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Foreign-exchange reserves
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Foreign-exchange reserves (also called forex reserves or FX reserves) is money or other assets held by a central bank or other monetary authority so that it can pay if need be its liabilities, such as the currency issued by the central bank, as well as the various bank reserves deposited with the central bank by the government and other financial institutions.[1] Reserves are held in one or more reserve currencies, mostly the United States dollar and to a lesser extent the Japanese yen.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Definition
2 Purpose
3 Reserve accumulation
3.1 Theories
3.1.1 Signaling or vulnerability indicator
3.1.2 Precautionary aspect
3.1.2.1 External trade
3.1.2.2 Financial openness
3.1.3 Exchange rate policy
3.1.4 Intergenerational savings
3.2 Costs
4 History
4.1 Origins and Gold Standard Era
4.2 Post Gold Standard Era
5 Adequacy and excess reserves
6 List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves
7 List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves (excluding gold)
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
10.1 Sources
10.2 Articles
10.3 Speeches
10.4 Books
Definition[edit]
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Reserves of SDRs, forex and gold in 2006
Foreign exchange reserves minus external debt
In a strict sense, foreign-exchange reserves should only include foreign banknotes, foreign bank deposits, foreign treasury bills, and short and long-term foreign government securities.[2] However, the term in popular usage also adds gold reserves, special drawing rights (SDRs), and International Monetary Fund (IMF) reserve positions. This broader figure is more readily available, but it is more accurately termed official international reserves or international reserves.
Foreign-exchange reserves are called reserve assets in the balance of payments and are located in the capital account. Hence, they are usually an important part of the international investment position of a country. The reserves are labeled as reserve assets under assets by functional category. In terms of financial assets classifications, the reserve assets can be classified as Gold bullion, Unallocated gold accounts, Special drawing rights, currency, Reserve position in the IMF, interbank position, other transferable deposits, other deposits, debt securities, loans, equity (listed and unlisted), investment fund shares and financial derivatives, such as forward contracts and options. There is no counterpart for reserve assets in liabilities of the International Investment Position. Usually, when the monetary authority of a country has some kind of liability, this will be included in other categories, such as Other Investments. [3] In the Central Bank’s Balance Sheet, foreign exchange reserves are assets, along with domestic credit.
Purpose[edit]
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Official international reserves assets allow a central bank to purchase the domestic currency, which is considered a liability for the central bank (since it prints the money or fiat currency as IOUs). Thus, the quantity of foreign exchange reserves can change as a central bank implements monetary policy,[4] but this dynamic should be analyzed generally in the context of the level of capital mobility, the exchange rate regime and other factors. This is known as Trilemma or Impossible trinity. Hence, in a world of perfect capital mobility, a country with fixed exchange rate would not be able to execute an independent monetary policy.
A central bank that implements a fixed exchange rate policy may face a situation where supply and demand would tend to push the value of the currency lower or higher (an increase in demand for the currency would tend to push its value higher, and a decrease lower) and thus the central bank would have to use reserves to maintain its fixed exchange rate. Under perfect capital mobility, the change in reserves is a temporary measure, since the fixed exchange rate attaches the domestic monetary policy to that of the country of the base currency. Hence, in the long term, the monetary policy has to be adjusted in order to be compatible with that of the country of the base currency. Without that, the country will experience outflows or inflows of capital. Fixed pegs were usually used as a form of monetary policy, since attaching the domestic currency to a currency of a country with lower levels of inflation should usually assure convergence of prices.
In a pure flexible exchange rate regime or floating exchange rate regime, the central bank does not intervene in the exchange rate dynamics; hence the exchange rate is determined by the market. Theoretically, in this case reserves are not necessary. Other instruments of monetary policy are generally used, such as interest rates in the context of an inflation targeting regime. Milton Friedman was a strong advocate of flexible exchange rates, since he considered that independent monetary (and in some cases fiscal) policy and openness of the capital account are more valuable than a fixed exchange rate. Also, he valued the role of exchange rate as a price. As a matter of fact, he believed that sometimes it could be less painful and thus desirable to adjust only one price (the exchange rate) than the whole set of prices of goods and wages of the economy, that are less flexible.[5]
Mixed exchange rate regimes ('dirty floats', target bands or similar variations) may require the use of foreign exchange operations to maintain the targeted exchange rate within the prescribed limits, such as fixed exchange rate regimes. As seen above, there is an intimate relation between exchange rate policy (and hence reserves accumulation) and monetary policy. Foreign exchange operations can be sterilized (have their effect on the money supply negated via other financial transactions) or unsterilized.
Non-sterilization will cause an expansion or contraction in the amount of domestic currency in circulation, and hence directly affect inflation and monetary policy. For example, to maintain the same exchange rate if there is increased demand, the central bank can issue more of the domestic currency and purchase foreign currency, which will increase the sum of foreign reserves. Since (if there is no sterilization) the domestic money supply is increasing (money is being 'printed'), this may provoke domestic inflation. Also, some central banks may let the exchange rate appreciate to control inflation, usually by the channel of cheapening tradable goods.
Since the amount of foreign reserves available to defend a weak currency (a currency in low demand) is limited, a currency crisis or devaluation could be the end result. For a currency in very high and rising demand, foreign exchange reserves can theoretically be continuously accumulated, if the intervention is sterilized through open market operations to prevent inflation from rising. On the other hand, this is costly, since the sterilization is usually done by public debt instruments (in some countries Central Banks are not allowed to emit debt by themselves). In practice, few central banks or currency regimes operate on such a simplistic level, and numerous other factors (domestic demand, production and productivity, imports and exports, relative prices of goods and services, etc.) will affect the eventual outcome. Besides that, the hypothesis that the world economy operates under perfect capital mobility is clearly flawed.
As a consequence, even those central banks that strictly limit foreign exchange interventions often recognize that currency markets can be volatile and may intervene to counter disruptive short-term movements (that may include speculative attacks). Thus, intervention does not mean that they are defending a specific exchange rate level. Hence, the higher the reserves, the higher is the capacity of the central bank to smooth the volatility of the Balance of Payments and assure consumption smoothing in the long term.
Reserve accumulation[edit]
After the end of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s, many countries adopted flexible exchange rates. In theory reserves are not needed under this type of exchange rate arrangement; thus the expected trend should be a decline in foreign exchange reserves. However, the opposite happened and foreign reserves present a strong upward trend. Reserves grew more than gross domestic product (GDP) and imports in many countries. The only ratio that is relatively stable is foreign reserves over M2.[6] Below are some theories that can explain this trend.
Theories[edit]
Signaling or vulnerability indicator[edit]
Ratios relating reserves to other external sector variables are popular among credit risk agencies and international organizations to assess the external vulnerability of a country. For example, Article IV of 2013[7] uses total external debt to gross international reserves, gross international reserves in months of prospective goods and nonfactor services imports to broad money, broad money to short-term external debt, and short-term external debt to short-term external debt on residual maturity basis plus current account deficit. Therefore, countries with similar characteristics accumulate reserves to avoid negative assessment by the financial market, especially when compared to members of a peer group.
Precautionary aspect[edit]
Reserves are used as savings for potential times of crises, especially balance of payments crises. Original fears were related to the current account, but this gradually changed to also include financial account needs.[8] Furthermore, the creation of the IMF was viewed as a response to the need of countries to accumulate reserves. If a specific country is suffering from a balance of payments crisis, it would be able to borrow from the IMF. However, the process of obtaining resources from the Fund is not automatic, which can cause problematic delays especially when markets are stressed. Therefore, the fund only serves as a provider of resources for longer term adjustments. Also, when the crisis is generalized, the resources of the IMF could prove insufficient. After the 2008 crisis, the members of the Fund had to approve a capital increase, since its resources were strained.[9] Moreover, after the 1997 Asian crisis, reserves in Asian countries increased because of doubt in the IMF reserves.[10] Also, during the 2008 crisis, the Federal Reserve instituted currency swap lines with several countries, alleviating liquidity pressures in dollars, thus reducing the need to use reserves.
External trade[edit]
Most countries engage in international trade, so to ensure no interruption, reserves are important. A rule usually followed by central banks is to hold the equivalency of at least three months of imports in foreign currency. Also, an increase in reserves occurred when commercial openness increased (part of the process known as globalization). Reserve accumulation was faster than that which would be explained by trade, since the ratio has increased to several months of imports. Furthermore, the external trade factor explains why the ratio of reserves in months of imports is closely watched by credit risk agencies.
Financial openness[edit]
The opening of a financial account of the balance of payments has been important during the last decade. Hence, financial flows such as direct investment and portfolio investment became more important. Usually financial flows are more volatile that enforce the necessity of higher reserves. Moreover, holding reserves, as a consequence of the increasing of financial flows, is known as Guidotti–Greenspan rule that states a country should hold liquid reserves equal to their foreign liabilities coming due within a year. For example, international wholesale financing relied more on Korean banks in the aftermath of the 2008 crisis, when the Korean Won depreciated strongly, because the Korean banks' ratio of short-term external debt to reserves was close to 100%, which exacerbated the perception of vulnerability.[11]
Exchange rate policy[edit]
Reserve accumulation can be an instrument to interfere with the exchange rate. Since the first General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) of 1948 to the foundation of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995, the regulation of trade is a major concern for most countries throughout the world. Hence, commercial distortions such as subsidies and taxes are strongly discouraged. However, there is no global framework to regulate financial flows. As an example of regional framework, members of the European Union are prohibited from introducing capital controls, except in an extraordinary situation. The dynamics of China’s trade balance and reserve accumulation during the first decade of the 2000 was one of the main reasons for the interest in this topic. Some economists are trying to explain this behavior. Usually, the explanation is based on a sophisticated variation of mercantilism, such as to protect the take-off in the tradable sector of an economy, by avoiding the real exchange rate appreciation that would naturally arise from this process. One attempt[12] uses a standard model of open economy intertemporal consumption to show that it is possible to replicate a tariff on imports or a subsidy on exports by closing the current account and accumulating reserves. Another[13] is more related to the economic growth literature. The argument is that the tradable sector of an economy is more capital intense than the non-tradable sector. The private sector invests too little in capital, since it fails to understand the social gains of a higher capital ratio given by externalities (like improvements in human capital, higher competition, technological spillovers and increasing returns to scale). The government could improve the equilibrium by imposing subsidies and tariffs, but the hypothesis is that the government is unable to distinguish between good investment opportunities and rent seeking schemes. Thus, reserves accumulation would correspond to a loan to foreigners to purchase a quantity of tradable goods from the economy. In this case, the real exchange rate would depreciate and the growth rate would increase. In some cases, this could improve welfare, since the higher growth rate would compensate the loss of the tradable goods that could be consumed or invested. In this context, foreigners have the role to choose only the useful tradable goods sectors.
Intergenerational savings[edit]
Reserve accumulation can be seen as a way of "forced savings". The government, by closing the financial account, would force the private sector to buy domestic debt in the lack of better alternatives. With these resources, the government buys foreign assets. Thus, the government coordinates the savings accumulation in the form of reserves. Sovereign wealth funds are examples of governments that try to save the windfall of booming exports as long-term assets to be used when the source of the windfall is extinguished.
Costs[edit]
There are costs in maintaining large currency reserves. Price fluctuations in exchange markets result in gains and losses in the purchasing power of reserves. In addition to fluctuations in exchange rates, the purchasing power of fiat money decreases constantly due to devaluation through inflation. Therefore, a central bank must continually increase the amount of its reserves to maintain the same power to manipulate exchange rates. Reserves of foreign currency provide a small return in interest. However, this may be less than the reduction in purchasing power of that currency over the same period of time due to inflation, effectively resulting in a negative return known as the "quasi-fiscal cost". In addition, large currency reserves could have been invested in higher yielding assets.
Several calculations have been attempted to measure the cost of reserves. The traditional one is the spread between government debt and the yield on reserves. The caveat is that higher reserves can decrease the perception of risk and thus the government bond interest rate, so this measures can overstate the cost. Alternatively, another measure compares the yield in reserves with the alternative scenario of the resources being invested in capital stock to the economy, which is hard to measure. One interesting[6] measure tries to compare the spread between short term foreign borrowing of the private sector and yields on reserves, recognizing that reserves can correspond to a transfer between the private and the public sectors. By this measure, the cost can reach 1% of GDP to developing countries. While this is high, it should be viewed as an insurance against a crisis that could easily cost 10% of GDP to a country. In the context of theoretical economic models it is possible to simulate economies with different policies (accumulate reserves or not) and directly compare the welfare in terms of consumption. Results are mixed, since they depend on specific features of the models.
A case to point out is that of the Swiss National Bank, the central bank of Switzerland. The Swiss franc is regarded as a safe haven currency, so it usually appreciates during market's stress. In the aftermath of the 2008 crisis and during the initial stages of the Eurozone crisis, the Swiss franc (CHF) appreciated sharply. The central bank resisted appreciation by buying reserves. After accumulating reserves during 15 months until June 2010, the SNB let the currency appreciate. As a result, the loss with the devaluation of reserves just in 2010 amounted to CHF 27 Billion or 5% of GDP(part of this was compensated by the profit of almost CHF6 Billion due to the surge in the price of gold).[14] In 2011, after the currency appreciated against the Euro from 1.5 to 1.1, the SNB announced a ceiling at the value of CHF 1.2. In the middle of 2012, reserves reached 71% of GDP.
History[edit]
Origins and Gold Standard Era[edit]
The modern exchange market as tied to the prices of gold began during 1880. Of this year the countries significant by size of reserves were Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Germany and Sweden.[15][16]
Official international reserves, the means of official international payments, formerly consisted only of gold, and occasionally silver. But under the Bretton Woods system, the US dollar functioned as a reserve currency, so it too became part of a nation's official international reserve assets. From 1944–1968, the US dollar was convertible into gold through the Federal Reserve System, but after 1968 only central banks could convert dollars into gold from official gold reserves, and after 1973 no individual or institution could convert US dollars into gold from official gold reserves. Since 1973, no major currencies have been convertible into gold from official gold reserves. Individuals and institutions must now buy gold in private markets, just like other commodities. Even though US dollars and other currencies are no longer convertible into gold from official gold reserves, they still can function as official international reserves.
Central banks throughout the world have sometimes cooperated in buying and selling official international reserves to attempt to influence exchange rates and avert financial crisis. For example, in the Baring crisis (the "Panic of 1890"), the Bank of England borrowed GBP 2 million from the Banque de France.[17] The same was true for the Louvre Accord and the Plaza Accord in the post gold-standard era.
Post Gold Standard Era[edit]
Historically, especially before the 1997 Asian financial crisis, central banks had rather meager reserves (by today's standards) and were therefore subject to the whims of the market, of which there was accusations of hot money manipulation, however Japan was the exception. In the case of Japan, forex reserves began their ascent a decade earlier, shortly after the Plaza Accord in 1985, and were primarily used as a tool to weaken the surging yen.[18] This effectively granted the United States a massive loan as they were almost exclusively invested in US Treasuries, which assisted the US to engage the Soviet Union in an arms race which ended with the latter's bankruptcy, and at the same time, turned Japan into the world's largest creditor and the US the largest debtor, as well as swelled Japan's domestic debt (Japan sold its own currency to fund the buildup of dollar based assets). By end of 1980, foreign assets of Japan were about 13% of GDP but by the end of 1989 had reached an unprecedented 62%.[18] After 1997, nations in Southeast and East Asia began their massive build-up of forex reserves, as their levels were deemed too low and susceptible to the whims of the market credit bubbles and busts. This build-up has major implications for today's developed world economy, by setting aside so much cash that was piled into US and European debt, investment had been crowded out, the developed world economy had effectively slowed to a crawl, giving birth to contemporary negative interest rates.
By 2007, the world had experienced yet another financial crisis, this time the US Federal Reserve organized Central bank liquidity swaps with other institutions. Developed countries authorities adopted extra expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, which led to the appreciation of currencies of some emerging markets. The resistance to appreciation and the fear of lost competitiveness led to policies aiming to prevent inflows of capital and more accumulation of reserves. This pattern was called currency war by an exasperated Brazilian authority, and again in 2016 followed the commodities collapse, Mexico had warned China of triggering currency wars.[19]
Adequacy and excess reserves[edit]
The IMF proposed a new metric to assess reserves adequacy in 2011.[20] The metric was based on the careful analysis of sources of outflow during crisis. Those liquidity needs are calculated taking in consideration the correlation between various components of the balance of payments and the probability of tail events. The higher the ratio of reserves to the developed metric, the lower is the risk of a crisis and the drop in consumption during a crisis. Besides that, the Fund does econometric analysis of several factors listed above and finds those reserves ratios are generally adequate among emerging markets.
Reserves that are above the adequacy ratio can be used in other government funds invested in more risky assets such as sovereign wealth funds or as insurance to time of crisis, such as stabilization funds. If those were included, Norway, Singapore and Persian Gulf States would rank higher on these lists, and United Arab Emirates' estimated $627 billion Abu Dhabi Investment Authority would be second after China. Apart from high foreign exchange reserves,[21] Singapore also has significant government and sovereign wealth funds including Temasek Holdings (last valued at US$177 billion) and GIC Private Limited (last valued at US$320 billion).[22]
List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves[edit]
Main article: List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves
List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves (excluding gold)[edit]
Main article: List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves (excluding gold)
See also[edit]
Balance of payments
Endaka
Foreign exchange reserves of the People's Republic of China
Global assets under management
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b International Monetary Fund, Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves, 30 September 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141008044100/http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/cofer/eng/. Archived from the original on 8 October 2014. Retrieved 29 October 2014. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Jump up ^ "IMF Data". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
Jump up ^ International Monetary Fund (IMF). Balance of payments manual. International Monetary Fund, 2010.
Jump up ^ Compositional Analysis Of Foreign Currency Reserves In The 1999–2007 Period. The Euro Vs. The Dollar As Leading Reserve Currency
Jump up ^ "Quotes from "The Case for Flexible Exchange Rates" by Milton Friedman". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Rodrik, Dani. "The social cost of foreign exchange reserves." International Economic Journal 20.3 (2006): 253-266.
Jump up ^ http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2013/cr1335.pdf Colombia2013 Article IV Consultation
Jump up ^ Bastourre, Diego, Jorge Carrera, and Javier Ibarlucia. "What is driving reserve accumulation? A dynamic panel data approach." Review of International Economics 17.4 (2009): 861–877.
Jump up ^ "Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four on International Monetary Affairs and Development: Communiqué". Retrieved 11 June 2015.
Jump up ^ Proposal for a new IMF role: SWF manager | vox. Voxeu.org. Retrieved on 18 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Republic of Korea: 2009 Article IV Consultation—
Jump up ^ Jeanne, Olivier. "Capital Account Policies and the Real Exchange Rate." No. w18404. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2012.
Jump up ^ Korinek, Anton, and Luis Serven. "Undervaluation through foreign reserve accumulation: static losses, dynamic gains." World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series, Vol (2010).
Jump up ^ Annual result of the Swiss National Bank for 2010
Jump up ^ GA Calvo, R Dornbusch, M Obstfeld - Money, Capital Mobility, and Trade: Essays in Honor of Robert A. Mundell MIT Press, 1 March 2004 Retrieved 27 July 2012 ISBN 0262532603
Jump up ^ S Shamah - A Foreign Exchange Primer ["1880" is within 1.2 Value Terms] John Wiley & Sons, 22 November 2011 Retrieved 27 July 2102 ISBN 1119994896
Jump up ^ Bordo, Michael D. International Rescues versus Bailouts: A Historical Perspective
^ Jump up to: a b http://www.bis.org/publ/bppdf/bispap15h.pdf
Jump up ^ http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/e729c1f0-b57c-11e5-aad2-3e9865bc6644.html
Jump up ^ Assessing Reserve Adequacy, IMF Policy Paper July 14, 2011
Jump up ^ "Singapore FX Reserves (USD) MoM". Investing. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
Jump up ^ "Sovereign Wealth Fund Rankings - Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute". Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
External links[edit]
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (September 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Sources[edit]
The World Factbook, CIA
Taiwan's Department of Investment Services data on foreign exchange reserves of major countries
Central Bank of Brazil – Daily updated foreign exchange reserves
Bank of Korea's top ten foreign exchange reserves holding countries monthly
Hong Kong Official Reserves Ranking
European Central Bank data on eurosystem reserves
Articles[edit]
Guidelines for foreign exchange reserve management Accompanying Document 1 Document 2 Appendix
"What is Foreign Exchange?" published by the International Business Times AU on 11 February 2011
A primer on exchange reserves
An empirical analysis of foreign exchange reserves in emerging Asia – December 2005
Foreign exchange reserves: issues in asia – January 2005
Foreign exchange reserves in east asia: why the high demand? – April 25, 2003
Optimal currency shares in international reserves
Are high foreign exchange reserves in emerging markets a blessing or a burden?
The adequacy of foreign exchange reserves
Are changes in foreign exchange reserves well correlated with official intervention?
Foreign exchange reserves buildup: business as usual
Compositional Analysis Of Foreign Currency Reserves In The 1999–2007 Period. The Euro Vs. The Dollar As Leading Reserve Currency
Speeches[edit]
Y V Reddy: India’s foreign exchange reserves – policy, status and issues – May 10, 2002
Marion Williams: foreign exchange reserves – how much is enough? – November 2, 2005
Lawrence H. Summers: Reflections on global account imbalances and emerging markets reserve accumulation – March 24, 2006
Books[edit]
Eichengreen, Barry. Exorbitant Privilege: The Rise and Fall of the Dollar and the Future of the International Monetary System. Oxford University Press, USA, 2011.
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Transfer case
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the US military use of the term, see coffin.
Inside of a 231 New Process Gear transfer case. Part-time/Manual, shift on the fly
A transfer case is a part of the drivetrain of four-wheel-drive, all-wheel-drive, and other multiple powered axle vehicles. The transfer case transfers power from the transmission to the front and rear axles by means of drive shafts. It also synchronizes the difference between the rotation of the front and rear wheels, and may contain one or more sets of low range gears for off-road use.
Contents
[hide]
1 Functions
2 Types
2.1 Drive type
2.1.1 Gear-driven
2.1.2 Chain-driven
2.2 Housing type
2.2.1 Married
2.2.2 Divorced/independent
2.3 Transfer case shift type
2.3.1 M.S.O.F.
2.3.2 E.S.O.F.
3 See also
4 References
Functions[edit]
The transfer case receives power from the transmission and sends it to both the front and rear axles. This can be done with gears, hydraulics, or chain drive. On some vehicles, such as four-wheel-drive trucks or vehicles intended for off-road use, this feature is controlled by the driver. The driver can put the transfer case into either "two-wheel-drive" or "four-wheel-drive" mode. This is sometimes accomplished by means of a shifter, similar to that in a manual transmission. On some vehicles this may be electronically operated by a switch instead. Some vehicles, such as all-wheel-drive sports cars, have transfer cases that are not selectable. Such a transfer case is permanently "locked" into all-wheel-drive mode.
Transfer cases that are designed to allow for normal road use synchronize the difference between the rotation of the front and rear wheels,[1] in much the same way the differential acts on a given axle. This is necessary because the front and rear tires never turn at the same speed. Different rates of tire rotation are generally due to different tire diameters (since front and rear tires inevitably wear at different rates) and different gear ratios in the front and rear differentials since manufacturers will often have a slightly lower ratio in the front vs. the rear to help with control (such as a 3.55:1 in the rear differential and a 3.54:1 in the front differential). If the transfer case did not make up the difference between the two different rates of rotation, binding would occur and the transfer case could become damaged. This is also why a transfer case that is not designed for on-road use must never be driven on dry pavement.
Transfer cases designed for off-road use can mechanically lock the front and rear axles when needed[2] (e.g. when one of the axles is on a slippery surfaces or stuck in mud, whereas the other has better traction). This is the equivalent to the differential lock.
The transfer case may contain one or more sets of low range gears for off-road use. Low range gears are engaged with a shifter or electronic switch. On many transfer cases, this shifter is the same as the one that selects 2WD or 4WD operation. Low range gears allow the vehicle to drive at much slower speeds while still operating within the usable power band / RPM range of the engine. This also increases the torque available at the axles. Low-range gears are used during slow-speed or extreme off-road maneuvers, such as rockcrawling, navigating dangerous roads, or when pulling a heavy load. This feature is often absent on all-wheel-drive cars. Some very large vehicles, such as heavy equipment or military trucks, have more than one low-range gear.
Types[edit]
Transfer cases used on "part-time" four-wheel-drive off-road vehicles such as trucks, truggies, rock-crawling vehicles, and some military vehicles generally allow the driver to select 2WD or 4WD, as well as high or low gear ranges. Those used in sports cars and performance sedans are usually "transparent" to the driver; there is no shifter or select lever.[citation needed]
Drive type[edit]
Gear-driven[edit]
There are two different types of internal power-transfer mechanism found in most transfer cases. Gear-driven transfer cases use sets of gears to drive either the front or both the front and rear driveshafts. These are generally strong, heavy units that are used in large trucks, but there are currently several gear drive cases in production for passenger cars.[citation needed]
Chain-driven[edit]
Chain-driven transfer cases use a chain to drive most often only one axle, but can drive both axles. Chain-driven transfer cases are quieter and lighter than gear-driven ones. They are used in vehicles such as compact trucks, full size trucks, Jeeps and SUVs. Some off-road driving enthusiasts modify their vehicles to use gear-driven transfer cases, accepting the additional weight and noise to gain the extra strength they generally provide.[citation needed]
Housing type[edit]
Married[edit]
Transfer cases are also classified as either "divorced"/independent or "married". Married transfer cases are bolted directly to the transmission, usually between the transmission's output shaft and the rear or main driveshaft. Sometimes a married transfer case is an integral part of the transmission and the two components share the same housing or "case", as is commonly found on recent Subaru products and some other all-wheel-drive cars.[citation needed]
Divorced/independent[edit]
A divorced or independent transfer case is completely separate from the transmission. It is located further down the driveline than a married transfer case and connected to the transmission output shaft by a short driveshaft. Independent transfer cases are used on very long wheelbase vehicles, such as commercial trucks or military trucks.
Transfer case shift type[edit]
M.S.O.F.[edit]
Manual Shift On-the-Fly transfer cases have a selector lever on the driver's side floor transmission hump and may also have either two sealed automatic front axle locking hubs or two manual front axle hub selectors of "LOCK" and "UNLOCK" or "FREE". To engage the four-wheel-drive system the vehicle must be moving at a low speed, the speed at which 4x4 can be engaged depends on the vehicle. This is only for the four-wheel-drive high setting. To engage the four-wheel-drive low setting, the vehicle must be stopped and the transmission must be shifted to neutral, then the four-wheel-drive low can be selected.
E.S.O.F.[edit]
Electronic Shift On-the-Fly (ESOF) transfer cases have a dash-mounted selector switch or buttons with front sealed automatic locking axle hubs or drive flanges. Some vehicles, such as Jeeps, also have what is called SelecTrac, which has a slider switch on the center console.[citation needed] Unlike the manual transfer case, this system has a transfer case motor. To engage the four-wheel-drive system the vehicle must be moving at a lower speeds, the speed at which 4x4 can be engaged depends on the vehicle. This is only for the four-wheel-drive high setting. To engage the four-wheel-drive low setting, the vehicle must be stopped and the transmission must be shifted to neutral, then the four-wheel-drive low can be selected.
See also[edit]
NP-205
AMC/Jeep Transmissions
Jeep four wheel drive systems
Mitsubishi Super Select
References[edit]
Jump up ^ http://www.cdxetextbook.com/trans/finalDrives/allWheel/transfercasediff.html Transfer case differential action
Jump up ^ http://www.fourwheeler.com/techarticles/68958_how_transfer_cases_work/index.html How Transfer Cases Work
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transfer_case&oldid=805616544"
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Super Bowl LI halftime show
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Super Bowl LI halftime show
Date
February 5, 2017
Location
Houston, Texas
Venue
NRG Stadium
Headliner
Lady Gaga
Sponsor
Pepsi
Director
Hamish Hamilton
Producer
Ricky Kirshner
Super Bowl halftime show chronology
50
(2016) LI
(2017) LII
(2018)
The Super Bowl LI Halftime show took place on February 5, 2017, at NRG Stadium in Houston, Texas as part of Super Bowl LI. The show was headlined by Lady Gaga, who performed a medley of her songs, including newer material from her most recent studio album Joanne.
Gaga's performance was critically acclaimed, with media outlets praising the show for demonstrating her artistic and musical qualities, and some arguing that it ranked among the top Super Bowl halftime performances in history. The show was also noted for its acknowledgment of the LGBT community, the use of a swarm of lighting-equipped drones for a pre-recorded intro scene, and its perceived political undertones. With 117.5 million television viewers, the Super Bowl LI halftime show was the second most-watched Super Bowl halftime show behind Katy Perry's and had higher average viewership than the game itself.
Contents
[hide]
1 Synopsis
2 Background
3 Development
3.1 Conception
3.2 Rehearsals
3.3 Fashion
3.4 Multimedia
3.5 Drones
4 Critical response
5 Commercial reception
6 Set list
7 Personnel
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Synopsis[edit]
NRG Stadium, where the Super Bowl LI and the halftime show took place
The halftime show started on the roof of NRG Stadium. Gaga started singing "God Bless America" as drones swarm behind her emitting red, blue and white color. She then sang Woody Guthrie's "This Land Is Your Land", followed by the ending of the Pledge of Allegiance: "One nation under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all". Gaga then dove from the rooftop as the drones behind formed the design of the US flag. The singer came down and stood on a tall pillar across the stage, and started singing "Poker Face" as fireworks emitted behind her. After the first verse and chorus, Gaga, who was attached to a harness, bounced from the pillar to the main stage, and was joined by her dancers to sing "Born This Way", including the track's intermediate spoken verse.
As the performance ended, Gaga headed towards one corner of the stage inside a star shaped structure, and sang "Telephone". She was carried by a dancer to the main stage where she held a keytar and sang "Just Dance". The singer proceeded to the grounds from the stage as the song completed. She reached a podium with a piano, and started singing "Million Reasons". The audience present on the field drifted off in different directions holding the light sticks in their hands. Continuing the song, she came down from the stage and hugged members of the audience. For the finale of "Bad Romance" a team of white-clad dancers strutted across the main stage. Gaga joined them wearing a football inspired costume and performed the track. As fireworks erupted heralding the end of the show, Gaga reached the edge of the stage, shouted "Super Bowl 51", dropped her microphone, and jumped off stage catching a football.
Background[edit]
Gaga after performing the US national anthem at the Super Bowl 50 on February 7, 2016
Around August 2016, media started reporting that singer Adele was in discussion with the National Football League (NFL) to perform at the Super Bowl LI halftime show, to be held on February 5, 2017, at Houston's NRG Stadium; the show was sponsored by Pepsi Zero Sugar.[1] A representative from the NFL said that "organisers are doing absolutely everything they can to try to persuade her to sign up".[2] During her Adele Live 2016 concert tour at Los Angeles, Adele clarified that although she had been offered to perform by the NFL, she had declined since she did not believe herself to be suitable for the halftime show.[3] The NFL also explained that they had not signed any musician till then and were still in discussion with several artists.[4]
In the meantime, singer Lady Gaga had announced that she would be releasing her fifth studio album, Joanne, in October 2016. Billboard reported that the NFL was discussing with the singer, based on her performance of the national anthem at the previous Super Bowl.[5] On September 29, 2016, Gaga finally confirmed on her Instagram account that she would be performing at the halftime show.[6] Fox Sports president and executive producer of the show, John Entz, confirmed Gaga's involvement adding "[She] is one of the most electric performers of our generation, and we couldn't be happier with the choice to have her headline the Super Bowl LI Halftime Show... It is going to be an incredible night."[7]
According to Emma Quigley, Pepsi's North American head of music, and Justin Toman, Pepsi sports marketing director, choosing Gaga to headline the show made sense based on her previous output and musical endeavors. They considered various parameters—social media followers, record sales, trending topic—and then shortlisted her. Toman also took into account the total time it usually takes for the show—seven minutes for set up, 12 minutes for the main show, and another seven minutes to dismantle—and believed the singer could deliver "power, punch, performance, singing, lights" within that time frame. Pepsi sponsored the halftime show for the fifth-consecutive year.[8]
Development[edit]
Conception[edit]
A long shot view of the stage during the performance of "Just Dance" in the halftime show
In October 2016, Gaga told Entertainment Weekly she wanted to give "the best show for the football fans, the ones that are watching at home". Although indecisive about the set list, the singer wanted to play a mixture of her past and recent songs. She also confirmed that the NFL had heard Joanne before its release, and decided to offer the halftime performance slot.[9] Inspiration came from previous halftime show performances by Michael Jackson, Diana Ross, and Bruce Springsteen, with Gaga remarking that she loved "all the [past shows]".[10] In December 2016, Gaga launched the "Guest of Honor" contest along with Pepsi and the NFL, which would enable her fans to win an opportunity to see the halftime show from the sidelines of the stage.[11] The singer uploaded a video titled "Fanifesto", talking about the power of fandom, and explained that one has to upload a 15–60 second video on Instagram or Twitter with the hashtags #GOHContest and #PepsiHalftime by December 15, professing their fandom for Gaga.[12]
Colin Stutz from Billboard revealed that Gaga would not be accompanied by any guest musicians for the show, which was a deviation from the shows of the past few years.[13] Pepsi confirmed in a press release that a ten-second countdown would precede Gaga's performance, where a lead-in featuring jazz singer Tony Bennett would be shown, produced by Creator's Studio.[14] Gaga confirmed planning to sing atop the dome of NRG Stadium, the idea given to her by her sister Natali Germanotta.[10][15] Her team were worried about the safety hazards associated with the stunt, although Gaga continued to pursue it. The organizers considered airlifting the singer on top of the dome before the performance, or making her appear through the "see-through" roof of the stadium, which is retractable. Gaga's lawyers worked on the logistics and the insurance associated with the stunt.[15] The US media had expected Gaga to do "something overtly political" during her performance.[16] NFL refuted news about them forbidding the singer to mention President Donald Trump during the show. A representative from the organization issued a statement saying, "The Super Bowl is a time when people really come together. Lady Gaga is focused on putting together an amazing show for fans and we love working with her on it; we aren't going to be distracted by this."[17]
Rehearsals[edit]
I really had a real sense of being in the zone for this performance, worked on it for a really long time, took months, trained hard. Every second I wanted to give the world and my fans what they deserve, a great show. Its really exciting, I wanted to enjoy the moment not just be hell bent on everything.
—Gaga on the halftime show[18]
By January 2017, Gaga started posting images on her social media accounts, showing her practicing for the show. She built a tent in her backyard where she could rehearse with her dancers.[19] The group rehearsed in it for about 1.5 week, then moved to larger venues in Hollywood for working on the rest of the show. Finally, all the equipment was sent to Houston, where the last rehearsals took place.[20] Gaga enlisted vocal coach Don Lawrence for helping her belt out the correct musical notes. Lawrence had worked with Gaga for her National Anthem performance previous year, as well as for her concert tours.[21]
A behind-the-scenes video from the rehearsals was uploaded by Pepsi, where Gaga explained that the main challenge was how to make the halftime performance different than the preceding years, but keep it still about the music. Choreographer Richy Jackson was shown in the middle of a session with the dancers, enacting the characteristic moves from the song, "Bad Romance" (2009). Jackson said that the dancers were hand-picked and were among the personnel that had worked with the singer. He further added that the show would unveil a different aspect of Gaga, since she had never got the chance to perform on a big platform like the Super Bowl.[22]
As the day for the show approached, the singer kept posting short videos from rehearsal as well as behind-the-scenes. She showed her pre-game dance routines and choreography, FaceTimeing with her grandmother, warming up for the show, and the onstage activities.[23] Toman explained that they wanted to have the general fans get "a peek into the journey to halftime, tapping into the artist fanbase—that really works. Doing a behind-the-scenes content program, giving people that glimpse of what it takes to prepare. People love that. So that really worked and we continue to do that."[8]
Fashion[edit]
After the release of Joanne Gaga had worn simplistic fashion, deviating from her previous outrageous attires. Prior to the halftime show, there was much speculation regarding her fashion for the performance.[24] Versace had created all the looks for the show, including the final look which was inspired by the label's Spring 2017 collection.[25] The singer wore a custom created, Atelier Versace, iridescent colored jumpsuit, which was beaded over with Swarovski crystals, along with high shoulder pads and matching knee length boots. The body suit facilitated swift movement onstage, aiding the mobility for the singer.[24] According to fashion expert Cameron Silver, Gaga's final look for the performance of "Bad Romance" was the "most interesting". It consisted of silver hot pants with sequins on it, with a footballer shoulder-pad like jacket. Both the dresses were deemed as a "customary nod" to Gaga's past by Billboard, who added that "It was a solid balance of glam and sexy without overdoing it [...] [The dress] gave fantasy to her fans. She looked great. She sounded great. It's like she was playing football in heels."[24] In between the performance, Gaga also wore a golden jacket which had shoulder spikes, while playing the keytar.[26]
Gaga's looks were styled by her longtime collaborator Brandon Maxwell, while her makeup was influenced by singer David Bowie's persona Ziggy Stardust.[25] Donatella Versace herself flew to Houston to help with the costumes, including dressing the singer herself before the show. Gaga's makeup was done by artist Sarah Nicole Tanno and her hair was coiffured by Frederic Aspiras. Tanno used products from Marc Jacobs' cosmetics line to give a "timeless" look for Gaga.[27] The singer wore a pair of eye masks made of crystals, extending till her temples.[26] According to Vanessa Friedman from The New York Times, choosing Versace as her fashion brand for the costumes "helped to support a subtler, arguably more powerful, message" by Gaga. She had promised to make the show about "inclusion" and to that extent, using Versace and a number of other designers like Dr. Martens and Vera Wang made it a point.[28]
Multimedia[edit]
During "Million Reasons" a field cast used Glow Motion LED Batons, creating a three-dimensional moving pixels show.
The production work on the show was done by designers Bruce Rodgers of Tribe Inc. and LeRoy Bennett, and lighting designer Bob Barnhart of 22 Degrees. The stage was created by All Access Staging & Productions, who had also created previous Super Bowl halftime stages. Key features of the stage consisted of a main platform, two towers, three star-shaped side stages, a piano dome and a stage lift. The towers were around 30 feet (9.1 m) tall and could be carried by carts to the field for set-up. All Access had only 4.5 weeks to create the whole piece with the main stage itself, and required 17 trucks for storage and transport.[29] The show utilized LED system from Verrents and sound by ATK Audio tek.[30] Around 5,000 LED lights were embedded in the stage, which was a record number.[29] Special effects group Strictly FX was behind all the pyrotechnics.[30]
Both Rodgers and Bennett combined the individual ideas for the show, and took inputs from Barnhart and special effects designer Mark Grega from FX. Rodgers called the stage setup as "the most intense technological and visually impactful epic possible". The show featured a field cast led by KP Terry; they used Glow Motion LED batons, creating a 3D moving pixels show.[30] A Nashville-based company, Glow Motion programmed each of the individual batons to sync with the music being played.[31] "All our field cast and staging experts, technicians and vendors [had] stepped up to support the vision, and Gaga herself, having embraced the concept early on, [had] taken on the task with more interest and heart than any other artist that I’ve worked with in the last 11 years," Rodgers concluded.[30]
Lighting for the show was supplied by Production Resource Group (PRG). Chris Conti from the company shared Barnhart's floor planning for the lighting setup, which utilized DMX512 for controlling the whole system.[32] Barnhart recalled that "[the] show was a little more complicated this year, due to the amount of scenery that we normally don't have on a halftime show", but it was better since there were no video backdrops.[33] All around the roof of NRG Stadium, an array of 36 Clay Paky Sharpy fixtures were added, which lit the Houston night skyline with light beams.[34] Barnhart also arranged a backlight array fixture, using Philips Vari-Lite VL4000 and PRG Best Boy. LED tape was used around the main production area. They were controlled by the lighting team and could light the stage from afar.[33] Director Hamish Hamilton and his crew devised their own way of capturing and transmitting the show for the live audience.[30]
Drones[edit]
See also: Quadcopter § Art
For performing on top of NRG Stadium, Gaga was accompanied by a fleet of 300 synchronized, LED-equipped "Shooting Star" quadcopter drones provided by Intel, which formed an image of the American flag behind the singer. It marked the first time that the drones had been used as part of a television broadcast.[35] According to Intel's senior vice president Josh Walden, "Gaga and the Super Bowl creative team wanted to pull off something that had never been done before... The potential for these light show drones is endless".[36] Barnhart explained that he had wanted to use drones in the Super Bowl for many years, but never encountered the correct technology until Intel's drones. With the permission from producer Ricky Kirshner, he reached out to Intel representatives and told them that he wanted to use their drone technology for a "large TV show in February. I can't give you money, but I can give you exposure". Hearing that the Super Bowl will expose the technology to over 110 million television sets across the country, Intel agreed.[33]
Since the drones did not fly indoors, Barnhart wrote a new creative segment for the opening with Gaga singing atop the roof of the stadium with the drones flying behind her.[33] The segment was filmed earlier in the week due to safety concerns regarding performing the formation over the live audience. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) had forbidden drones from being used within a 34.5 miles (55.5 km) radius of NRG Stadium (which is also located near William P. Hobby Airport). The production staff obtained special permission from the FAA in order to perform the drone acrobatics.[35][37]
The drones used for the show had a plastic and foam body for soft impacts, and were about 1 foot (0.30 m) square and weighed 8 ounces (0.50 lb). They were connected to a central computer through wireless and executed individual choreography, each being oblivious to what the other drones' position was. The computer checked the GPS signal strength and battery level of the drones, while assigning their roles accordingly. Intel had started preparing from early December 2016, working out the logistics. After coming to a consensus with the creative team, they started storyboarding the drones, finally accepting to display a star array, the American flag and the Pepsi logo.[37]
Critical response[edit]
Gaga performing "Born This Way" during the show in the Atelier Versace iridescent colored jumpsuit
Gaga's performance at the halftime show was critically acclaimed.[38] A writer for Time described the show as "among the very best in the history of the form, racing ambitiously through the artist's entire career and putting forward the qualities of the artist that just work".[39] The New Yorker review described Gaga and the show as "an astute, intense, and disciplined performance".[40] Andrew Unterberger from Billboard felt that the performance would go down as "one of the best halftime sets of the century" and that it had cemented Gaga as a "legacy artist... It was Gaga through and through, and every song felt more gratifying than the last... [R]eminding you why Gaga's pop supremacy was so inarguable not all that long ago." Unterberger noted that there was nothing "outrageous" in the show.[41]
Chris Chase of Fox Sports said that the halftime show would "go down with Michael, Prince, Beyoncé, and Bruce as the greatest ever."[42] Marguerite Ward from CNBC considered the show to be Gaga's comeback, noting how she had announced in 2015 that she would retire. "Fast forward to 2017. [Lady Gaga] is back on the global stage, gearing up for a new world tour," she added.[43] Writing for Variety, Sonia Saraiya described the show as "breathtaking" and "soar[ing]", but felt it "lacked an iconic moment or emotional button".[44] Daniel Fienberg from The Hollywood Reporter was disappointed that the show never had a "close-up or any sort of swooping medium-shot to accentuate [Gaga's] movement", and felt that "the weakly presented dive" detracted from Gaga's rendition of "God Bless America" and "This Land Is Your Land".[16]
Nico Land from Salon noted that Gaga became the first artist to refer to the LGBT community during a Super Bowl halftime show when she sang "Born This Way". Land considered this a "crucial milestone" for the community. He said that "Putting LGBT issues on the main stage at the Super Bowl served as a powerful message of queer solidarity in the face on an unprecedented wave of challenges from our government." Although Gaga did not openly criticize Trump, Land viewed the singer's opening performance was a subtle "dig" at the President. Singing "This Land Is Your Land", a protest anthem for the Women's Marches across the country following Trump's inauguration, Gaga referred to Trump's policies on immigration.[45] According to Joanna Robinson from Vanity Fair, the performance was a "dog whistle" against Trump's plans to construct a wall between United States and Mexico.[46]
At the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards, the halftime show was nominated in 6 categories: Outstanding Special Class Program, Outstanding Production Design for Variety, Nonfiction, Event or Award Special, Outstanding Lighting Design / Lighting Direction for a Variety Special, Outstanding Technical Direction, Camerawork, Video Control for a Limited Series, Movie, or Special, Outstanding Music Direction, and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Variety Series or Special and won for Outstanding Lighting Design.[47][48] It was also the most nominations received by a halftime show at the Emmy Awards.[49]
Commercial reception[edit]
Gaga performing "Poker Face", after descending from the roof of the NRG Stadium in a harness.
The Super Bowl LI halftime show was seen by 117.5 million television viewers in the United States, making it the second-most-watched halftime show behind Katy Perry's (2015). For the fourth year in a row, the viewership was higher than the game which was viewed by an audience of 111.3 million.[50] A total of 5.1 million tweets were made regarding Gaga's performance, including 2.2 million during the actual show, which made her the most tweeted about entertainer in the show's history. According to statistics presented by Billboard, the most tweeted moment was captured when the show ended, followed by when Gaga waved at her parents from the stage, and finally when the singer descended from the NRG Stadium roof in a harness. The set list was also included in the most tweets tabulation with "Bad Romance" getting the highest number of tweets. "Telephone" was the second-most-tweeted song followed by "Born This Way".[51]
According to Nielsen SoundScan on the day of the show, Gaga sold 150,000 digital albums and songs in the United States, up by 1,000% from the previous day. The singer sold a total of 125,000 digital song downloads, led by "Million Reasons" (45,000 up by 900%), then "Bad Romance" (13,000), "Born This Way" (12,000) and "Poker Face" (10,000). Her albums sold more than 23,000 downloads with Joanne selling over 12,000 copies, followed by The Fame Monster (2009), which sold about 6,000.[52] Gaga acquired over 24,000 listeners on music streaming website Pandora Radio. Total station adds for the singer went up by 1,391% week-by-week with a cumulative 14.8 million stations and her songs received 2.5 billion spins. All the songs performed received significant spin boosts. This was a difference from the previous halftime shows, when Coldplay was up by 225%, Bruno Mars by 62%, and Beyoncé up 60%.[38]
After the final tabulation, Gaga sold over 410,000 digital song downloads in total for the tracking week of February 9, 2017, an increase of 1,850%. "Million Reasons" re-entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number four becoming Gaga's 14th top-ten single. It also reached the top of the Digital Songs chart with 149,000 downloads. Other songs entering the Digital Songs chart were "Born This Way" (41,000, number seven), "Bad Romance" (39,000, number nine) "Poker Face" (34,000, number fourteen), "Just Dance" (25,000, number 26) and "Telephone" (20,000, number 39). Gaga's streaming activity increased by 196% to 41.8 million streams, led by "Million Reasons" with 3.9 million plays. Her album sales increased by 844% to 135,000 equivalent units, with Joanne soaring from number 66–2 on the Billboard 200, selling 74,000 units (48,000 traditional album purchases). Other entries in the chart included The Fame (38,000, number six), Born This Way (17,000, number 25) and Artpop (5,000, number 174).[53] Gaga reached number one on the Billboard Artist 100 chart, which measures activity across various social media websites as well as record sales.[54]
The Super Bowl performance also had an impact in Canada, where Joanne vaulted from number 54–2, with a 524% gain in album-equivalent units.[55] In the United Kingdom, Joanne's sales were up by 222%, while The Fame (2008) was up by 1,605% since the show.[56] On the UK Albums Chart, the former moved from number 88–11, with sales increasing to 5,289 copies, while the latter entered at number 38, selling 2,263 copies.[57]
Set list[edit]
The final performance of the show, "Bad Romance"
The following songs were performed during the halftime show:
"God Bless America" / "This Land Is Your Land" (pre-recorded intro)[35]
"Poker Face"
"Born This Way"
"Telephone"
"Just Dance"
"Million Reasons"
"Bad Romance"
Set list adapted from Billboard.[58]
Personnel[edit]
Credits and personnel adapted from the listing available at Live Design website.[59]
Main performer
Lady Gaga
Creative personnel
Executive Producer: Ricky Kirshner
Director: Hamish Hamilton
Production Designer: Bruce Rodgers, Tribe Inc.
Co-Production Designer: LeRoy Bennett
Lighting Designer: Bob Barnhart, 22 Degrees
Vendors
Set and Staging Fabrication: All Access
Pyro and Effects: Strictly FX
On-field cast LED batons: Glow Motion Technologies
Lighting Equipment Supplier: PRG
LED Systems: VER
Sound Equipment Provider: ATK
Lighting crew
Lighting Directors: Pete Radice, David Grill, Jason Rudolph
Gaffer: Tony Ward
Best Boy: David Serralles, Kieth Berkes, Dean Brown, Joe Faretta, George Clayton
Lead Tech: Robb Minnotte
Tech: Matt Geneczko, Jeff Anderson
Network Designer: Chris Conti
Lead Spot Op: Tim Altman, George Sennerfelder, John Washburton
Lead Spot Tech: Quinn Smith
Assistant Lighting Director: Megan Seibel
Fiber Tech: Alex Ward
Art design team
Art Directors: Shelley Rodgers, Lindsey Breslauer
Set and CAD Designers: Maria Maria Garcia, Bruno Oliveira, Evan Alexander,
Assistant Art Director: Lucas Ingram
Stage video and projection crew
LED Technicians: Gary Madura, Luke Pilato, Rod Silhanek, Michael Spencer
Media Server Operator: Jason Rudolph
Media Server Technician: Tim Nauss
Intel Shooting Star drone team
Lead Technical Engineer: Daniel Gurden
Software Development Engineer (Programmer): Tobias Gurden
General Manager of Drone Light Shows: Natalie Cheung
Project Manager: Madeline Ong
Pilot In Command: Clay Coleman, Pilot In Command
Hardware Engineer: Tobi Lang
All Access Staging & Productions crew
All Access Staging Supervisor: Tim Fallon
Project Manager: Tommy Rose
Manufacturing Design: Erik Eastland
Automation Technician and Fabrication Lead: Fidel Garza
Head Carpenter: Roger Cabot
Staging Technicians: Kyle Duarte, Jesus Arroyo, Arturo Martinez, Jeff Haas, Anthony Pozos, Micky Dymond,
Staging Technician/Fabricator: Julio Roch
LED Technicians: Zack Eastland, Blake Chandler
See also[edit]
2017 in American music
2017 in American television
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External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Super Bowl LI halftime show.
Don't Worry About What 'Joanne' Songs Lady Gaga Is Gonna Perform at the Super Bowl Billboard
Super Bowl LI Halftime Show 2017 Staging Technical Drawings Live Design
Super Bowl LI Halftime Show Set Drawings Live Design
Will Lady Gaga's Drones Win a Lion? Intel Explains How It Pulled Off Its Fantastical Super Bowl Stunt Adweek
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value: Espectáculo de medio tiempo del Super Bowl LI – Spanish

value: Super Bowl LI devre arası gösterisi – Turkish

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