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Production–possibility frontier
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A production–possibility frontier (PPF) or production possibility curve (PPC) is a graphical representation of possible combinations of two goods (such as butter and guns) that can be produced with constant technology and resources per unit of time, such that more of one good could be produced only by diverting resources from the other good, resulting in less production of it; i. e. production tradeoffs, usually for an economy, but which can also be interpreted as applying for an individual, household, etc.
Graphically bounding the production set for fixed input quantities, the PPF curve shows the maximum possible production level of one commodity for any given production level of the other, given the existing state of technology. By doing so, it defines productive efficiency in the context of that production set: a point on the frontier indicates efficient use of the available inputs (such as points B, D and C in the graph), a point beneath the curve (such as A) indicates inefficiency, and a point beyond the curve (such as X) indicates impossibility.
The PSU represented by the point on the PPF where an efficient economy operates (which is obtained by tangency with the highest individual or social indifference curve, not shown in the graph) presents the priorities or choices of the modeled agent, such as the choice of having more butter produced and fewer guns, or vice versa.
An example PPF with illustrative points marked
PPFs are normally drawn as bulging upwards or outwards from the origin ("concave" when viewed from the origin), but they can be represented as bulging downward (inwards) or linear (straight), depending on a number of assumptions. A PPF illustrates several economic concepts, such as scarcity of resources (the fundamental economic problem that all societies face), opportunity cost (or marginal rate of transformation), productive efficiency, allocative efficiency, and economies of scale.
An outward shift of the PPF results from growth of the availability of inputs, such as physical capital or labour, or from technological progress in knowledge of how to transform inputs into outputs. Such a shift reflects, for instance, economic growth of an economy already operating at its full productivity (on the PPF), which means that more of both outputs can now be produced during the specified period of time without sacrificing the output of either good. Conversely, the PPF will shift inward if the labor force shrinks, the supply of raw materials is depleted, or a natural disaster decreases the stock of physical capital.
However, most economic contractions reflect not that less can be produced but that the economy has started operating below the frontier, as typically, both labor and physical capital are underemployed, remaining therefore idle.
Contents
[hide]
1 Indicators
1.1 Efficiency
1.2 Opportunity cost
1.3 Marginal rate of transformation
2 Shape
3 Position
4 Other applications
5 Notes
6 References
Indicators[edit]
Efficiency[edit]
See also: Productive efficiency and Pareto efficiency
A PPF (production possibility frontier) typically takes the form of the curve illustrated above. An economy that is operating on the PPF is said to be efficient, meaning that it would be impossible to produce more of one good without decreasing production of the other good. In contrast, if the economy is operating below the curve, it is said to be operating inefficiently because it could reallocate resources in order to produce more of both goods or some resources such as labor or capital are sitting idle and could be fully employed to produce more of both goods.
For example, if one assumes that the economy's available quantities of factors of production do not change over time and that technological progress does not occur, if the economy is operating on the PPF, production of guns would need to be sacrificed to produce more butter.[1] If production is efficient, the economy can choose between combinations (points) on the PPF: B if guns are of interest, C if more butter is needed, D if an equal mix of butter and guns is required.[1]
In the PPF, all points on the curve are points of maximum productive efficiency (no more output of any good can be achieved from the given inputs without sacrificing output of some good); all points inside the frontier (such as A) can be produced but are productively inefficient; all points outside the curve (such as X) cannot be produced with the given, existing resources.[2] Not all points on the curve are Pareto efficient, however; only in the case where the marginal rate of transformation is equal to all consumers' marginal rate of substitution and hence equal to the ratio of prices will it be impossible to find any trade that will make no consumer worse off.[3]
Any point that lies either on the production possibilities curve or to the left of it is said to be an attainable point: it can be produced with currently available resources. Points that lie to the right of the production possibilities curve are said to be unattainable because they cannot be produced using currently available resources. Points that lie strictly to the left of the curve are said to be inefficient, because existing resources would allow for production of more of at least one good without sacrificing the production of any other good. An efficient point is one that lies on the production possibilities curve. At any such point, more of one good can be produced only by producing less of the other. [4]
Such a two-good world is a theoretical simplification because of the difficulty of graphical analysis of multiple goods. If we are interested in one good, a composite score of the other goods can be generated using different techniques.[5][6] Furthermore, the production model can be generalised using higher-dimensional techniques such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and others.[7]
Opportunity cost[edit]
Increasing butter from A to B carries little opportunity cost, but for C to D the cost is great.
Main article: Opportunity cost
From a starting point on the frontier, if there is no increase in productive resources, increasing production of a first good entails decreasing production of a second, because resources must be transferred to the first and away from the second. Points along the curve describe the tradeoff between the goods. The sacrifice in the production of the second good is called the opportunity cost (because increasing production of the first good entails losing the opportunity to produce some amount of the second). Opportunity cost is measured in the number of units of the second good forgone for one or more units of the first good.[1]
In the context of a PPF, opportunity cost is directly related to the shape of the curve (see below). If the shape of the PPF curve is a straight-line, the opportunity cost is constant as production of different goods is changing. But, opportunity cost usually will vary depending on the start and end points. In the diagram on the right, producing 10 more packets of butter, at a low level of butter production, costs the loss of 5 guns (shown as a movement from A to B). At point C, the economy is already close to its maximum potential butter output. To produce 10 more packets of butter, 50 guns must be sacrificed (as with a movement from C to D). The ratio of gains to losses is determined by the marginal rate of transformation.
Marginal rate of transformation[edit]
Marginal rate of transformation increases when the transition is made from AA to BB.
The slope of the production–possibility frontier (PPF) at any given point is called the marginal rate of transformation (MRT). The slope defines the rate at which production of one good can be redirected (by reallocation of productive resources) into production of the other. It is also called the (marginal) "opportunity cost" of a commodity, that is, it is the opportunity cost of X in terms of Y at the margin. It measures how much of good Y is given up for one more unit of good X or vice versa. The shape of a PPF is commonly drawn as concave to the origin to represent increasing opportunity cost with increased output of a good. Thus, MRT increases in absolute size as one moves from the top left of the PPF to the bottom right of the PPF.[8]
The marginal rate of transformation can be expressed in terms of either commodity. The marginal opportunity costs of guns in terms of butter is simply the reciprocal of the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns. If, for example, the (absolute) slope at point BB in the diagram is equal to 2, to produce one more packet of butter, the production of 2 guns must be sacrificed. If at AA, the marginal opportunity cost of butter in terms of guns is equal to 0.25, the sacrifice of one gun could produce four packets of butter, and the opportunity cost of guns in terms of butter is 4.
Shape[edit]
The production-possibility frontier can be constructed from the contract curve in an Edgeworth production box diagram of factor intensity.[9] The example used above (which demonstrates increasing opportunity costs, with a curve concave to the origin) is the most common form of PPF.[10] It represents a disparity, in the factor intensities and technologies of the two production sectors. That is, as an economy specializes more and more into one product (such as moving from point B to point D), the opportunity cost of producing that product increases, because we are using more and more resources that are less efficient in producing it. With increasing production of butter, workers from the gun industry will move to it. At first, the least qualified (or most general) gun workers will be transferred into making more butter, and moving these workers has little impact on the opportunity cost of increasing butter production: the loss in gun production will be small. However, the cost of producing successive units of butter will increase as resources that are more and more specialized in gun production are moved into the butter industry.[11]
If opportunity costs are constant, a straight-line (linear) PPF is produced.[12] This case reflects a situation where resources are not specialised and can be substituted for each other with no added cost.[11] Products requiring similar resources (bread and pastry, for instance) will have an almost straight PPF and so almost constant opportunity costs.[11] More specifically, with constant returns to scale, there are two opportunities for a linear PPF: if there was only one factor of production to consider or if the factor intensity ratios in the two sectors were constant at all points on the production-possibilities curve. With varying returns to scale, however, it may not be entirely linear in either case.[13]
With economies of scale, the PPF would curve inward, with the opportunity cost of one good falling as more of it is produced. Specialization in producing successive units of a good determines its opportunity cost (say from mass production methods or specialization of labor).[14]
A common PPF: increasing opportunity cost
A straight line PPF: constant opportunity cost
An inverted PPF: decreasing opportunity cost
Position[edit]
An unbiased expansion in a PPF
The two main determinants of the position of the PPF at any given time are the state of technology and management expertise (which are reflected in the available production functions) and the available quantities of factors of production (materials, direct labor, and factory overhead).
Only points on or within a PPF are actually possible to achieve in the short run. In the long run, if technology improves or if the supply of factors of production increases, the economy's capacity to produce both goods increases; if this potential is realized, economic growth occurs. That increase is shown by a shift of the production-possibility frontier to the right. Conversely, a natural, military or ecological disaster might move the PPF to the left in response to a reduction in an economy's productive capability.[1] Thus all points on or within the curve are part of the production set: combinations of goods that the economy could potentially produce.
If the two production goods depicted are capital investment (to increase future production possibilities) and current consumption goods, the higher is investment this year, the more the PPF would shift out in following years.[15] Shifts of the curve can represent how technological progress that favors production possibilities of one good, say guns, more than the other shifts the PPF outwards more along the favored good's axis, "biasing" production possibilities in that direction. Similarly, if one good makes more use of say capital and if capital grows faster than other factors, growth possibilities might be biased in favor of the capital-intensive good.[16][17]
Other applications[edit]
In microeconomics, the PPF shows the options open to an individual, household, or firm in a two-good world. By definition, each point on the curve is productively efficient, but, given the nature of market demand, some points will be more profitable than others. Equilibrium for a firm will be the combination of outputs on the PPF that is most profitable.[18]
From a macroeconomic perspective, the PPF illustrates the production possibilities available to a nation or economy during a given period of time for broad categories of output. It is traditionally used to show the movement between committing all funds to consumption on the y-axis versus investment on the x-axis. However, an economy may achieve productive efficiency without necessarily being allocatively efficient. Market failure (such as imperfect competition or externalities) and some institutions of social decision-making (such as government and tradition) may lead to the wrong combination of goods being produced (hence the wrong mix of resources being allocated between producing the two goods) compared to what consumers would prefer, given what is feasible on the PPF.[19]
Notes[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Lipsey, Richard G. An introduction to positive economics (fourth ed.). Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 57–8. ISBN 0-297-76899-9.
Jump up ^ Standish, Barry. Economics: Principles and Practice. South Africa: Pearson Education. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-1-86891-069-4.
Jump up ^ Varian, Hal (2006). Intermediate Microeconomics (7th ed.). W. W. Norton. pp. 605–606.
Jump up ^ other, Attainable. Principles of Microeconomics. Canada: McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-07-040144-0.
Jump up ^ Samuelson, Paul A. (1947). Foundations of Economic Analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-31300-3.
Jump up ^ Chacholiades, Miltiades (1986). Microeconomics. New York: Macmillan. p. 97. ISBN 0-02-320560-1.
Jump up ^ Ferguson, C. E. (1972). Microeconomic Theory (3rd ed.). Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc. pp. 458–465. ISBN 0-256-02157-0.
Jump up ^ Pindyck, Robert S.; Rubinfeld, Daniel L. (2005). Microeconomics. Pearson Education. ISBN 0-13-713335-9.
Jump up ^ Stolper, Wolfgang F.; Samuelson, Paul A. (1941). "Protection and Real Wages". Review of Economics Studies. The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 9, No. 1. 9 (1): 58–74. JSTOR 2967638. doi:10.2307/2967638.
Jump up ^ Barthwal, R. R. (2007). Industrial Economics: An Introductory Text Book. p. 31.
^ Jump up to: a b c Anderson, David. Cracking the AP Economics Macro Micro Exam. Princeton Review. pp. 37–8. ISBN 978-0-375-76384-7.
Jump up ^ Hall, Robert Ernest; Lieberman, Marc (2008). Macroeconomics: principles and applications. Mason, OH: Thomson/South-Western. p. 466. ISBN 0-324-42146-X.
Jump up ^ Choi, Eun Kwan; Harrigan, James (2003). Handbook of international trade. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. pp. 192–3. ISBN 0-631-21161-6.
Jump up ^ Kemp, Murray C.; Herberg, Horst; Long, Ngo van (1993). Trade, welfare, and economic policies: essays in honor of Murray C. Kemp. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-472-10364-4.
Jump up ^ Samuelson, Paul A., and William D. Nordhaus (2004). Economics. Ch. 1, "Figure 1-5. Investment for Future Consumption Requires Sacrificing Current Consumption."
Jump up ^ Krugman, Paul R. (2004). International economics: theory and policy (sixth ed.). 清华大学出版社. pp. 100–1. ISBN 978-7-302-07889-0.
Jump up ^ Gillespie, Andrew (2007). Foundations of Economics, "The production possibility frontier (curve): the PPF or PPC" (press +). Oxford University Press. Access date 6 January 2010 .
Jump up ^ Coelli, Time; Prasada Rao, D. S.; Battese, George E. (1998). An Introduction to Efficiency and Productivity Analysis. Springer. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-7923-8062-7.
Jump up ^ Farrell, M. J. (1957). "The Measurement of Productive Efficiency". Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A (General), Vol. 120, No. 3. 120 (3): 253–290. JSTOR 2343100.
References[edit]
Economics portal
Wikimedia Commons has media related to production possibility frontiers.
Nicholson, Walter (2005). Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions. Thomson/South-western. pp. 339–345. ISBN 0-324-27086-0.
Samuelson, Paul A. (1967). "Summary on Factor-Price Equalization". International Economic Review. International Economic Review, Vol. 8, No. 3. 8 (3): 286–295. JSTOR 2525536. doi:10.2307/2525536.
Samuelson, Paul A. (1962). "The Gains from International Trade Once Again". Economic Journal. The Economic Journal, Vol. 72, No. 288. 72 (288): 820–829. JSTOR 2228353. doi:10.2307/2228353.
Samuelson, Paul A. (1971). "Ohlin Was Right". Swedish Journal of Economics. 73 (4): 365–384. JSTOR 3439219. doi:10.2307/3439219.
Samuelson, Paul A. (1947, Enlarged ed. 1983). Foundations of Economic Analysis. Ch. VIII for welfare-theoretical mathematical expression of PPF.
Bator, Francis M. (1957). "The Simple Analytics of Welfare Maximization". American Economic Review. 47 (1): pp. 22–59.
Martin, John P. (1976). "Variable Factor Supplies and the Heckscher-Ohlin-Samuelson Model". Economic Journal. The Economic Journal, Vol. 86, No. 344. 86 (344): 820–83. JSTOR 2231455. doi:10.2307/2231455.
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von
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
For other uses, see Von (disambiguation).
Von [fɔn] is a term used in German language surnames either as a nobiliary particle indicating a noble patrilineality or as a simple preposition that approximately means of or from in the case of commoners.
Nobility directories like Almanach de Gotha often abbreviate noble von to v. In medieval or early modern names the von particle was at times added to commoners' names; thus, "Hans von Duisburg" meant Hans from [the city of] Duisburg. This meaning is preserved in Swiss surnames or in the Dutch van, which is a cognate of von but does not indicate nobility.
Contents
[hide]
1 Usage
1.1 Germany and Austria
1.1.1 Non-noble use
1.1.2 Ancient nobility
1.2 Russia
1.3 Nordic countries
2 Capitalisation
3 References
Usage[edit]
Germany and Austria[edit]
The abolition of the monarchies in Germany and Austria in 1919 meant that neither state has a privileged nobility, and both have exclusively republican governments.
In Germany, this means that legally von simply became an ordinary part of the surnames of the people who used it. There are no longer any legal privileges or constraints associated with this naming convention. According to German alphabetical sorting, people with von in their surnames – of noble or non-noble descent alike – are listed in telephone books and other files under the rest of their names (e.g., the economist Ludwig von Mises would have been found under M in the phone book rather than V).
In Austria, in contrast, not only were the privileges of the nobility abolished, their titles and prepositions were abolished as well in 1919. Thus, for example, Friedrich von Hayek became simply Friedrich Hayek. (See also Austrian nobility on this issue.)
In contrast to the peerage of the United Kingdom, the aristocracies of the German-speaking countries were held to include untitled nobility, although the names of nearly all the families falling into this category did include von, zu, von und zu, von der, von dem, zum, vom und zum or zur.
Non-noble use[edit]
The preposition originated among German speakers during the Middle Ages and was commonly used to signify a person's origins, appending the name of the place they originated from, or the name of their parents, as the concept of surname did not start to come into common usage until later on. Indeed, in many Germanic-speaking lands, universal adoption of surnames did not occur until mandated by the French Emperor Napoleon and the legal reforms he introduced in Europe around 1800.
Nevertheless, it was mostly aristocrats and other land owners who acquired a surname consisting of von, zu or zur and a toponym. When families were raised to nobility later on, the prefix was added in front of their existing name whatever its source, e.g. von Goethe. In some cases even an existing non-noble von became noble, or vice versa, therefore the same surname sometimes would be shared by noble and humble individuals.
Especially in the Northwest (Bremen, Hamburg, Holstein, Lower Saxony, Schleswig, Westphalia) and in German-speaking Switzerland, von is a frequent element in non-noble surnames.[1] About 200 to 300 known non-noble surnames contain the element von.[1] On the other hand, especially in Lower Saxony, several prominent noble surnames do not contain the particle von, e.g. Grote, Knigge or Vincke.[2]
In order to distinguish the noble von from the non-noble one, the Prussian military abbreviated it to v. in noble names, often without a space following it, whereas the non-noble von was always spelled in full.[2] In the 19th century in Austria and Bavaria non-noble surnames containing von were widely altered by compounding it to the main surname element, such as von Werden → Vonwerden.[1]
"Untitled" and "non-noble" are not synonyms in the German-speaking world. However, most German nobles used von and most users of von were noble. Nonetheless, desiring to add cachet to their perceived lineages in the era since titles of nobility were abolished, some individuals of no titled descent chose to add the particle to their name, such as movie directors Josef von Sternberg, Erich von Stroheim, and Lars von Trier.
Ancient nobility[edit]
Some very old noble families, usually members of the Uradel, bear surnames without the rather young nobiliary particle von but are nevertheless still noble.
Also, a very few German families were elevated to the nobility without use of the preposition von. This was the case of the Riedesel Freiherren zu Eisenbach who received baronial dignity in 1680.
In order to distinguish themselves from bearers of regionally frequent non-noble surnames containing "von", nobles in Northern Germany continue the royal Prussian military practice of abbreviating the noble von to v. but spelling the non-noble von in full.[2]
Russia[edit]
Generally, the growth of the Tsardom of Russia into the Russian Empire was accompanied to a greater or lesser extent by the inflow of German surnames. Two main channels of such migration were a) the absorption of territories where Germans constituted a part of local nobility, such as Finland, Poland, and the Baltic region, and b) the state-supported immigration of Germans into Russia, such as the Volgadeutsch.
As a rule, the members of the local nobility who found themselves in Russia as a result of geopolitical shifts preserved their privileges in the Empire. Their surnames were listed in the State Register of Noble Families as soon as the required documents were provided. The particle von was preserved as well; once hyphens came into common use in the 18th and 19th centuries, it was used to connect the von with the following part of the surname (e.g. Russian: Фон-Визин, von-Wiesen). However, since the twentieth century the particle has been written separately, as in the German origin. In the Baltic region, the German language continued to be used alongside Russian, so the language environment was friendly enough there to keep these surnames from localisation.
Meanwhile, some of those whose ancestors individually entered the Russian service from abroad, and who settled themselves in Moscow or the core Russian provinces, sooner or later found it easier to adjust their surnames to the local speaking mode. However, unlike immigrants to the United States during the 18th to 20th centuries, who usually lost their nobility particles and often simplified the remaining parts of their surnames, immigrants to the Tsarist and Imperial Russia did not lose their noble particles, although some of their core surnames may have experienced some minor changes.
At the end of the 16th century, after the Livonian War, Ivan IV of Russia invited Baron Berndt von Wiesen (German pronunciation: [fɔn viːzən]) from the Livonian Brothers of the Sword into Russian service and granted him some landed property. In the 17th century his descendants wrote their surnames as Russian: Фон Висин (which preserved the German spelling rather than the Russian pronunciation: [fɐn ˈvʲisʲɪn]). Circa 1660 one of them added-ov (Russian: Фон Висинов, Russian pronunciation: [fɐn ˈvʲisʲɪnəf]), yet in the 18th century this suffix was lost, and the middle consonant changed again s→z (Russian: Фон-Визин, which preserves the German pronunciation rather than spelling: Russian pronunciation: [fɐn ˈvʲizʲɪn]). Finally, in the 18th century Ivan Fonvizin decided to merge the particle von with the core, thus giving a start to a new Russian family of German origin. His son, Denis Fonvizin (Russian: Фонви́зин, Russian pronunciation: [fɐnˈvʲizʲɪn]) became a playwright whose plays are staged today.
Nordic countries[edit]
In the Nordic countries, von is common but not universal in the surnames of noble families of German origin and has occasionally been used as a part of names of ennobled families of native or foreign, but non-German, extraction, as with the family of the philosopher Georg Henrik von Wright, which is of Scottish origin or as with the family of the painter Carl Frederik von Breda who was of Dutch ancestry.
Capitalisation[edit]
The prefix von is not capitalised in German-speaking countries. The Duden dictionary recommends capitalizing the prefix von at the beginning of the sentence, but not in its abbreviated form, in order to avoid confusion with an abbreviated first name: "Von Humboldt kam später." and "v. Humboldt kam später." (Von Humboldt came later.) The Swiss Neue Zürcher Zeitung, however, recommends omitting the von completely at the beginning of the sentence: "Humboldt kam später."[3]
The same broadly holds true for van in Dutch usage, while in Flemish usage Van is commonly capitalized. See van (Dutch).
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c "Adelszeichen und Adel: Kennzeichnet das 'von' in jedem Fall eine Adelsfamilie?" (Nobiliary particle and nobility: Does the "von" indicate a noble family in every case?), Institut Deutsche Adelsforschung (Institute of German nobility research), retrieved on 8 January 2013.
^ Jump up to: a b c "Nichtadeliges «von»" (Non-noble "von"), adelsrecht.de, retrieved on 8 January 2013.
Jump up ^ Comparison of Duden and NZZ rules
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Von&oldid=810651096"
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Conservation of mass
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov discovered the law of mass conservation in 1756 by experiments, and came to the conclusion that phlogiston theory is incorrect.[1][2][3]
Antoine Lavoisier's discovery of the Law of Conservation of Mass led to many new findings in the 19th century. Joseph Proust's law of definite proportions and John Dalton's atomic theory branched from the discoveries of Antoine Lavoisier. Lavoisier's quantitative experiments revealed that combustion involved oxygen rather than what was previously thought to be phlogiston.
The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity cannot be added nor removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.
The law implies that mass can neither be created nor destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, or the entities associated with it may be changed in form. For example, in chemical reactions, the mass of the chemical components before the reaction is equal to the mass of the components after the reaction. Thus, during any chemical reaction and low-energy thermodynamic processes in an isolated system, the total mass of the reactants, or starting materials, must be equal to the mass of the products.
The concept of mass conservation is widely used in many fields such as chemistry, mechanics, and fluid dynamics. Historically, mass conservation was discovered in chemical reactions independently by Mikhail Lomonosov and later rediscovered by Antoine Lavoisier in the late 18th century. The formulation of this law was of crucial importance in the progress from alchemy to the modern natural science of chemistry.
The conservation of mass only holds approximately and is considered part of a series of assumptions coming from classical mechanics. The law has to be modified to comply with the laws of quantum mechanics and special relativity under the principle of mass-energy equivalence, which states that energy and mass form one conserved quantity. For very energetic systems the conservation of mass-only is shown not to hold, as is the case in nuclear reactions and particle-antiparticle annihilation in particle physics.
Mass is also not generally conserved in open systems. Such is the case when various forms of energy and matter are allowed into, or out of, the system. However, unless radioactivity or nuclear reactions are involved, the amount of energy escaping (or entering) such systems as heat, mechanical work, or electromagnetic radiation is usually too small to be measured as a decrease in system mass.
For systems where large gravitational fields are involved, general relativity has to be taken into account, where mass-energy conservation becomes a more complex concept, subject to different definitions, and neither mass nor energy is as strictly and simply conserved as is the case in special relativity.
Contents
[hide]
1 Formulation and examples
2 History
2.1 Mass conservation in chemistry
2.2 Modern physics
3 Generalization
3.1 Special relativity
3.1.1 The mass associated with chemical amounts of energy is too small to measure
3.1.2 Mass conservation remains correct if energy is not lost
3.2 General relativity
4 See also
5 References
Formulation and examples[edit]
The law of conservation of mass can only be formulated in classical mechanics when the energy scales associated to an isolated system are much smaller than m c 2 {\displaystyle mc^{2}} , where m {\displaystyle m} is the mass of a typical object in the system, measured in the frame of reference where the object is at rest, and c {\displaystyle c} is the speed of light.
The law can be formulated mathematically in the fields of fluid mechanics and continuum mechanics, where the conservation of mass is usually expressed using the continuity equation, given in differential form as
∂ ρ ∂ t + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ v ) = 0 , {\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}+\nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf {v} )=0,}
where ρ {\textstyle \rho } is the density (mass per unit volume), t {\textstyle t} is the time, ∇ {\textstyle \nabla } is the divergence, and v {\textstyle \mathbf {v} } is the flow velocity field. The interpretation of the continuity equation for mass is the following: For a given closed surface in the system, the change in time of the mass enclosed by the surface is equal to the mass that traverses the surface, positive if matter goes in and negative if matter goes out. For the whole isolated system, this condition implies that the total mass M {\textstyle M} , sum of the masses of all components in the system, does not change in time, i.e.
d M d t = d d t ∫ ρ d V = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {{\text{d}}M}{{\text{d}}t}}={\frac {\text{d}}{{\text{d}}t}}\int \rho {\text{d}}V=0} ,
where d V {\textstyle {\text{d}}V} is the differential that defines the integral over the whole volume of the system.
The continuity equation for the mass is part of Euler equations of fluid dynamics. Many other convection–diffusion equations describe the conservation and flow of mass and matter in a given system.
In chemistry, the calculation of the amount of reactant and products in a chemical reaction, or stoichiometry, is founded on the principle of conservation of mass. The principle implies that during a chemical reaction the total mass of the reactant is equal to the total mass of the products. For example, in the following reaction
CH
4 + 2 O
2 → CO
2 + 2 H
2O,
where one molecule of methane (CH
4) and two oxygen molecules O
2 are converted into one molecule of carbon dioxide (CO
2) and two of water (H
2O). The number of molecules as result from the reaction can be derived from the principle of conservation of mass, as initially four hydrogen atoms, 4 oxygen atoms and one carbon atom are present (as well as in the final state), then the number water molecules produced must be exactly two per molecule of carbon dioxide produced.
Many engineering problems are solved by following the mass distribution in time of a given system, this practice is known as mass balance.
History[edit]
An important idea in ancient Greek philosophy was that "Nothing comes from nothing", so that what exists now has always existed: no new matter can come into existence where there was none before. An explicit statement of this, along with the further principle that nothing can pass away into nothing, is found in Empedocles (approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed."[4]
A further principle of conservation was stated by Epicurus around 3th cenutry BC, who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be".[5]
Jain philosophy, a non-creationist philosophy based on the teachings of Mahavira (6th century BC),[6] states that the universe and its constituents such as matter cannot be destroyed or created. The Jain text Tattvarthasutra (2nd century CE) states that a substance is permanent, but its modes are characterised by creation and destruction.[7] A principle of the conservation of matter was also stated by Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (around 13th century CE). He wrote that "A body of matter cannot disappear completely. It only changes its form, condition, composition, color and other properties and turns into a different complex or elementary matter".[8]
Mass conservation in chemistry[edit]
By the 18th century the principle of conservation of mass during chemical reactions was widely used and was an important assumption during experiments, even before a definition was formally established[9], as can be seen in the works of Joseph Black, Henry Cavendish, and Jean Rey.[10]. The first to outline the principle was given by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1756. He demonstrated it by experiments and had discussed the principle before in 1774 in correspondence with Leonhard Euler, though his claim on the subject is sometimes challenged.[11] A more refined series of experiments were later carried out by Antoine Lavoisier who expressed his conclusion in 1773 and popularized the principle of conservation of mass. The demonstrations of the principle led alternatives theories obsolete, like the phlogiston theory that claimed that mass could be lost in combustion and heat processes.
The conservation of mass was obscure for millennia because of the buoyancy effect of the Earth's atmosphere on the weight of gases. For example, a piece of wood weighs less after burning; this seemed to suggest that some of its mass disappears, or is transformed or lost. This was not disproved until careful experiments were performed in which chemical reactions such as rusting were allowed to take place in sealed glass ampoules; it was found that the chemical reaction did not change the weight of the sealed container and its contents. Weighing of gases using scales was not possible unit the invention of the vacuum pump in 17th century.
Once understood, the conservation of mass was of great importance in progressing from alchemy to modern chemistry. Once early chemists realized that chemical substances never disappeared but were only transformed into other substances with the same weight, these scientists could for the first time embark on quantitative studies of the transformations of substances. The idea of mass conservation plus a surmise that certain "elemental substances" also could not be transformed into others by chemical reactions, in turn led to an understanding of chemical elements, as well as the idea that all chemical processes and transformations (such as burning and metabolic reactions) are reactions between invariant amounts or weights of these chemical elements.
Following the pioneering work of Lavoisier the prolonged and exhaustive experiments of Jean Stas supported the strict accuracy of this law in chemical reactions,[12] even though they were carried out with other intentions. His research[13][14] indicated that in certain reactions the loss or gain could not have been more than from 2 to 4 parts in 100,000.[15] The difference in the accuracy aimed at and attained by Lavoisier on the one hand, and by Morley and Stas on the other, is enormous.[16]
Modern physics[edit]
The law of conservation of mass was challenged with the advent of special relativity. In one of the Annus Mirabilis paper of Albert Einstein in 1905, he suggested an equivalence between mass and energy. This theory implied several assertions, like the idea that internal energy of a system could contribute to the mass of whole the system, or that mass could be converted into electromagnetic radiation. However, as Max Planck pointed out, a change in mass as a result of extraction or addition of chemical energy, as predicted by Einstein's theory, is so small that it could not be measured with the available instruments and could not be presented as a test to the special relativity. Einstein speculated that the energies associated with newly discovered radioactivity were significant enough, compared with the mass of systems producing them, to enable their mass-change to be measured, once the energy of the reaction had been removed from the system. This later indeed proved to be possible, although it was eventually to be the first artificial nuclear transmutation reaction in 1932, demonstrated by Cockcroft and Walton, that proved the first successful test of Einstein's theory regarding mass-loss with energy-loss.
The law conservation of mass and the analogous law of conservation of energy were finally overruled by a more general principle known as the mass–energy equivalence. Special relativity also redefines the concept of mass and energy, which can be used interchangeably and are relative to the frame of reference. Several definitions had to be defined for consistency like rest mass of a particle (mass in the rest frame of the particle) and relativistic mass (in another frame). The latter term is usually less frequently used. For discussion see Mass in special relativity.
Generalization[edit]
This article or section may contain misleading parts. Please help clarify this article according to any suggestions provided on the talk page.
Special relativity[edit]
Main article: Conservation of mass in special relativity
In special relativity, the conservation of mass does not apply if the system is open and energy escapes. However, it does continue to apply to totally closed (isolated) systems. If energy cannot escape a system, its mass cannot decrease. In relativity theory, so long as any type of energy is retained within a system, this energy exhibits mass.
Also, mass must be differentiated from matter (see below), since matter may not be perfectly conserved in isolated systems, even though mass is always conserved in such systems. However, matter is so nearly conserved in chemistry that violations of matter conservation were not measured until the nuclear age, and the assumption of matter conservation remains an important practical concept in most systems in chemistry and other studies that do not involve the high energies typical of radioactivity and nuclear reactions.
The mass associated with chemical amounts of energy is too small to measure[edit]
The change in mass of certain kinds of open systems where atoms or massive particles are not allowed to escape, but other types of energy (such as light or heat) are allowed to enter or escape, went unnoticed during the 19th century, because the change in mass associated with addition or loss of small quantities of thermal or radiant energy in chemical reactions is very small. (In theory, mass would not change at all for experiments conducted in isolated systems where heat and work were not allowed in or out.)
Mass conservation remains correct if energy is not lost[edit]
The conservation of relativistic mass implies the viewpoint of a single observer (or the view from a single inertial frame) since changing inertial frames may result in a change of the total energy (relativistic energy) for systems, and this quantity determines the relativistic mass.
The principle that the mass of a system of particles must be equal to the sum of their rest masses, even though true in classical physics, may be false in special relativity. The reason that rest masses cannot be simply added is that this does not take into account other forms of energy, such as kinetic and potential energy, and massless particles such as photons, all of which may (or may not) affect the total mass of systems.
For moving massive particles in a system, examining the rest masses of the various particles also amounts to introducing many different inertial observation frames (which is prohibited if total system energy and momentum are to be conserved), and also when in the rest frame of one particle, this procedure ignores the momenta of other particles, which affect the system mass if the other particles are in motion in this frame.
For the special type of mass called invariant mass, changing the inertial frame of observation for a whole closed system has no effect on the measure of invariant mass of the system, which remains both conserved and invariant (unchanging), even for different observers who view the entire system. Invariant mass is a system combination of energy and momentum, which is invariant for any observer, because in any inertial frame, the energies and momenta of the various particles always add to the same quantity (the momentum may be negative, so the addition amounts to a subtraction). The invariant mass is the relativistic mass of the system when viewed in the center of momentum frame. It is the minimum mass which a system may exhibit, as viewed from all possible inertial frames.
The conservation of both relativistic and invariant mass applies even to systems of particles created by pair production, where energy for new particles may come from kinetic energy of other particles, or from one or more photons as part of a system that includes other particles besides a photon. Again, neither the relativistic nor the invariant mass of totally closed (that is, isolated) systems changes when new particles are created. However, different inertial observers will disagree on the value of this conserved mass, if it is the relativistic mass (i.e., relativistic mass is conserved but not invariant). However, all observers agree on the value of the conserved mass if the mass being measured is the invariant mass (i.e., invariant mass is both conserved and invariant).
The mass-energy equivalence formula gives a different prediction in non-isolated systems, since if energy is allowed to escape a system, both relativistic mass and invariant mass will escape also. In this case, the mass-energy equivalence formula predicts that the change in mass of a system is associated with the change in its energy due to energy being added or subtracted: Δ m = Δ E / c 2 . {\displaystyle \Delta m=\Delta E/c^{2}.} This form involving changes was the form in which this famous equation was originally presented by Einstein. In this sense, mass changes in any system are explained simply if the mass of the energy added or removed from the system, are taken into account.
The formula implies that bound systems have an invariant mass (rest mass for the system) less than the sum of their parts, if the binding energy has been allowed to escape the system after the system has been bound. This may happen by converting system potential energy into some other kind of active energy, such as kinetic energy or photons, which easily escape a bound system. The difference in system masses, called a mass defect, is a measure of the binding energy in bound systems – in other words, the energy needed to break the system apart. The greater the mass defect, the larger the binding energy. The binding energy (which itself has mass) must be released (as light or heat) when the parts combine to form the bound system, and this is the reason the mass of the bound system decreases when the energy leaves the system.[17] The total invariant mass is actually conserved, when the mass of the binding energy that has escaped, is taken into account.
General relativity[edit]
Main article: Mass in general relativity
In general relativity, the total invariant mass of photons in an expanding volume of space will decrease, due to the red shift of such an expansions. The conservation of both mass and energy therefore depends on various corrections made to energy in the theory, due to the changing gravitational potential energy of such systems.
See also[edit]
Charge conservation
Conservation law
Fick's laws of diffusion
Law of definite proportions
Law of multiple proportions
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Volkenstein, Mikhail V. (2009). Entropy and Information (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 20. ISBN 978-3-0346-0078-1. Extract of page 20
Jump up ^ Okuň, Lev Borisovič (2009). Energy and Mass in Relativity Theory. World Scientific. p. 253. ISBN 978-981-281-412-8. Extract of page 253
Jump up ^ Lewis, David (2012). Early Russian Organic Chemists and Their Legacy (illustrated ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 29. ISBN 978-3-642-28219-5. Extract of page 29
Jump up ^ Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983). The Presocratic Philosophers (2 ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27455-5.
Jump up ^ Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation". The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 0-521-27556-3.
Jump up ^ Mahavira is dated 598 BC - 526 BC. See. Dundas, Paul; John Hinnels ed. (2002). The Jains. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26606-8. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link) p. 24
Jump up ^ Devendra (Muni.), T. G. Kalghatgi, T. S. Devadoss (1983) A source-book in Jaina philosophy Udaipur:Sri Tarak Guru Jain Gran. p.57. Also see Tattvarthasutra verses 5.29 and 5.37
Jump up ^ Farid Alakbarov (Summer 2001). A 13th-Century Darwin? Tusi's Views on Evolution, Azerbaijan International 9 (2).
Jump up ^ Whitaker, Robert D. (1975-10-01). "An historical note on the conservation of mass". Journal of Chemical Education. 52 (10): 658. doi:10.1021/ed052p658. ISSN 0021-9584.
Jump up ^ Robert D. Whitaker, "An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass", Journal of Chemical Education, 52, 10, 658-659, Oct 75
Jump up ^ Pomper, Philip (October 1962). "Lomonosov and the Discovery of the Law of the Conservation of Matter in Chemical Transformations". Ambix. 10 (3): 119–127.
Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasil’evich (1970). Mikhail Vasil’evich Lomonosov on the Corpuscular Theory. Henry M. Leicester (trans.). Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Introduction, p. 25.
Jump up ^ Matthew Moncrieff Pattison Muir, The Elements of Chemistry (1904)
Jump up ^ Nouv. Recherches sur les lois des proportions chimiques (1865) 152, 171, 189
Jump up ^ "Conservation of Mass in Chemical Changes"Journal - Chemical Society, London, Vol.64, Part 2 Chemical Society (Great Britain)
Jump up ^ William Edwards Henderson, A Course in General Chemistry (1921)
Jump up ^ Ida Freund, The study of Chemical Composition: an account of its method and historical development, with illustrative quotations (1904)
Jump up ^ Kenneth R. Lang, Astrophysical Formulae, Springer (1999), ISBN 3-540-29692-1
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1700 Cascadia earthquake
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1700 Cascadia earthquake
Local date
January 26, 1700 (1700-01-26)
Local time
21:00 local time[1]
Magnitude
8.7–9.2 Mw[2]
Epicenter
45°N 125°W / 45°N 125°W / 45; -125Coordinates: 45°N 125°W / 45°N 125°W / 45; -125[1]
Fault
Cascadia subduction zone
Type
Megathrust
Tsunami
Yes
The 1700 Cascadia earthquake occurred along the Cascadia subduction zone on January 26 with an estimated moment magnitude of 8.7–9.2. The megathrust earthquake involved the Juan de Fuca Plate from mid-Vancouver Island, south along the Pacific Northwest coast as far as northern California. The length of the fault rupture was about 1,000 kilometers (620 miles), with an average slip of 20 meters (66 ft).
The earthquake caused a tsunami which struck the coast of Japan[3] and may also be linked to the Bonneville Slide and the Tseax Cone eruption in British Columbia.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Evidence
1.1 Scientific research
1.2 Cultural research
2 Future threats
3 See also
4 References
5 External links
5.1 General
5.2 Native and Japanese accounts
5.3 Current hazards
Evidence[edit]
The 1700 earthquake took place at about 21:00 on January 26, 1700 (NS). Although there are no written records for the region from the time, the timing of the earthquake has been inferred from Japanese records of a tsunami that does not correlate with any other Pacific Rim quake. The Japanese records exist primarily in the modern-day Iwate Prefecture, in communities such as Tsugaruishi, Kuwagasaki and Ōtsuchi.[5]
Cascadia subduction zone
Scientific research[edit]
The most important clue linking the tsunami in Japan and the earthquake in the Pacific Northwest comes from studies of tree rings (dendrochronology), which show that several "ghost forests" of red cedar trees in Oregon and Washington, killed by lowering of coastal forests into the tidal zone by the earthquake, have outermost growth rings that formed in 1699, the last growing season before the tsunami.[6] This includes both inland stands of trees, such as one on the Copalis River in Washington,[6] and pockets of tree stumps that are now under the ocean surface and become exposed only at low tide.[7]
Sediment layers in these locations demonstrate a pattern consistent with seismic and tsunami events around this time.[8] Core samples from the ocean floor, as well as debris samples from some earthquake-induced landslides in the Pacific Northwest, also support this timing of the event.[7] Archaeological research in the region has uncovered evidence of several coastal villages having been flooded and abandoned around 1700.[9]
Cultural research[edit]
Local Native American and First Nations groups residing in Cascadia did not have a written tradition of record-keeping, so the event was not documented locally like the Japanese tsunami. However, numerous oral traditions describing a great earthquake and tsunami-like flooding exist among indigenous coastal peoples from British Columbia to Northern California.[6][10] These do not specify an exact date, and not all earthquake stories in the region can be definitively isolated as referring to the 1700 quake in particular; however, virtually all of the native peoples in the region have at least one traditional story of an event much stronger and more destructive than any other that their community had ever experienced.
Some of the stories contain temporal clues — such as an estimate of how many generations had passed since the event[9] — which can be traced back to a date range in the late 1600s or early 1700s,[6] or which concur with the event's timing in other ways. The Huu-ay-aht legend of a large earthquake and ocean wave devastating their settlements at Pachina Bay, for instance, speaks of the event taking place on a winter evening shortly after the village's residents had gone to sleep.[11] Masit was the only community on Pachina Bay not to have been wiped out, as it sat on a mountainside approximately 75 feet above sea level.[12] Nobody else from Pachina Bay survived the event — Anacla aq sop, a young woman who happened to be staying at Kiix?in on the more tsunami-sheltered Barkley Sound at the time of the event, came to be known as the last living member of her community.
Kwakwaka'wakw (Kwakiutl) stories from the north end of Vancouver Island report a night-time earthquake that caused virtually all houses in their community to collapse;[9] Cowichan stories from Vancouver Island's inner coast speak of a nighttime earthquake, causing a landslide that buried an entire village.[9] Makah stories from Washington speak of a great night-time earthquake, of which the only survivors were those who fled inland before the tsunami hit.[13] The Quileute people in Washington have a story about a flood so powerful that villagers in their canoes were swept inland all the way to Hood Canal.[14]
Ethnographic research has focused on a common regional pattern of art and mythology depicting a great battle between a thunderbird and a whale,[9] as well as cultural signifiers such as earthquake-inspired ritual masks and dances.[15]
Future threats[edit]
Earthquake recurrence
est. year
interval
(years)
1700 AD > 318
1310 AD 390
810 AD 500
400 AD 410
170 BC 570
600 BC 430
The geological record reveals that "great earthquakes" (those with moment magnitude 8 or higher) occur in the Cascadia subduction zone about every 500 years on average, often accompanied by tsunamis. There is evidence of at least 13 events at intervals from about 300 to 900 years with an average of 570–590 years.[16] Previous earthquakes are estimated to have been in 1310 AD, 810 AD, 400 AD, 170 BC and 600 BC.
Cascadia earthquake sources
As seen in the 1700 quake, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, subduction zone earthquakes can cause large tsunamis, and many coastal areas in the region have prepared tsunami evacuation plans in anticipation of a possible future Cascadia earthquake. However, the major nearby cities, notably Seattle, Portland, Vancouver, Victoria, and Tacoma, which are located on inland waterways rather than on the coast, would be sheltered from the full brunt of a tsunami. These cities do have many vulnerable structures, especially bridges and unreinforced brick buildings; consequently, most of the damage to the cities would probably be from the earthquake itself. One expert asserts that buildings in Seattle are vastly inadequate even to withstand an event of the size of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, let alone any more powerful one.[17]
Kenneth Murphy, who directs FEMA’s Region X, the division responsible for Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Alaska, put it quite dramatically: “Our operating assumption is that everything west of Interstate 5 will be toast.”[18]
Recent findings conclude that the Cascadia subduction zone is more complex and volatile than previously believed. In 2010 geologists predicted a 37 percent chance of an M8.2+ event within 50 years, and a 10 to 15 percent chance that the entire Cascadia subduction zone will rupture with an M9+ event within the same time frame.[19][20] Geologists have also determined the Pacific Northwest is not prepared for such a colossal quake. The tsunami produced could reach heights of 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30 m).[21]
A 2004 study revealed the potential for relative mean sea level rise (cause by subsidence) along the Cascadia subduction zone. It postulated that cities on the west coast of Vancouver Island, such as Tofino and Ucluelet, are at risk for a 1–2 m subsidence, relative to mean sea level.[22]
The confirmation of their oral traditions about a great earthquake has led many aboriginal groups in the area to initiate projects to relocate their coastal communities to higher and safer ground in preparation for the predicted next earthquake.[11] The Huu-ay-aht people have rebuilt their administration building on a high point of land in their territory;[11] coastal residents are immediately evacuated to this building whenever a tsunami warning is issued, as an interim measure toward eventually relocating all residents to higher ground.[23] The Quileute people secured a land grant from the federal government of the United States in 2012 to move their settlement inland, both as protection from a future tsunami threat and because of more frequent flooding on the Quillayute River.[14]
Some other subduction zones have such earthquakes every 100 to 200 years; the longer interval results from slower plate motions. The rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca Plate and the North American Plate is 60 millimetres (2.4 in) per year.[24]
See also[edit]
1949 Queen Charlotte Islands earthquake
Geology of the Pacific Northwest
List of earthquakes in Canada
List of earthquakes in the United States
List of historical earthquakes
List of historical tsunamis
Lists of earthquakes
Neskowin Ghost Forest
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b National Geophysical Data Center / World Data Service (NGDC/WDS), Significant Earthquake Database, National Geophysical Data Center, NOAA, doi:10.7289/V5TD9V7K
Jump up ^ Atwater et al. 2005, p. 98
Jump up ^ Atwater, B. F.; Musumi-Rokkaku, S.; Satake, K.; Yoshinobu, T.; Kazue, U.; Yamaguchi, D. K. (2005). The Orphan Tsunami of 1700—Japanese Clues to a Parent Earthquake in North America. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1707. United States Geological Survey–University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98535-0.
Jump up ^ Hill, Richard L. (2002-05-15). "Great Cascadia Earthquake Penrose Conference". The Oregonian. Archived from the original on 2008-10-24.
Jump up ^ Kenji Satake; Kunihiko Shimazaki; Yoshinobu Tsuji; Kazue Ueda (18 January 1996). "Time and size of a giant earthquake in Cascadia inferred from Japanese tsunami records of January 1700". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 379 (6562): 246–249. Bibcode:1996Natur.379..246S. doi:10.1038/379246a0.
^ Jump up to: a b c d Kathryn Schulz (July 20, 2015). "The Really Big One". The New Yorker.
^ Jump up to: a b "Jan. 26, 1700: How Scientists Know When The Last Big Earthquake Happened Here". Oregon Public Broadcasting, January 26, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Ghosts of Tsunamis Past". American Museum of Natural History.
^ Jump up to: a b c d e Ruth S. Ludwin; Robert Dennis; Deborah Carver; Alan D. McMillan; Robert Losey; John Clague; Chris Jonientz-Trisler; Janine Bowechop; Jacilee Wray; Karen James (2005), "Dating the 1700 Cascadia Earthquake: Great Coastal Earthquakes in Native Stories" (PDF), Seismological Research Letters, Seismological Society of America, 76 (2): 140–148, doi:10.1785/gssrl.76.2.140
Jump up ^ http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/NAlegends.html
^ Jump up to: a b c Meissner, Dirk (18 January 2015), "Earth will rip open like a zipper, expert says, when overdue Vancouver Island quake strikes", Toronto Star, retrieved 19 January 2015
Jump up ^ "Prepare for next tsunami, says chief". Raven's Eye, Vol. 8, No. 9, 2009.
Jump up ^ "Cascadia’s Locked Fault Means Massive Earthquake Is Due in Pacific Northwest: Seismologists". Indian Country Today Media Network, December 16, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b "Haida Gwaii Quake Brings Home the Importance of Quileute Relocation Legislation". Indian Country Today Media Network, November 6, 2012.
Jump up ^ "Get ready for the Big One". The Globe and Mail, April 22, 2011.
Jump up ^ Witter, Robert C.; Kelsey, Harvey M.; Hemphill-Haley, Eileen (October 2003). "Great Cascadia earthquakes and tsunamis of the past 6700 years, Coquille River estuary, southern coastal Oregon". Geological Society of America Bulletin. The Geological Society of America. 115 (10): 1289–1306. Bibcode:2003GSAB..115.1289W. doi:10.1130/b25189.1. Retrieved 5 February 2012.
Jump up ^ Yanev, Peter (27 March 2010). "Shake, Rattle, Seattle". The New York Times. p. WK11.
Jump up ^ Schulz, Kathryn (20 July 2015). "The Really Big One". The New Yorker.
Jump up ^ "Odds Are 1-In-3 That A Huge Quake Will Hit Northwest In Next 50 Years". Oregon State University. 24 May 2010. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-24.
Jump up ^ "Odds are about 1-in-3 that mega-earthquake will hit Pacific Northwest in next 50 years, scientists say" (Press release). Oregon State University. May 25, 2010 – via Science Daily.
Jump up ^ "Perilous Situation". The Oregonian. 2009-04-19. Archived from the original on 23 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-12.
Jump up ^ Leonard, Lucinda J.; Hyndman, Roy D.; Mazzotti, Stéphane (2004). "Coseismic subsidence in the 1700 great Cascadia earthquake: Coastal estimates versus elastic dislocation models". GSA Bulletin. 116 (5–6): 655–670. Bibcode:2004GSAB..116..655L. doi:10.1130/B25369.1.
Jump up ^ Munro, Margaret (March 8, 2012). "Monster earthquake threat looms over B.C. coastal communities". Vancouver Sun.
Jump up ^ Kate Potter (September 2007). "The Big One: Understanding Why The Big Earthquake Is Predicted For Vancouver". The Science Creative Quarterly. Archived from the original on 27 May 2009. Retrieved 2009-05-18.
External links[edit]
General[edit]
Cascadia Subduction Zone Earthquakes: A magnitude 9.0 earthquake scenario – The Cascadia Region Earthquake Workgroup 2005
Tsunami Animation: Cascadia 1700 – Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
USGS Scientist Shows Evidence for 300-Year-Old Tsunami to Participants in International Tsunami Training Institute – USGS
Native and Japanese accounts[edit]
Native American Stories expand history – Pacific Northwest Seismic Network
Native American Legends of Tsunamis in Pacific NW – United States Geological Survey
Fault slip and seismic moment of the 1700 Cascadia earthquake inferred from Japanese tsunami descriptions – Journal of Geophysical Research
Japanese Shipwreck Adds To Evidence Of Great Cascadia Earthquake In 1700 – Science Daily
Current hazards[edit]
Surviving a Tsunami—Lessons from Chile, Hawaii, and Japan – United States Geological Survey
Big earthquake coming sooner than we thought, Oregon geologist says – The Oregonian
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1638 New Hampshire
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value: Terratrèmol de Cascàdia de 1700 – Catalan

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