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. June 2001.
Human Rights Watch. No Guarantees: Sex Discrimination in Mexico’s Maquiladora Sector. The Maquiladora Reader. Philadelphia: Mexico-U.S. Border Program, 1999.
News[edit]
Article on worker-run maquiladora in El Salvador
Music[edit]
Maquiladora - Radiohead
Video[edit]
Campbell, Monica. Maquiladoras: Rethinking NAFTA. PBS, 2002.
The Human Race: Escaping From History. dir. Josh Freed. Green Lion Productions Inc., videocassette, 1994.
Maquilapolis Documentary
External links[edit]
Maquiladora Slavery,.[1] June 1, 2009
Look up maquiladora in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maquiladora.
CorpWatch, Maquiladoras at a Glance. June 30, 1999.
International Museum of Women Feature on Maquiladoras
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