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Black Mass (film)
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Black Mass
Theatrical release poster
Directed by
Scott Cooper
Produced by
Scott Cooper
John Lesher
Patrick McCormick
Brian Oliver
Tyler Thompson
Screenplay by
Jez Butterworth
Mark Mallouk
Based on
Black Mass
by Dick Lehr
and Gerard O'Neill
Starring
Johnny Depp
Joel Edgerton
Benedict Cumberbatch
Rory Cochrane
Kevin Bacon
Jesse Plemons
Corey Stoll
Peter Sarsgaard
Dakota Johnson
Music by
Tom Holkenborg[1]
Cinematography
Masanobu Takayanagi
Edited by
David Rosenbloom[2]
Production
company
Cross Creek Pictures
RatPac-Dune Entertainment
Vendian Entertainment
Distributed by
Warner Bros. Pictures
Release date
September 4, 2015 (2015-09-04) (Venice)[3]
September 18, 2015 (2015-09-18) (United States)[4]
Running time
122 minutes[5]
Country
United States
Language
English
Budget
$53 million[6]
Box office
$99.8 million[7]
Black Mass is a 2015 American biographical crime drama film directed by Scott Cooper and written by Mark Mallouk and Jez Butterworth, based on the 2001 book Black Mass: The True Story of an Unholy Alliance Between the FBI and the Irish Mob by Dick Lehr and Gerard O'Neill. The film has an ensemble cast including Johnny Depp, Joel Edgerton, Benedict Cumberbatch, Kevin Bacon, Jesse Plemons, Peter Sarsgaard, Rory Cochrane, Adam Scott, Dakota Johnson and Corey Stoll.
The film follows the criminal career of infamous American mobster James "Whitey" Bulger (Depp). Principal photography of the film began on May 19, 2014 in Boston, and wrapped on August 1, 2014. It had its world premiere at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival and was released by Warner Bros. worldwide on September 18, 2015. It received generally positive reviews and grossed $99 million.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Cast
3 Production
3.1 Development
3.2 Casting
3.3 Filming
3.4 Post-production
4 Release
4.1 Marketing
4.2 Home media
5 Reception
5.1 Box office
5.2 Critical response
5.3 Accolades
6 Soundtrack
6.1 Track listing
7 References
8 External links
Plot[edit]
In 1975, James "Whitey" Bulger, leader of the Winter Hill Gang, controls most organized crime within South Boston, along with his right-hand man Stephen Flemmi, newcomer Kevin Weeks, and callous hitman Johnny Martorano. Bulger lives with his common-law wife Lindsey Cyr and their young son Douglas.
Bulger's supremacy is challenged by the North End Angiulo Brothers, a rival gang that is part of the New England Mafia family. FBI agent John Connolly returns to the area – he grew up in South Boston as a friend of Whitey and his brother William "Billy" Bulger, the Massachusetts Senate President. Connolly tries infiltrating the Angiulo Brothers and attempts to get Whitey to work with the FBI. Although Whitey hates the idea of being a rat, he understands the protection he would have for himself, his gang, and his family. Douglas suffers from Reye syndrome, leading a devastated Lindsey to remove him from life support over Whitey's furious objections. When the Angiulo Brothers murder a Winter Hill member, Whitey becomes an informant.
Although Connolly is supported by his co-worker John Morris, their boss, Charles McGuire, is suspicious. Whitey increasingly exploits the FBI informant relationship, using Connolly's "protection" as a cover for his crimes. Connolly demands information on the Angiulos' racketeering locations. Finally, Whitey gets pictures of the rival gang's hideouts, allowing the FBI to wiretap the Angiulos. The FBI arrests them, thus eliminating underground opposition to Whitey's power. Connolly, blinded by his past, grows closer to Whitey and the gang, even inviting them to his house for a cookout. His wife, Marianne, sees negative changes in her husband as his agent-informant relationship with Whitey grows.
Cut out of an embezzlement scheme from World Jai Alai, Whitey orders Martorano to murder his rivals Roger Wheeler and John Callahan. An associate, Brian Halloran, goes to the FBI to report Whitey's involvement, much to Connolly's displeasure, who then tells Whitey of Halloran's accusation, thereby resulting in the murders of Halloran and an unnamed accomplice. Following the passing of his mother, Whitey's behavior becomes increasingly violent and unpredictable, deteriorating his informant relationship.
A "bulldog" prosecutor, Fred Wyshak, is appointed the new assistant U. S. Attorney in Boston. Connolly attempts to make friends and to perhaps divert his attention from Bulger, but Wyshak bluntly refuses, demanding that the FBI arrest Whitey. John McIntyre, an informant within the Winter Hill Gang, informs on an attempt by Whitey to smuggle weapons for the IRA. Connolly tells Whitey, who murders McIntyre. Wyshak and McGuire investigate Connolly's management of Whitey's informant role. They discover that most of what Connolly called Whitey's tips were already obtained from other sources. Morris, disillusioned and fearing prosecution for his association with Connolly's activities, anonymously divulges Connolly's and Whitey's relationship to the Boston Globe and a front-page story exposes the FBI's links to organised crime.
In the final scenes, Connolly, Flemmi, Weeks, and Martorano are arrested. Whitey goes on the run, but not before giving Billy a final goodbye from a pay phone. Morris turns state's evidence and testifies against Connolly in return for immunity. Connolly's and the other characters' sentences are listed, and a concluding sequence shows a now-elderly Whitey being caught by the FBI in 2011.
Cast[edit]
Johnny Depp as James "Whitey" Bulger
Joel Edgerton as John Connolly
Benedict Cumberbatch as William "Billy" Bulger[8][9]
Rory Cochrane as Stephen "The Rifleman" Flemmi
Kevin Bacon as Charles McGuire[10]
Jesse Plemons as Kevin Weeks
Peter Sarsgaard as Brian Halloran[11]
Dakota Johnson as Lindsey Cyr
Corey Stoll as Fred Wyshak
David Harbour as John Morris[12]
Julianne Nicholson as Marianne Connolly
Adam Scott as Robert Fitzpatrick[13]
Brad Carter as John McIntyre
W. Earl Brown as Johnny Martorano
Mark Mahoney as Mickey Maloney
Juno Temple as Deborah Hussey
Erica McDermott as Mary Bulger
Bill Camp as John Callahan
Scott Anderson as Tommy King
David DeBeck as Roger Wheeler
Jamie Donnelly as Ms. Cody
Patrick M. Walsh as Michael Donahue
Jeremy Strong as Josh Bond[14] (uncredited)
James Russo as Scott Garriola[15] (uncredited)
Production[edit]
Development[edit]
An idea for a film adaptation of Black Mass: The True Story of an Unholy Alliance Between the FBI and the Irish Mob garnered interest intermittently since 2000. Even before its published release, the book's film rights had already been sold to Miramax, when Harvey Weinstein was still part of the company. According to co-author Dick Lehr, Weinstein had never exercised the film option for unknown reasons, and the rights expired.[16][17] At one point afterwards, in 2002, filmmaker Robert Greenwald had planned to adapt Black Mass into a 4-hour miniseries for USA Network, but the project was never developed.[18] Eventually in 2006, film producer Brian Oliver acquired the film rights for Black Mass, and was set to produce the adaptation with CP Production partners Michael Cerenzie and Christine Peters.[17][19]
After Oliver's acquisition, Jim Sheridan was attached to direct the film. In 2009, Sheridan had finished writing a draft of the adapted screenplay with Nye Heron, and principal photography was reportedly scheduled to begin in April 2010.[20][21] However, in December 2010, while discussing the troubled production of his 2011 film Dream House, Sheridan hinted at his detachment from the Black Mass project.[22] Oliver's then-newly founded Cross Creek Pictures film production company took over financing for Black Mass, and Sheridan's exit was confirmed when Russell Gewirtz was hired in 2011 to write another draft for the adaptation, and Barry Levinson was attached to direct instead.[17][23][24] The finished version of Black Mass was scripted by Mark Mallouk and Jez Butterworth, and has been billed as the "true story of Whitey Bulger, FBI agent John Connolly and the FBI's witness protection program that was created by J. Edgar Hoover."[25]
Later in January 2014, Scott Cooper was attached to re-write and direct the film.[26] On February 27, 2014, Warner Bros. picked up the film's worldwide distribution rights, eyeing an October 2015 release, and the studio co-financed the film with Cross Creek.[27]
Casting[edit]
Johnny Depp's involvement with Black Mass dates back to February 2013, when he was attached to star in the film, while Barry Levinson was still slated to direct and principal photography was scheduled to begin in May 2013. Depp briefly exited the project shortly after its sale at the 66th annual Cannes Film Festival, because of a salary dispute with Cross Creek Pictures. He later rejoined at around the same time Scott Cooper was attached to replace Levinson as director, and his signing for the film was made official in February 2014.[26][28][29][30][31] Jesse Plemons and Juno Temple joined the cast to play as Kevin Weeks (a cohort of Bulger) and Deborah Hussey, one of Bulger's victims, respectively, around April 2014. Plemons reportedly prepared for his role by hiring a dialect coach and studying video of the actual Kevin Weeks.[32][33]
Benedict Cumberbatch replaced Guy Pearce as William "Billy" Bulger on May 22, 2014.[8] On June 10, it was announced that Jeremy Strong would co-star in the film.[14] On June 14, James Russo joined the cast of the film to play Scott Garriola, one of the FBI agents who took down Bulger.[15] On June 26, Kevin Bacon was added to the cast to play Charles McGuire, the FBI Special Agent in charge of the Boston field office and John Connolly's boss.[10] On July 1, David Harbour was added to the cast of the film to star as John Morris, a corrupt FBI agent along with Connolly.[12]
The roles of Connolly – who was Whitey Bulger's FBI handler – and his first wife Marianne, were filled by Joel Edgerton and Julianne Nicholson, respectively. Cooper chose Nicholson for the part after her performance as Sally in Sam Shepard's off-Broadway play Heartless (before Claire van der Boom succeeded her for the play's two-week extension). Edgerton developed his portrayal of Connolly by studying past footage of the FBI agent before his imprisonment, some of which include his appearances on talk shows and in courtrooms. In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Edgerton stated that he declined trying to meet with the actual Connolly, reasoning that Connolly "has one version of events and the film has a different version".[34][35][36][37] Edgerton originally dropped out of the project when Depp agreed to return, and Tom Hardy was in early talks for the role.[31] However, Edgerton returned in the role.
In preparing for his role, Depp similarly studied surveillance and police audio footage involving Bulger. The actor was adamant in depicting the Boston gang leader's criminal and personal life as would be ultimately portrayed in the film. To achieve that, Depp attempted to meet with Bulger himself, but was declined a meeting and instead consulted Jay Carney, Bulger's attorney. Carney appeared on set a few times, to provide feedback on Depp's performance.[36][38][39][40]
Filming[edit]
Principal photography commenced on May 19, 2014 in Boston;[27][41] actors were seen filming scenes in Dorchester.[42] On May 23, some shots were also filmed at Polish American Club (altered to recreate West Broadway's Triple O's Lounge, Whitey's infamous South Boston hangout), on Cambridge Street in Cambridge.[43][44] On May 27, filming was taking place in East Boston, where Johnny Depp and Jesse Plemons were seen together on the set.[45] Next day on May 28, Joel Edgerton was seen during filming of a scene on Silver Street in South Boston.[46][47] On June 4, Depp was spotted in Lynn during a recreation of the 1982 murders of Brian Halloran and Michael Donahue by Bulger.[48] On June 6–7, Depp was seen filming scenes at Copley Square in Boston.[49]
On June 9, Depp's 51st birthday, he was filming scenes on location in Quincy,[50][51] where actress Dakota Johnson was in Back Bay, playing Whitey Bulger's longtime former girlfriend, Lindsey Cyr.[52] On June 11, shooting was underway in Lynn, where the crew was filming scenes in which Bulger and Stephen Flemmi pick up a prostitute named Deborah Hussey (played by Juno Temple) from the police station. Temple was seen on the set.[53][54] On June 16, Depp and Plemons were spotted on the set of the film in South Boston.[55]
On June 20, news posted some photos from the set of the film, which features classic cars from the film set in South Boston.[56] On June 23, Cumberbatch and Depp were spotted during a re-creation of Saint Patrick's Day parade scenes in Lynn.[57][58] On June 24, scenes were shot at the Harvard Club in Boston.[59] On June 26, Cumberbatch was spotted with crew while filming around Ashmont Grill in Dorchester.[60] On June 29, the pavement outside South Boston High School had graffiti readings of "Stop Forced Busing" and "Press Print the Truth."[61]
On July 2, Depp and Cumberbatch were together filming some scenes in Boston.[62] On July 7–8, filming was set to take place on Gilson Road in Quincy.[63] A four-story building on 6 Gilson Road was transformed to resemble the Princess Eugenia apartments in Santa Monica, California, where FBI agents arrested Bulger on June 22, 2011. Arrest scenes were filmed there on July 7 and 8, and Sienna Miller was spotted dressed as Catherine Greig.[64][65] From July 8–10, scenes were filmed on Revere Beach, so that a portion of Revere Beach remained closed. Between July 11–12, Revere Beach Boulevard remained closed for shooting.[66] Revere Beach was transformed into Miami Beach, Florida, as live palm trees had been planted in the sand and a pizza restaurant was transformed into a Cuban cafe on Revere Beach Boulevard across the street from Beach.[67] Depp as Whitey Bulger and Miller as Catherine Greig were spotted on the Black Mass set on the Revere Beach on July 10, 2014.[68]
On July 15, Cumberbatch wrapped filming for his part in Boston.[69] On July 21, Depp filmed some scenes at the former Anthony's Hawthorne restaurant, located at Oxford Street and Central Avenue in Lynn.[70] Depp's wife Amber Heard visited Depp on the set of the film on July 21, the last day of filming for Depp's role.[71]
In July, director Cooper told The Boston Globe that filming had to take place for two more weeks in Boston, focusing on the FBI's role in the Bulger story.[71] On July 25, Kevin Bacon was in Boston, filming some remaining scenes for the film.[72] According to The Boston Globe, filming for Black Mass wrapped up on Friday, August 1, 2014, in Boston.[73][74]
Post-production[edit]
Sienna Miller was cast and filmed scenes as Catherine Greig, Bulger's companion while a fugitive, but her scenes ended up getting cut from the film due to "narrative choices".[75][76] Erica McDermott was cast as Mary Bulger, wife of Billy Bulger, but the majority of her scenes were cut out.[77]
Release[edit]
On June 30, 2014, Warner Bros. set the film for a September 18, 2015 worldwide release.[78] It was selected to be shown in the "Fuori Concorso" section of the Venice Film Festival. It was also shown at the Telluride Film Festival the next day, and in the Special Presentation section of the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival.[79]
Marketing[edit]
On April 23, 2015, the first trailer for the film was released, followed by a second trailer on May 22.[80][81] A third trailer was released on July 30.[82]
Home media[edit]
Black Mass was released on DVD and Blu-ray on February 16, 2016.
Reception[edit]
Box office[edit]
Black Mass grossed $62.6 million in North America and $37.2 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $99.8 million, against a production budget of $53 million.[7]
In its opening weekend, the film was projected to earn $26–27 million from 3,188 theaters. It grossed $8.8 million on its opening day, including $1.4 million from its early Thursday showings, and in its opening weekend, earned $22.6 million, finishing second at the box office behind fellow newcomer Maze Runner: The Scorch Trials ($30.3 million).[83]
Critical response[edit]
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 74% based on 254 reviews and an average rating of 6.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Black Mass spins a gripping yarn out of its fact-based story – and leaves audiences with one of Johnny Depp's most compelling performances in years."[84] On Metacritic, the film has a rating of 68 out of 100, based on 43 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".[85] Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[83]
Depp's portrayal of Bulger received critical acclaim. Critics from The Hollywood Reporter, Variety, and TheWrap called it one of his best performances to date.[86][87][88] The Hollywood Reporter's Todd McCarthy, in addition to praising the film, called Depp's performance "fully convincing and frightening", saying it is "very welcome at this point in his career and one of his best."[86]
Similarly, Indie Wire's Eric Kohn praised the cast and highlighted Depp's performance and Cooper's directorial efforts to depict "the haunting legacy of Bulger's criminal deeds, and the lingering sense that no justice can erase their impact."[89] Admiring Black Mass as an "elegantly understated crime drama", Variety's Scott Foundas positively compared Depp's performance in the film to his earlier roles with Tim Burton.[87]
TheWrap's Alonso Duralde praised Depp's performance, but was less positive towards the film's pacing and short onscreen appearances of some supporting characters.[88] BBC Culture's Nicolas Barber found some of the subplots to be unnecessary (specifically mentioning Benedict Cumberbatch as Billy Bulger), and argued that "the film is never bad, but, given the gob-smacking true story, it's disappointing that it's not great".[90] In a negative review, CraveOnline's Fred Topel labeled Black Mass as a "black mess". He criticized the screenwriting and argued that the film borrows too heavily from Goodfellas, writing: "...it's clear that the filmmakers wanted to turn this into Goodfellas and tried to shoehorn this story into a similar kind of seductive, funny, shocking gangster tale. ...Several scenes seem to want to be like the 'how am I funny?' scene in Goodfellas, but it's blatant".[91]
Accolades[edit]
Award
Category
Recipient
Result
Indiana Film Journalists Association Awards[92] Best Actor Johnny Depp Nominated
Satellite Awards[93] Best Film Black Mass Nominated
Best Actor – Motion Picture Johnny Depp Nominated
Best Adapted Screenplay Jez Butterworth, Mark Mallouk Nominated
Saturn Awards[94][95] Best Thriller Film Black Mass Nominated
Best Make-Up Joel Harlow, Kenny Niederbaumer Nominated
Screen Actors Guild Award Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Leading Role Johnny Depp Nominated
Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association[96] Best Actor Johnny Depp Nominated
Palm Springs International Film Festival Desert Palm Achievement Award (actor) Johnny Depp Won
Critics' Choice Movie Award Best Actor Johnny Depp Nominated
Best Makeup Nominated
Many people believed Depp deserved an Academy Award nomination for his performance as Bulger and were surprised when his name was left off the list of nominees.[97] Some believe it was because Depp commented that he didn't want to win an Oscar if nominated for one.[98]
Soundtrack[edit]
The soundtrack, written and composed by Tom Holkenborg, was released on September 11, 2015.
Track listing[edit]
"Black Mass Opening Title"
"Boston Crime Lord"
"John Connolly"
"Bulger Burial Ground"
"My Boy"
"Don't Wake Him Up"
"You Got Two Minutes"
"Aspirin"
"No Drugs, No Murder"
"I Will Pull the Plug Myself"
"When You Wake Up In the Morning"
"It's Just the Beginning"
"Martorano"
"Did You Ever See Whitey Bulger Murder Anyone?"
"Thanks to Whitey"
"Jimmy and Marianne"
"You'll Be Sorry"
"Boston Globe"
"Valhalla"
"Strictly Criminal"
"Take Care Kid"
2015 Watertower Music (61:26)
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Jump up ^ "Partial closure of Revere Beach Tuesday for 'Black Mass'". itemlive.com. July 7, 2014. Archived from the original on July 14, 2014. Retrieved July 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Revere Beach transforms into Miami Beach for 'Black Mass'". bostonglobe.com. July 8, 2014. Retrieved July 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ Fee, Gayle (July 11, 2014). "Johnny Depp, Sienna Miller & Co. make waves at Revere Beach". bostonherald.com. Retrieved July 11, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Benedict Cumberbatch Wraps Shooting On 'Black Mass' In Boston". socialitelife.com. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ Christine (July 17, 2014). "'Black Mass', starring Johnny Depp, filming in Lynn, MA on Monday". onlocationvacations.com. Retrieved July 18, 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b Shanahan, Mark; Goldstein, Meredith (July 22, 2014). "Amber Heard visits Johnny Depp in Lynn". bostonglobe.com. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Kevin Bacon on the scene for 'Black Mass'". bostonglobe.com. July 25, 2014. Retrieved July 27, 2014.
Jump up ^ Lehr, Dick (July 31, 2014). "Whitey movie eerie experience for 'Black Mass' coauthor". bostonglobe.com. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Whitey movie eerie experience for 'Black Mass' coauthor". bostonglobe.com. July 31, 2014. Retrieved August 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ [1], eonline.com; accessed September 3, 2015.
Jump up ^ Meredith Goldstein (September 2, 2015). "Director confirms Sienna Miller cut from 'Black Mass'". Boston Globe. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Post, Guest (September 17, 2015). "Actress Erica McDermott on Her Role as Mary Bulger in 'Black Mass'". DailyActor.com. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
Jump up ^ McNary, Dave (June 30, 2014). "Johnny Depp's Whitey Bulger Movie Set for Sept. 18, 2015". Variety. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
Jump up ^ "Toronto to open with 'Demolition'; world premieres for 'Trumbo', 'The Program'". ScreenDaily.com. July 28, 2015. Retrieved July 28, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Black Mass (2015) Trailer". Trailer Addict. September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Black Mass (2015) Feature Trailer". Trailer Addict. September 18, 2015.
Jump up ^ "Black Mass (2015) Theatrical Trailer". Trailer Addict. September 18, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b "'Scorch Trials' Slows & 'Black Mass' Overperforms In The Face Of Fatigued Audiences – Saturday AM Box Office". deadline.com.
Jump up ^ "Black Mass (2015)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved June 4, 2017.
Jump up ^ "Black Mass reviews". Metacritic. Retrieved November 25, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Todd McCarthy (September 4, 2015). "'Black Mass': Venice Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Scott Foundas (September 4, 2015). "Venice Film Review: Johnny Depp in 'Black Mass'". Variety. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
^ Jump up to: a b Alonso Duralde (September 4, 2015). "'Black Mass' Venice Review: Johnny Depp Returns to Actual Acting in Gripping True-Crime Tale". TheWrap. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Eric Kohn (September 7, 2015). "Telluride Review: Johnny Depp is Trying Something Very Different in 'Black Mass'". Indie Wire. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Nicolas Barber (September 4, 2015). "Black Mass: Is Johnny Depp A Hit?". BBC Culture. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ Fred Topel (September 8, 2015). "Telluride 2015 Review: 'Black Mass' Is a Black Mess". CraveOnline. Retrieved September 9, 2015.
Jump up ^ The Indiana Film Journalists Association Begins Nominations Process for 2015 Awards
Jump up ^ "National Board of Review Announces 2015 Winners". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixter. December 1, 2015. Retrieved December 1, 2015.
Jump up ^ "'Star Wars,' 'Mad Max,' 'Walking Dead' Lead Saturn Awards Nominations". Variety. February 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ "Saturn Award nominations on YouTube". Saturn Awards. February 24, 2016.
Jump up ^ D.C. Film Critics Shine a 'Spotlight' on Award Winners
Jump up ^ Lindsay Kimble (January 14, 2016). "Oscar Snubs: Straight Outta Compton, Johnny Depp Left Off 2016 Nominees List". People. Retrieved June 10, 2016.
Jump up ^ Dailymail Reporter (October 13, 2015). "'I don't want to win one of those things ever': Johnny Depp reveals he has no interest in getting an Oscar even though he's being hyped for Black Mass". Daily Mail. Retrieved June 10, 2016.
External links[edit]
Official website
Black Mass on IMDb
Black Mass at Box Office Mojo
Black Mass at Rotten Tomatoes
Black Mass at Metacritic
Interview with Detective Mike Huff about his investigation into Whitey Bulger's involvement in the murder of Tulsan Roger Wheeler (original audio and transcript archived with Voices of Oklahoma oral history project).
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text:
Popcorn
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Popcorn (disambiguation).
Popcorn
Unpopped corn
Popped corn
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Monocots
(unranked): Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Zea
Species: Z. mays
Subspecies: Z. m. everta
Trinomial name
Zea mays everta
Popcorn, or pop corn, is a variety of corn kernel, which forcefully expands and puffs up when heated.
A popcorn kernel's strong hull contains the seed's hard, starchy endosperm with 14-20% moisture, which turns to steam as the kernel is heated. The pressure continues building until it exceeds the hull's ability to contain it. The kernel ruptures and forcefully expands, allowing the contents to expand, cool, and finally set in a popcorn puff 20 to 50 times the size of the original kernel.[1]
Some strains of corn (taxonomized as Zea mays) are cultivated specifically as popping corns. The Zea mays variety everta, a special kind of flint corn, is the most common of these.
The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, and sweet corn.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
2 Popping mechanism
3 Cooking methods
3.1 Expansion and yield
4 Terminology
5 Consumption
5.1 Nutritional value
5.2 Health risks
6 Other uses
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
Corn was first domesticated 9,000 years ago in what is now Mexico.[3] Archaeologists discovered that people have known about popcorn for thousands of years. In Mexico, for example, remnants of popcorn have been found that date to around 3600 BC.[4]
Popping of the kernels was achieved by hand on the stovetop through the 19th century. Kernels were sold on the East Coast of the United States under names such as Pearls or Nonpareil. The term popped corn first appeared in John Russell Bartlett’s 1848 Dictionary of Americanisms.[5][6] Popcorn is an ingredient in Cracker Jack, and in the early years of the product, it was popped by hand.[5]
An early popcorn machine in a street cart, invented in the 1880s by Charles Cretors in Chicago.
Popcorn's accessibility increased rapidly in the 1890s with Charles Cretors' invention of the popcorn maker. Cretors, a Chicago candy store owner, created a number of steam powered machines for roasting nuts, and applied the technology to the corn kernels. By the turn of the century, Cretors had created and deployed street carts equipped with steam powered popcorn makers.[7]
During the Great Depression, popcorn was fairly inexpensive at 5–10 cents a bag and became popular. Thus, while other businesses failed, the popcorn business thrived and became a source of income for many struggling farmers, including the Redenbacher family, namesake of the famous popcorn brand. During World War II, sugar rations diminished candy production, and Americans compensated by eating three times as much popcorn as they had before.[8] The snack was popular at theaters, much to the initial displeasure of many of the theater owners, who thought it distracted from the films. Their minds eventually changed, however, and in 1938 a Midwestern theater owner named Glen W. Dickson installed popcorn machines in the lobbies of his theaters. The venture was a financial success, and the trend soon spread.[5]
gangnaengi, traditional Korean popcorn
In 1970, Orville Redenbacher's namesake brand of popcorn was launched. In 1981, General Mills received the first patent for a microwave popcorn bag, with popcorn consumption seeing a sharp increase by tens of thousands of pounds in the years following.[7]
At least six localities (all in the Midwestern United States) claim to be the "Popcorn Capital of the World;": Ridgway, Illinois; Valparaiso, Indiana; Van Buren, Indiana; Schaller, Iowa; Marion, Ohio; and North Loup, Nebraska. According to the USDA, corn used for popcorn production is specifically planted for this purpose; most is grown in Nebraska and Indiana, with increasing area in Texas.[9][10] As the result of an elementary school project, popcorn became the official state snack food of Illinois.[11]
Popping mechanism[edit]
The sequence of a kernel popping
Each kernel of popcorn contains a certain amount of moisture and oil. Unlike most other grains, the outer hull of the popcorn kernel is both strong and impervious to moisture and the starch inside consists almost entirely of a hard type.[12]
As the oil and the water within the kernel are heated, they turn the moisture in the kernel into pressurized steam. Under these conditions, the starch inside the kernel gelatinizes, softens, and becomes pliable. The internal pressure of the entrapped steam continues to increase until the breaking point of the hull is reached: a pressure of approximately 135 psi (930 kPa)[12] and a temperature of 180 °C (356 °F). The hull thereupon ruptures rapidly and actually explodes, causing a sudden drop in pressure inside the kernel and a corresponding rapid expansion of the steam, which expands the starch and proteins of the endosperm into airy foam. As the foam rapidly cools, the starch and protein polymers set into the familiar crispy puff.[12] Special varieties are grown to give improved popping yield. Though the kernels of some wild types will pop, the cultivated strain is Zea mays everta, which is a special kind of flint corn.
Popcorn on the cob before shelling.
Cooking methods[edit]
An in-home hot-air popcorn maker.
Popcorn can be cooked with butter or oil. Although small quantities can be popped in a stove-top kettle or pot in a home kitchen, commercial sale of freshly popped popcorn employs specially designed popcorn machines, which were invented in Chicago, Illinois, by Charles Cretors in 1885. Cretors successfully introduced his invention at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. At this same world's fair, F.W. Rueckheim introduced a molasses-flavored "Candied Popcorn," the first caramel corn; his brother, Louis Ruekheim, slightly altered the recipe and introduced it as Cracker Jack popcorn in 1896.[13]
Cretors's invention introduced the first patented steam-driven popcorn machine that popped corn in oil. Previously, vendors popped corn by holding a wire basket over an open flame. At best, the result was a hot, dry, unevenly cooked snack. Cretors's machine popped corn in a mixture of one-third clarified butter, two-thirds lard, and salt. This mixture can withstand the 450 °F (232 °C) temperature needed to pop corn and it produces little smoke. A fire under a boiler created steam that drove a small engine; that engine drove the gears, shaft, and agitator that stirred the corn and powered a small automated clown puppet-like figure, "the Toasty Roasty Man," an attention attracting amusement intended to drum up business. A wire connected to the top of the cooking pan allowed the operator to disengage the drive mechanism, lift the cover, and dump popped corn into the storage bin beneath. Exhaust from the steam engine was piped to a hollow pan below the corn storage bin and kept freshly popped corn uniformly warm for the first time. Excess steam was also used to operate a small, shrill whistle to further attract attention.[14]
A very different method of popcorn-making can still be seen on the streets of some Chinese cities and Korea today. The un-popped corn kernels are poured into a large cast-iron canister — sometimes called a 'popcorn hammer' — that is then sealed with a heavy lid and slowly turned over a curbside fire in rotisserie fashion. When a pressure gauge on the canister reaches a certain level, the canister is removed from the fire, a large canvas sack is put over the lid and the seal is released. With a huge boom, all of the popcorn explodes at once and is poured into the sack.[15][16][17] This method is believed to have been developed, during the Song dynasty, originally for puffing rice.
Individual consumers can also buy and use specialized popping appliances that typically generate no more than a gallon or about four liters of popped corn per batch. Some of these appliances also accept a small volume of oil or melted butter to assist thermal transfer from a stationary heating element, but others are "air poppers" which rapidly circulate heated air up through the interior, keeping the un-popped kernels in motion to avoid burning and then blowing the popped kernels out through the chute. The majority of popcorn sold for home consumption is now packaged in a microwave popcorn bag for use in a microwave oven.[18]
Expansion and yield[edit]
Popping results are sensitive to the rate at which the kernels are heated. If heated too quickly, the steam in the outer layers of the kernel can reach high pressures and rupture the hull before the starch in the center of the kernel can fully gelatinize, leading to partially popped kernels with hard centers. Heating too slowly leads to entirely unpopped kernels: the tip of the kernel, where it attached to the cob, is not entirely moisture-proof, and when heated slowly, the steam can leak out of the tip fast enough to keep the pressure from rising sufficiently to break the hull and cause the pop.[19]
Producers and sellers of popcorn consider two major factors in evaluating the quality of popcorn: what percentage of the kernels will pop, and how much each popped kernel expands. Expansion is an important factor to both the consumer and vendor. For the consumer, larger pieces of popcorn tend to be more tender and are associated with higher quality. For the grower, distributor, and vendor, expansion is closely correlated with profit: vendors such as theaters buy popcorn by weight and sell it by volume. For both these reasons, higher-expansion popcorn fetches a higher profit per unit weight.
Popcorn will pop when freshly harvested, but not well: its high moisture content leads to poor expansion and chewy pieces of popcorn. Kernels with a high moisture content are also susceptible to mold when stored. For these reasons, popcorn growers and distributors dry the kernels until they reach the moisture level at which they expand the most. This differs by variety and conditions, but is generally in the range of 14–15% moisture by weight. If the kernels are over-dried, the expansion rate will suffer and the percentage of kernels that pop at all will decline.
When the popcorn has finished popping, sometimes unpopped kernels remain. Known in the popcorn industry as "old maids,"[20] and called "duds"[citation needed] in the consumer market, these kernels fail to pop because they do not have enough moisture to create enough steam for an explosion. Rehydrating prior to popping usually results in eliminating the unpopped kernels. Kernels that are partially popped, but failed to fully expand are known as "bridesmaids".
Popcorn varieties are broadly categorized by the shape of the kernels, the color of the kernels, or the shape of the popped corn. While the kernels may come in a variety of colors, the popped corn is always off-yellow or white as it is only the hull (or pericarp) that is colored. "Rice" type popcorn have a long kernel pointed at both ends; "pearl" type kernels are rounded at the top. Commercial popcorn production has moved mostly to pearl types.[21] Historically, pearl popcorn were usually yellow and rice popcorn usually white. Today both shapes are available in both colors, as well as others including black, red, mauve, purple, and variegated. Mauve and purple popcorn usually has smaller and nutty kernels. Commercial production is dominated by white and yellow.[22]
Terminology[edit]
"Mushroom"-shaped popcorn, left, is less fragile and less tender than "butterfly"-shaped, right.
In the popcorn industry, a popped kernel of corn is known as a "flake." Two shapes of flakes are commercially important. "Butterfly" (or "snowflake")[23] flakes are irregular in shape and have a number of protruding "wings". "Mushroom" flakes are largely ball-shaped, with few wings. Butterfly flakes are regarded as having better mouthfeel, with greater tenderness and less noticeable hulls. Mushroom flakes are less fragile than butterfly flakes and are therefore often used for packaged popcorn or confectionery, such as caramel corn.[22] The kernels from a single cob of popcorn may form both butterfly and mushroom flakes; hybrids that produce 100% butterfly flakes or 100% mushroom flakes exist, the latter developed only as recently as 1998.[22] Growing conditions and popping environment can also affect the butterfly-to-mushroom ratio.
When referring to multiple pieces of popcorn it is acceptable to use the term "popcorn". When referring to a singular piece of popcorn the accepted terminology is kernel.
Consumption[edit]
Popcorn grown in East Africa and sold in the marketplace
Popcorn is commonly eaten in movie theaters. This snack is usually served salted or sweetened. In North America, it is traditionally served salted, often with butter or a butterlike topping, or with toffee or spices. However, sweetened versions, such as caramel corn and kettle corn, are also commonly available. In the United Kingdom, ready-made popcorn is available either salted or simply sweetened with sugar. Toffee (i.e. caramel) popcorn is also available, but tends to be more expensive. In Peru, popcorn is sometimes sweetened with small candy pellets and sweetened condensed milk, but it is more often eaten with salt and the only buttered version known to any considerable degree is microwave popcorn. In Brazil, although salted or buttered popcorn is the most popular and widely available, various other toppings can be found on street vendors: bacon, cheese, caramel, chocolate and condensed milk are among the most common. In Mexico, popcorn is served with either jalapeño juice, hot sauce, cheese, butter, or salt. Popcorn is a popular snack food at sporting events and in cinemas, where it has been served since the 1930s.[24] Popcorn as a breakfast cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s and generally consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener.[25]
Popcorn balls (popped kernels stuck together with a sugary "glue") were hugely popular around the turn of the 20th century, but their popularity has since waned. Popcorn balls are still served in some places as a traditional Halloween treat. Cracker Jack is a popular, commercially produced candy that consists of peanuts mixed in with caramel-covered popcorn. Kettle corn is a variation of normal popcorn, cooked with white sugar and salt, traditionally in a large copper kettle. Once reserved for specialty shops and county fairs, kettle corn has recently become popular, especially in the microwave popcorn market. The popcorn maker is a relatively new home appliance, and its popularity is increasing because it offers the opportunity to add flavours of the consumer's own choice and to choose healthy-eating popcorn styles.
Some popular brands of popcorn in the United States are Boomchickapop, Smartfood, Orville Redenbacher's, Act II, Jiffy Pop (all three of which are brands of the ConAgra Foods conglomerate), Pop Secret, Jolly Time, Newman's Own, and Pop Weaver.
Nutritional value[edit]
Popcorn, air-popped, no additives
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy
1,598 kJ (382 kcal)
Carbohydrates
78 g
Dietary fiber
15 g
Fat
4 g
Protein
12 g
Vitamins
Thiamine (B1)
(17%)
0.2 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
(25%)
0.3 mg
Minerals
Iron
(21%)
2.7 mg
One cup is 8 grams.
Units
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database
Air-popped popcorn is naturally high in dietary fiber and antioxidants,[26][unreliable source?] low in calories and fat, and free of sugar and sodium.[27] This can make it an attractive snack to people with dietary restrictions on the intake of calories, fat or sodium. For the sake of flavor, however, large amounts of fat, sugar, and sodium are often added to prepared popcorn, which can quickly convert it to a very poor choice for those on restricted diets.
One particularly notorious example of this first came to public attention in the mid-1990s, when the Center for Science in the Public Interest produced a report about "Movie Popcorn", which became the subject of a widespread publicity campaign. The movie theaters surveyed used coconut oil to pop the corn, and then topped it with butter or margarine. "A medium-size buttered popcorn", the report said, "contains more fat than a breakfast of bacon and eggs, a Big Mac and fries, and a steak dinner combined."[28] The practice continues today. For example, according to DietFacts.com, a small popcorn from Regal Cinema Group (the largest theater chain in the United States)[29] still contains 29 g of saturated fat.[30] the equivalent of a full day-and-a-half's reference daily intake.[31]
However, in studies conducted by the Motion Picture Association of America it was found that the average American only attends six movies a year and that movie theater popcorn and other movie theater snacks are viewed as a treat that is not intended to be part of a regular diet.[32]
Health risks[edit]
A person eating popcorn out of a bowl.
Popcorn is included on the list of foods that the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends not serving to children under four, because of the risk of choking.[33]
Microwaveable popcorn represents a special case, since it is designed to be cooked along with its various flavoring agents. One of these formerly common artificial-butter flavorants, diacetyl, has been implicated in causing respiratory illnesses in microwave popcorn factory workers, also known as "popcorn lung." Major manufacturers in the United States have stopped using this chemical, including: Orville Redenbacher's, Act II, Pop Secret and Jolly Time.[citation needed][34][35]
Other uses[edit]
Popcorn, threaded onto a string, is used as a wall or Christmas tree decoration in some parts of North America,[36][37] as well as on the Balkan peninsula.[38]
In several Afro-American Religions, popcorn is used ritually, either as offerings for deities or as cleansing "baths" for devotees. This popcorn is usually cooked in Palm Oil.
Some shipping companies have experimented with using popcorn as a biodegradable replacement for expanded polystyrene packing material. However, popcorn has numerous undesirable properties as a packing material, including attractiveness to pests, flammability, and a higher cost and greater density than expanded polystyrene. A more processed form of expanded corn foam has been developed to overcome some of these limitations.[39]
The world's largest popcorn ball[definition needed] was unveiled in August 2013 in Indianapolis, Indiana. It weighed 6,510 pounds (2,950 kg), measured 8 feet (2.4 m) in diameter, and had a circumference of 24.9 ft (7.6 m).[40]
See also[edit]
Food portal
Butter salt
List of dried foods
List of maize dishes
List of popcorn brands
Popcorn maker
Popcorn seasoning
Puffed grain
Wyandot Popcorn Museum
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Michelle Higgins (May 5, 2017). "How Popcorn Pops". Thoughtco.
Jump up ^ Linda Campbell Franklin, "Corn," in Andrew F. Smith (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013 (pp. 551–558), p. 553.
Jump up ^ "The Evolution of Corn". University of Utah HEALTH SCIENCES. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
Jump up ^ "Where Does Popcorn Come From?". King of Pop.com. Retrieved June 27, 2016.
^ Jump up to: a b c "History of Popcorn | The History Kitchen | PBS Food". PBS Food. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Dictionary of Americanisms, by John Russell Bartlett (1848)". www.merrycoz.org. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
^ Jump up to: a b "A History of Popcorn - Hungry History". HISTORY.com. Retrieved 2016-01-21.
Jump up ^ "Encyclopedia Popcornica: Recent Popcorn History".
Jump up ^ "United States Department of Agriculture - 1982 Popcorn Report" (PDF).
Jump up ^ Fereira, John. "ESMIS - View Document Info".
Jump up ^ Office of the Governor: Rod R. Blagojevich — Governor (2003-08-04). "Governor Signs Official Snack Bill: School Project Becomes Law" (Press release). Illinois Government News Network. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
^ Jump up to: a b c Lusas & Rooney, p. 388.
Jump up ^ "Brief History". Frito-Lay. Archived from the original on 2011-02-04.
Jump up ^ "C. Cretors and Company". Wyandot Popcorn Museum. Retrieved 2008-11-21.
Jump up ^ "Making Popcorn the Chinese Way (With a Bang!)". fissionchips. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Popcorn Hammer". Naturloch.de. Retrieved 2009-02-06.
Jump up ^ "Popcorn Village". Oriental Outpost. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
Jump up ^ "An American Original: The Popularity of Microwave Popcorn Just Keeps Growing". AllBusiness. May 1, 2006.
Jump up ^ Lusas & Rooney, pp. 388–389.
Jump up ^ "Popping Tips ("Saving 'Old Maids'" tab)". The Popcorn Board. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
Jump up ^ Hallauer, p. 213.
^ Jump up to: a b c Hallauer, p. 214.
Jump up ^ Cobb, Vicki. Junk Food. Minneapolis: Millbrook, 2006. 11. Print.
Jump up ^ "Why Do We Eat Popcorn at the Movies?". Smithsonian Mag. 2013-10-03.
Jump up ^ Smith, Andrew F. (1999). Popped Culture: The Social History of Popcorn in America. Univ of South Carolina Press. pp. 57-59. ISBN 1570033005
Jump up ^ Vinson, Joe (2012-03-25). "Popcorn: The snack with even higher antioxidants levels than fruits and vegetables". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Jump up ^ Nicole Ferring, M.S., R.D. "Health Food Impostors". MSN.com. Archived from the original on 2008-12-18. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Grimes, William (1994-05-01). "How About Some Popcorn With Your Fat". The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
Jump up ^ "Regal Entertainment: About Us". Regmovies.com. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
Jump up ^ "Regal Cinemas Nutrition Information". Dietfacts.com. 2004-10-06. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
Jump up ^ "FDA Daily Reference Values". Fda.gov. 2010-01-13. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
Jump up ^ https://www.cbsnews.com/news/movie-popcorn-has-shocking-calories-fat/
Jump up ^ "Prevent Your Child From Choking". FDA Consumer Magazine Sep–Oct 2005 issue. URL retrieved Jan 6 2007.
Jump up ^ Geis, Sonya. "Flavoring Suspected in Illness: Calif. Considers Banning Chemical Used in Microwave Popcorn." The Washington Post, 7 May 2007
Jump up ^ Eyre, Charlotte. "Popcorn brands ban diacytel." Food Navigator USA, 6 September 2007
Jump up ^ "Popcorn Christmas Decorations". Martha Stewart Living. December 2007. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
Jump up ^ "How to String Popcorn on a Christmas Tree". Wikihow. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
Jump up ^ "Pop Corn: Let's Pop". Cornknowledge.net. Retrieved 2008-12-18.
Jump up ^ "Real Popcorn as Packing Material". Abbey Newsletter. April 1992.
Jump up ^ https://brownfieldagnews.com/news/101428/. Missing or empty |title= (help)
Further reading[edit]
Hallauer, Arnel R. (2001). Specialty Corns. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-2377-0.
Lusas, Edmund W.; Rooney, Lloyd W. (2001). Snack Foods Processing. CRC Press. ISBN 1-56676-932-9.
Smith, Andrew F. (1999). Popped Culture: The Social History of Popcorn in America. University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1-57003-300-5.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Popcorn.
The Popcorn Board
Wyandot Popcorn Museum
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ΔF508
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
ΔF508 (Delta-F508, full name CFTRΔF508 or F508del-CFTR; rs113993960) is a specific mutation within the gene for a protein called the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). The mutation is a deletion of three nucleotides spanning positions 507 and 508 of the CFTR gene on chromosome 7, which ultimately results in the loss of a single codon for the amino acid phenylalanine (F). A person with the CFTRΔF508 mutation will produce an abnormal CFTR protein that lacks this phenylalanine residue and which cannot fold properly. This protein does not escape the endoplasmic reticulum for further processing. Having two copies of this mutation (one inherited from each parent) is by far the most common cause of cystic fibrosis (CF), responsible for nearly two-thirds of cases worldwide.[1]
Contents
[hide]
1 Mechanism
2 Effects
3 Prevalence
3.1 Heterozygous
3.2 Homozygous
3.3 Heterozygous carriers with other mutations
4 See also
5 References
6 External links
Mechanism[edit]
The CFTR gene is located on the long arm of chromosome 7, at position q31.2, and ultimately codes for a sequence of 1,480 amino acids. Normally, the three DNA base pairs A-T-C (paired with T-A-G on the opposite strand) at the gene's 507th position form the template for the mRNA codon A-U-C for isoleucine, while the three DNA base pairs T-T-T (paired with A-A-A) at the adjacent 508th position form the template for the codon U-U-U for phenylalanine.[2] The ΔF508 mutation is a deletion of the C-G pair from position 507 along with the first two T-A pairs from position 508, leaving the DNA sequence A-T-T (paired with T-A-A) at position 507, which is transcribed into the mRNA codon A-U-U. Since A-U-U also codes for isoleucine, position 507's amino acid does not change, and the mutation's net effect is equivalent to a deletion ("Δ") of the sequence resulting in the codon for phenylalanine at position 508.[3]
Effects[edit]
ΔF508 is a class II CFTR mutation.[4] The CFTR protein is largely expressed in cells of the pancreas, intestinal and respiratory epithelia, and all exocrine glands. When properly folded, it is shuttled to the cell membrane, where it becomes a transmembrane protein responsible for opening channels which release chloride ions out of cells; it also simultaneously inhibits the uptake of sodium ions by another channel protein. Both of these functions help to maintain an ion gradient that causes osmosis to draw water out of the cells.[5] The ΔF508 mutation leads to the misfolding of CFTR and its eventual degradation in the ER. In organisms with two complements of the mutation, the protein is entirely absent from the cell membrane, and these critical ion transport functions are not performed.[6]
Prevalence[edit]
ΔF508 is present on at least one copy of chromosome 7 in approximately one in 30 Caucasians. Presence of the mutation on both copies causes the autosomal recessive disease cystic fibrosis. Scientists have estimated that the original mutation occurred over 52,000 years ago in Northern Europe. The young allele age may be a consequence of past selection. One hypothesis as to why the otherwise detrimental mutation has been maintained by natural selection is that a single copy may present a positive effect by reducing water loss during cholera, though the introduction of pathogenic Vibrio cholerae into Europe did not occur until the late 18th century.[7] Another theory posits that CF carriers (heterozygotes for ΔF508) are more resistant to typhoid fever, since CFTR has been shown to act as a receptor for Salmonella typhi bacteria to enter intestinal epithelial cells.[8]
Heterozygous[edit]
Being a heterozygous carrier (having a single copy of ΔF508) results in decreased water loss during diarrhea because malfunctioning or absent CFTR proteins cannot maintain stable ion gradients across cell membranes. Typically there is a build-up of both Cl− and Na+ ions inside affected cells, creating a hypotonic solution outside the cells and causing water to diffuse into the cells by osmosis.
Several studies indicate that heterozygous carriers are at increased risk for various symptoms. For example:
It has been shown that heterozygosity for cystic fibrosis is associated with increased airway reactivity, and heterozygotes may be at risk for poor pulmonary function. Heterozygotes with wheeze have been shown to be at higher risk for poor pulmonary function or development and progression of chronic obstructive lung disease. One gene for cystic fibrosis is sufficient to produce mild lung abnormalities even in the absence of infection.[9]
Cystic fibrosis ΔF508 heterozygotes may be overrepresented among individuals with asthma and may have poorer lung function than non-carriers.[10][11]
Carriers of a single CF mutation have a higher prevalence of chronic rhinosinusitis than the general population.[12] Because this study examined a general population of CF carriers, some subjects did not possess the ΔF508 variant.
Homozygous[edit]
Having a homozygous pair of genes with the ΔF508 mutation prevents the CFTR protein from assuming its normal position in the cell membrane. This causes increased water retention in cells, corresponding dehydration of the extracellular space, and an associated cascade of effects on various parts of the body, including:
Thicker mucous membranes in the epithelia of afflicted organs
Obstruction of narrow respiratory airways as a result of thicker mucous and inhibition of the free movement of mucocilia
Congenital Bilateral Absence of the Vas Deferens (CBAVD) due to increased mucus thickness during fetal development
Pancreatic insufficiency due to blockage of the pancreatic duct with mucus
Increased risk of respiratory infection due to build-up of thick, nutrient-rich mucus where bacteria thrive
This collection of symptoms is called cystic fibrosis; however, ΔF508 is not the only mutation that causes CF.
Heterozygous carriers with other mutations[edit]
Approximately 70% of cystic fibrosis cases in Europe are due to homozygous ΔF508 mutations (this varies widely by region). The remaining cases are caused by over 1500 other mutations, including R117H, 1717-1G>A, and 2789+56G>A. These mutations, when combined with each other or even a single copy of ΔF508, may cause CF symptoms. The genotype is not strongly correlated with severity of the CF, though specific symptoms have been linked to certain mutations.
See also[edit]
Heterozygote advantage
Lumacaftor/ivacaftor
References[edit]
Jump up ^ Bobadilla, JL; Macek Jr, M; Fine, JP; Farrell, PM (2002). "Cystic fibrosis: a worldwide analysis of CFTR mutations--correlation with incidence data and application to screening". Human Mutation. 19 (6): 575–606. doi:10.1002/humu.10041. PMID 12007216.
Jump up ^ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/CCDS/CcdsBrowse.cgi?REQUEST=CCDS&DATA=CCDS5773.1
Jump up ^ Bartoszewski, R.A.; Jablonsky, M.; Bartoszewska, S.; Stevenson, L.; Dai, Q.; Kappes, J.; Collawn, J.F.; Bebok, Z. (13 July 2010). "A synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism in ΔF508 CFTR alters the secondary structure of the mRNA and the expression of the mutant protein". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 285: 28741–28748. doi:10.1074/jbc.M110.154575. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
Jump up ^ M Nissim-Rafinia, B Kerem, E Kerem, [ed. by] Margaret Hodson (2007). "Molecular biology of cystic fibrosis: CFTR processing and functions, and classes of mutations". Cystic fibrosis (3rd ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. pp. 54–55. ISBN 9780340907580. CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
Jump up ^ Verkman, A.S.; Song, Y.; Thiagarajah, J.R. (2003). "Role of airway surface liquid and submucosal glands in cystic fibrosis lung disease". American Journal of Physiology. Cell Physiology. 284 (1): C2–C15. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00417.2002.
Jump up ^ "Cystic Fibrosis Research Directions". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK).
Jump up ^ http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2000-04/955464305.Me.r.html
Jump up ^ Pier, G.B.; Grout, M.; Zaidi, T.; Meluleni, G.; Mueschenborn, S.S.; Banting, G.; Ratcliff, R.; Evans, M.J.; Colledge, W.H. (7 May 1998). "Salmonella typhi uses CFTR to enter intestinal epithelial cells". Nature. 393: 79–82. doi:10.1038/30006. PMID 9590693. Retrieved 1 October 2016.
Jump up ^ Maurya, Nutan; Awasthi, Shally; Dixit, Pratibha (April 2012). "Association of CFTR gene mutation with bronchial asthma" (PDF). Indian J Med: 469–478. Retrieved February 4, 2015.
Jump up ^ Dahl, Morten; Nordestgaard, Børge G.; Lange, Peter; Tybjaerg-Hansen, Anne (January 8, 2001). "Fifteen-year follow-up of pulmonary function in individuals heterozygous for the cystic fibrosis phenylalanine-508 deletion". ALLERGY CLIN IMMUNOL. 107: 818–823. doi:10.1067/mai.2001.114117. PMID 11344348.
Jump up ^ Dahl, M; Tybjaerg-Hansen, A; Lange, P; Nordestgaard, BG (June 27, 1998). "DeltaF508 heterozygosity in cystic fibrosis and susceptibility to asthma". Lancet. 351: 1911–3. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)11419-2. PMID 9654257.
Jump up ^ Wang, XinJing; Kim, Jean; McWilliams, Rita; Cutting, Garry R. (March 2005). "Increased prevalence of chronic rhinosinusitis in carriers of a cystic fibrosis mutation". Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 131: 237–40. doi:10.1001/archotol.131.3.237. PMID 15781764.
External links[edit]
Types of Cystic Fibrosis at wrongdiagnosis.com
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