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Factory
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This article is about places of manufacture. For other uses, see Factory (disambiguation).
Volkswagen factory in Wolfsburg, Germany
A factory or manufacturing plant is an industrial site, usually consisting of buildings and machinery, or more commonly a complex having several buildings, where workers manufacture goods or operate machines processing one product into another.
Factories arose with the introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution when the capital and space requirements became too great for cottage industry or workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules, and fewer than a dozen workers have been called "glorified workshops".[1]
Most modern factories have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail, highway and water loading and unloading facilities.
Factories may either make discrete products or some type of material continuously produced such as chemicals, pulp and paper, or refined oil products. Factories manufacturing chemicals are often called plants and may have most of their equipment – tanks, pressure vessels, chemical reactors, pumps and piping – outdoors and operated from control rooms. Oil refineries have most of their equipment outdoors.
Discrete products may be final consumer goods, or parts and sub-assemblies which are made into final products elsewhere. Factories may be supplied parts from elsewhere or make them from raw materials. Continuous production industries typically use heat or electricity to transform streams of raw materials into finished products.
The term mill originally referred to the milling of grain, which usually used natural resources such as water or wind power until those were displaced by steam power in the 19th century. Because many processes like spinning and weaving, iron rolling, and paper manufacturing were originally powered by water, the term survives as in steel mill, paper mill, etc.
Reconstructed historical factory in Žilina (Slovakia) for production of safety matches. Originally built in 1915 for the business firm Wittenberg and son.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Industrial Revolution
1.2 Assembly line
2 Historically significant factories
3 Siting the factory
4 Governing the factory
5 Shadow factories
5.1 British shadow factories
6 Gallery
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
History[edit]
Entrance to the Venetian Arsenal by Canaletto, 1732.
Interior of the Lyme Regis watermill, UK (14th century).
Max Weber considered production during ancient times as never warranting classification as factories, with methods of production and the contemporary economic situation incomparable to modern or even pre-modern developments of industry. In ancient times, the earliest production limited to the household, developed into a separate endeavour independent to the place of inhabitation with production at that time only beginning to be characteristic of industry, termed as "unfree shop industry", a situation caused especially under the reign of the Egyptian pharaoh, with slave employment and no differentiation of skills within the slave group comparable to modern definitions as division of labour.[2][3][4]
According to translations of Demosthenes and Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in the entirety of ancient Egypt.[5][6][7] A source of 1983 (Hopkins), states the largest factory production in ancient times was of 120 slaves within 4th century BC Athens.[8] An article within the New York Times article dated 13 October 2011 states:
"In African Cave, Signs of an Ancient Paint Factory" – (John Noble Wilford)
... discovered at Blombos Cave, a cave on the south coast of South Africa where 100,000-year-old tools and ingredients were found with which early modern humans mixed an ochre-based paint.[9]
Although The Cambridge Online Dictionary definition of factory states:
a building or set of buildings where large amounts of goods are made using machines[10]
elsewhere:
... the utilization of machines presupposes social cooperation and the division of labour
—  von Mises[11]
The first machine is stated by one source to have been traps used to assist with the capturing of animals, corresponding to the machine as a mechanism operating independently or with very little force by interaction from a human, with a capacity for use repeatedly with operation exactly the same on every occasion of functioning.[12] The wheel was invented c. 3000 BC, the spoked wheel c. 2000 BC. The Iron Age began approximately 1200–1000 BC.[13][14] However, other sources define machinery as a means of production.[15]
Archaeology provides a date for the earliest city as 5000 BC as Tell Brak (Ur et al. 2006), therefore a date for cooperation and factors of demand, by an increased community size and population to make something like factory level production a conceivable necessity.[16][17][18]
According to one text the water-mill was first made in 555 A.D. by Belisarius,[19] although according to another they were known to Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius in the first century B.C. By the time of the 4th century A.D. mills with a capacity to grind 3 tonnes of cereal an hour, a rate sufficient to meet the needs of 80,000 persons, were in use by the Roman Empire.[20][21][22]
The Venice Arsenal provides one of the first examples of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded in 1104 in Venice, Republic of Venice, several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, it mass-produced ships on assembly lines using manufactured parts. The Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people.[verification needed][23]
Industrial Revolution[edit]
Main article: Factory system
See also: Industrial Revolution
Cromford mill as it is today.
One of the earliest factories was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staffordshire and Matthew Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.
The factory system began widespread use somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized.
Richard Arkwright is the person credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill, in Derbyshire, England, significantly expanding the village of Cromford to accommodate the migrant workers new to the area. The factory system was a new way of organizing labour made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a worker's cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, that is, from dawn to dusk, six days per week. Overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities. Arkwright's factory was the first successful cotton spinning factory in the world; it showed unequivocally the way ahead for industry and was widely copied.
Between 1820 and 1850 mechanized factories supplanted traditional artisan shops as the predominant form of manufacturing institution, because the larger-scale factories enjoyed a significant technological advantage over the small artisan shops. The earliest factories (using the factory system) developed in the cotton and wool textiles industry. Later generations of factories included mechanized shoe production and manufacturing of machinery, including machine tools. Factories that supplied the railroad industry included rolling mills, foundries and locomotive works. Agricultural-equipment factories produced cast-steel plows and reapers. Bicycles were mass-produced beginning in the 1880s.
The Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company's Bridgewater Foundry, which began operation in 1836, was one of the earliest factories to use modern materials handling such as cranes and rail tracks through the buildings for handling heavy items.[24]
Large scale electrification of factories began around 1900 after the development of the AC motor which was able to run at constant speed depending on the number of poles and the current electrical frequency.[25] At first larger motors were added to line shafts, but as soon as small horsepower motors became widely available, factories switched to unit drive. Eliminating line shafts freed factories of layout constraints and allowed factory layout to be more efficient. Electrification enabled sequential automation using relay logic.
Assembly line[edit]
Main article: Assembly line
Factory Automation with industrial robots for palletizing food products like bread and toast at a bakery in Germany.
Henry Ford further revolutionized the factory concept in the early 20th century, with the innovation of the mass production. Highly specialized laborers situated alongside a series of rolling ramps would build up a product such as (in Ford's case) an automobile. This concept dramatically decreased production costs for virtually all manufactured goods and brought about the age of consumerism.[verification needed]
In the mid- to late 20th century, industrialized countries introduced next-generation factories with two improvements:
Advanced statistical methods of quality control, pioneered by the American mathematician William Edwards Deming, whom his home country initially ignored. Quality control turned Japanese factories into world leaders in cost-effectiveness and production quality.
Industrial robots on the factory floor, introduced in the late 1970s. These computer-controlled welding arms and grippers could perform simple tasks such as attaching a car door quickly and flawlessly 24 hours a day. This too cut costs and improved speed.
Some speculation[citation needed] as to the future of the factory includes scenarios with rapid prototyping, nanotechnology, and orbital zero-gravity facilities.
Historically significant factories[edit]
Highland Park Ford plant, c. 1922
Venetian Arsenal
Cromford Mill
Lombe's Mill
Soho Manufactory
Portsmouth Block Mills
Slater Mill Historic Site
Lowell Mills
Springfield Armory
Harpers Ferry Armory
Nasmyth, Gaskell and Company also called the Bridgewater Foundry
Baldwin Locomotive Works
Highland Park Ford Plant
Ford River Rouge Complex
Hawthorne Works
Siting the factory[edit]
A factory worker in 1940s Fort Worth, Texas, United States.
Before the advent of mass transportation, factories' needs for ever-greater concentrations of laborers meant that they typically grew up in an urban setting or fostered their own urbanization. Industrial slums developed, and reinforced their own development through the interactions between factories, as when one factory's output or waste-product became the raw materials of another factory (preferably nearby). Canals and railways grew as factories spread, each clustering around sources of cheap energy, available materials and/or mass markets. The exception proved the rule: even greenfield factory sites such as Bournville, founded in a rural setting, developed its own housing and profited from convenient communications systems.[verification needed]
Regulation curbed some of the worst excesses of industrialization's factory-based society, a series of Factory Acts leading the way in Britain. Trams, automobiles and town planning encouraged the separate development of industrial suburbs and residential suburbs, with laborers commuting between them.
Though factories dominated the Industrial Era, the growth in the service sector eventually began to dethrone them:[verification needed] the focus of labor in general shifted to central-city office towers or to semi-rural campus-style establishments, and many factories stood deserted in local rust belts.
The next blow to the traditional factories came from globalization. Manufacturing processes (or their logical successors, assembly plants) in the late 20th century re-focussed in many instances on Special Economic Zones in developing countries or on maquiladoras just across the national boundaries of industrialized states. Further re-location to the least industrialized nations appears possible as the benefits of out-sourcing and the lessons of flexible location apply in the future.[verification needed]
Governing the factory[edit]
Much of management theory developed in response to the need to control factory processes.[verification needed] Assumptions on the hierarchies of unskilled, semi-skilled and skilled laborers and their supervisors and managers still linger on; however an example of a more contemporary approach to handle design applicable to manufacturing facilities can be found in Socio-Technical Systems (STS).
Shadow factories[edit]
A shadow factory is a term given to dispersed manufacturing sites in times of war to reduce the risk of disruption due to enemy air-raids and often with the dual purpose of increasing manufacturing capacity. Before World War II Britain had built many shadow factories.
British shadow factories[edit]
Main article: British shadow factories
Production of the Supermarine Spitfire at its parent company's base at Woolston, Southampton was vulnerable to enemy attack as a high-profile target and was well within range of Luftwaffe bombers. Indeed, on 26 September 1940 this facility was completely destroyed by an enemy bombing raid. Supermarine had already established a plant at Castle Bromwich; this action prompted them to further disperse Spitfire production around the country with many premises being requisitioned by the British Government.[26]
Connected to the Spitfire was production of its equally important Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, Rolls-Royce's main aero engine facility was located at Derby, the need for increased output was met by building new factories in Crewe and Glasgow and using a purpose-built factory of Ford of Britain in Trafford Park Manchester.[27]
Gallery[edit]
Zeche Ewald in Herten, exterior (2011)
Zeche Ewald in Herten, interior (2011)
Coldharbour Mill textile factory, built in 1799.
Adolph von Menzel: Moderne Cyklopen
New Lanark mill
Workers in the fuse factory, Woolwich Arsenal late 1800s
The assembly plant of the Bell Aircraft Corporation at Wheatfield, New York, United States, 1944
Interior of the Rouge Tool & Die works, 1944
Hyundai's Assembly line (about 2005)
First stages of Saturn V rockets being manufactured at the NASA Michoud rocket factory in the 1960s
See also[edit]
Business and economics portal
British shadow factories
Company Town
Factory farm
Factory system
Industrial robot
Industrial railway
Industrial Revolution
List of production topics
Lockout
Manufacturing
Plant layout study
Software factory
Notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Landes, David. S. (1969). The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-09418-6.
Jump up ^ John R. Love – Antiquity and Capitalism: Max Weber and the Sociological Foundations of Roman Civilization Routledge, 25 April 1991 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0415047501
Jump up ^ (secondary) JG Douglas, N Douglas – Ancient Households of the Americas: Conceptualizing What Households Do O'Reilly Media, Inc., 15 April 2012 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 1457117444
Jump up ^ M Weber – General Economic History Transaction Publishers, 1981 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0878556907
Jump up ^ Demosthenes, Robert Whiston – Demosthenes, Volume 2 Whittaker and Company, 1868 Retrieved 12 July 2012
Jump up ^ Herodotus, George Rawlinson – History of Herodotus John Murray 1862 Retrieved 12 July 2012
Jump up ^ (secondary) (E.Hughes ed) Oxford Companion to Philosophy – techne
Jump up ^ (P Garnsey, K Hopkins, C. R. Whittaker) – Trade in the Ancient Economy University of California Press, 1983 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0520048032
Jump up ^ John Noble Wilford (13 October 2011). "In African Cave, Signs of an Ancient Paint Factory". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 October 2011.
Jump up ^ "factory definition, meaning - what is factory in the British English Dictionary & Thesaurus – Cambridge Dictionaries Online". cambridge.org.
Jump up ^ L von Mises - Theory and History Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007 Retrieved 2012-07-12 ISBN 1933550198
Jump up ^ E Bautista Paz, M Ceccarelli, J Echávarri Otero, JL Muñoz Sanz – A Brief Illustrated History of Machines and Mechanisms Springer, 12 May 2010 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 9048125111
Jump up ^ JW Humphrey – Ancient Technology Greenwood Publishing Group, 30 September 2006 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0313327637
Jump up ^ WJ Hamblin – Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History Taylor & Francis, 12 April 2006 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0415255880
Jump up ^ Mantoux, Paul (2000). The Industrial Revolution in Eighteenth Century: An Outline of the Beginnings of the Modern Factory System in England. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0061310799.
Jump up ^ Ur, J et al 2007 – Early Mesopotamian Urbanism : A new view from the North Harvard University Retrieved 12 July 2012
Jump up ^ "Understanding the Role of Production and Craft Specialization in Ancient ... – Kyle Andrew Knabb – Google Books". google.co.uk.
Jump up ^ "Ancient Cities". google.co.uk.
Jump up ^ LAA Hope – The Tablet of Memory: Showing every memorable event in History, from the earliest period to the year 1817 G. Wilkie, 1818 Retrieved 12 July 2012
Jump up ^ TK Derry, (TI Williams ed) – A Short History of Technology: From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900 Courier Dover Publications, 24 March 1993 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0486274721
Jump up ^ A Pacey – Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History MIT Press, 1 July 1991 Retrieved 12 July 2012 ISBN 0262660725
Jump up ^ WM Sumner – Cultural development in the Kur River Basin, Iran: an archaeological analysis of settlement patterns University of Pennsylvania., 1972 [1] Retrieved 12 July 2012
Jump up ^ ALTEKAR, RAHUL V. (1 January 2005). SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT: CONCEPTS AND CASES. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 9788120328594.
Jump up ^ Musson; Robinson (1969). Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. University of Toronto Press. pp. 491–95.
Jump up ^ Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). A History of Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-08198-9.
Jump up ^ Price 1986, p. 115.
Jump up ^ Pugh 2000, pp. 192-198.
References[edit]
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Part 1. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
Thomas, Dublin(1995). "Transforming Women's Work page: New England Lives in the Industrial Revolution 77, 118" Cornell University Press.
Price, Alfred. The Spitfire Story: Second edition. London: Arms and Armour Press Ltd., 1986. ISBN 0-85368-861-3.
Pugh, Peter. The Magic of a Name – The Rolls-Royce Story – The First 40 Years. Cambridge, England. Icon Books Ltd, 2000. ISBN 1-84046-151-9
Thomas, Dublin(1981). "Women at Work: The Transformation of Work and Community in Lowell, Massachusetts, 1826–1860: pp. 86–107" New York: Columbia University Press.
Biggs, Lindy (1996). The rational factory: architecture, technology, and work in America's age of mass production. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5261-9.
Further reading[edit]
Christian, Gallope, D (1987) "Are the classical management functions useful in describing managerial processes?" Academy of Management Review. v 12 n 1, pp. 38–51
Peterson, T (2004) "Ongoing legacy of R.L. Katz: an updated typology of management skills", Management Decision. v 42 n10, pp. 1297–1308
Mintzberg, H (1975) "The manager's job: Folklore and fact", Harvard Business Review, v 53 n 4, July – August, pp. 49–61
Hales, C (1999) "Why do managers do what they do? Reconciling evidence and theory in accounts of managerial processes", British Journal of Management, v 10 n4, pp. 335–50
Mintzberg, H (1994) "Rounding out the Managers job", Sloan Management Review, v 36 n 1 pp. 11–26.
Rodrigues, C (2001) "Fayol's 14 principles then and now: A plan for managing today's organizations effectively", Management Decision, v 39 n10, pp. 880–89
Twomey, D. F. (2006) "Designed emergence as a path to enterprise", Emergence, Complexity & Organization, Vol. 8 Issue 3, pp. 12–23
McDonald, G (2000) Business ethics: practical proposals for organisations Journal of Business Ethics. v 25(2) pp. 169–85
External links[edit]
Look up factory in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Factories.
"Mill". Encyclopædia Britannica. 18 (11th ed.). 1911.
Uhl, Karsten (2 May 2016). "Work Spaces: From the Early–Modern Workshop to the Modern Factory". European History Online. Mainz: Leibniz Institute of European History (IEG).
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text:
Capital punishment in Australia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Capital punishment in Australia has been abolished in all jurisdictions. Queensland abolished the death penalty in 1922. Tasmania did the same in 1968, the federal government abolished the death penalty in 1973, with application also in the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. Victoria did so in 1975, South Australia in 1976, and Western Australia in 1984. New South Wales abolished the death penalty for murder in 1955, and for all crimes in 1985. In 2010, the federal government passed legislation prohibiting the re-establishment of capital punishment by any state or territory.[1] Neither the Commonwealth nor any of the states will extradite or deport a prisoner to another jurisdiction if they will face the death penalty, and police co-operation with other countries which have the death penalty has been questioned.[2][3]
The last execution in Australia took place in 1967, when Ronald Ryan was hanged in Victoria. Between Ryan's execution in 1967 and 1984, several more people were sentenced to death, but had their sentences commuted to life imprisonment. The last death sentence was given in August 1984, when Brenda Hodge was sentenced to death by Western Australia (and subsequently had her sentence commuted to life imprisonment).
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Commonwealth
1.2 New South Wales
1.3 Victoria
1.4 Queensland
1.5 Western Australia
1.6 South Australia
1.7 Tasmania
1.8 Australian Capital Territory
1.9 Northern Territory
2 Public opinion
3 References
4 External links
History[edit]
Death sentences were carried out under Aboriginal customary law, either directly or through sorcery. In some cases the condemned could be denied mortuary rites.[4] The first executions carried out under European law in Australia took place in Western Australia in 1629, when Dutch authorities hanged the mutineers of the Batavia.
Capital punishment had been part of the legal system of Australia since British settlement and during the 19th century, crimes that could carry a death sentence included burglary, sheep stealing, forgery, sexual assaults, murder and manslaughter, and there is one reported case of someone being executed for "being illegally at large". During the 19th century, these crimes saw about 80 people hanged each year throughout Australia.
Before and after federation, each state made its own criminal laws and punishments. For a full list see:
Main article: List of people legally executed in Australia
Commonwealth[edit]
In 1973 the Death Penalty Abolition Act 1973[2] of the Commonwealth abolished the death penalty for federal offences. It provided in Section 3 that the Act applied to any offence against a law of the Commonwealth, the Territories or under an Imperial Act, and in s. 4 that "[a] person is not liable to the punishment of death for any offence".
No executions were carried out under the bridge of the federal government and the passage of the Death Penalty Abolition Act 1973[3] saw the death penalty replaced with life imprisonment as their maximum punishment. Since the Commonwealth effects of utilising this Act no more individuals have been exposed to the death penalty and it is now replaced with life imprisonment.
On 11 March 2010 Federal Parliament passed laws that prevent the death penalty from being reintroduced by any state or territory in Australia.[1]
Neither the Commonwealth nor any of the states will extradite or deport a prisoner to another jurisdiction if they will face the death penalty. A recent case involving this was the case of American Gabe Watson, who was convicted of the manslaughter of his wife in North Queensland, and faced capital murder charges in his home state of Alabama. His deportation was delayed until the government received assurances that he would not be executed if found guilty.
New South Wales[edit]
The last execution in New South Wales was carried out on 24 August 1939, when John Trevor Kelly was hanged at Sydney's Long Bay Correctional Centre for the murder of Marjorie Constance Sommarlad. New South Wales abolished the death penalty for murder in 1955, but retained it as a potential penalty for treason, piracy, and arson in naval dockyards until 1985. New South Wales was the last Australian State to formally abolish the death penalty for all crimes.
Victoria[edit]
Old Melbourne Gaol gallows
Victoria’s first executions occurred in 1842 when two Aboriginal men, Tunnerminnerwait and Maulboyheenner, were hanged outside the site of the Melbourne Gaol for the killing of two whalers in the Westernport district.[5] Ronald Ryan was the last man executed at Pentridge Prison and in Australia. Ryan was hanged on 3 February 1967 after being convicted of the shooting death of a prison officer during a prison escape from Pentridge Prison, Coburg, Victoria in 1965. Ryan was the last of 186 executions.[6]
Victoria was also the state of the last woman executed in Australia. Jean Lee was hanged in 1951. She was accused of being an accomplice in the murder of 73-year-old William ('Pop') Kent. She, along with her accomplices were executed on 19 February 1951. Victoria would not carry out another execution until 16 years later when it became the last state to carry out an execution in 1967 with Ronald Ryan.[7]
Not all those executed were murderers. Albert McNamara was hanged for arson in 1902 and David Bennett, hanged in 1932, was convicted of raping a four-year-old girl.[8] The number includes the triple murderer Edward Leonski, executed by the U.S. Army in 1942.[9]
The beam used to execute the condemned prisoner was removed from Old Melbourne Gaol and installed in D Division at Pentridge Prison by the condemned child rapist David Bennett. It was used for all 10 Pentridge hangings. After Victoria abolished capital punishment in 1975 the beam was removed and put into storage. It was reinstalled at the Old Melbourne Gaol in August 2000.[10]
Queensland[edit]
A total of 94 people were hanged in the Moreton Bay/Queensland region from 1830 until 1913.[11] The last person hanged was Ernest Austin, for the rape and murder of an 11-year-old girl. Only one woman was hanged, Ellen Thompson (1887). She was convicted of murdering her husband with the help of her lover.
In 1922 Queensland became the first part of the British Commonwealth to abolish the death penalty.[12]
Western Australia[edit]
In Western Australia, the first legal executions were under Dutch VOC law on 2 October 1629 on Long Island, Houtman Abrolhos (near Geraldton), when Jeronimus Corneliszoon and six others were hanged as party to the murder of 125 men, women and children.
Following British colonization, between 1833 and 1855 executions by firing squad and hanging were performed at a variety of places, often at the site of the offence. Even with the construction of the new Perth Gaol in 1855 as the main execution site in the state, executions were also carried out at various country locations until 1900. In 1886 the Fremantle Prison was handed over to the colonial government as the colony's major prison; from 1889 43 men (and 1 woman, Martha Rendell) were hanged there.
The first execution under British law was that of Midgegooroo, who on 22 May 1833 was executed by firing squad while bound to the door of the original Perth Gaol. John Gavin, a Parkhurst apprentice, was the first British settler to be executed in Western Australia. In 1844 he was hanged for murder at the Fremantle Round House, at the age of fifteen. Bridget Larkin was the first woman to be executed in Western Australia, for the murder of John Hurford, in 1855.
The last execution was that of Eric Edgar Cooke on 26 October 1964 at Fremantle Prison. Cooke had been convicted on one count of murder, but evidence and his confessions suggested he had committed many more. The last sentence of death in Western Australia (indeed anywhere in Australia) was passed in 1984,[13][14][15] but the female killer (Brenda Hodge)[16] in question had her sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, as was customary by this stage.
Capital punishment was formally removed from the statutes of the state with the passage of the Acts Amendment (Abolition of Capital Punishment) Act 1984.
South Australia[edit]
The Adelaide Gaol was the site of forty-four hangings, from Joseph Stagg on 18 November 1840 to Glen Sabre Valance, murderer and rapist, on 24 November 1964 and three executions also occurred at Mount Gambier Gaol.
Two Ngarrindjeri men were controversially executed by hanging along the Coorong on 22 August 1840, after a drumhead court-martial conducted by Police Commissioner O'Halloran on the orders of Governor George Gawler. The men were found to be guilty of murdering the twenty-five survivors of the shipwreck Maria a few months before.[17]
Elizabeth Woolcock, the only woman ever to have been executed under South Australian law, was hanged on 30 December 1873. Her body was not released to the family and was buried between the inner and outer walls of the prison, identified by a number and the date of the execution.
In 1976, the Criminal Law Consolidation Act was modified so that the death sentence was changed to life imprisonment.
Tasmania[edit]
In the early days of colonial rule Tasmania, then known as Van Diemen's Land, was the site of penal transports. Mary McLauchlan was convicted in 1830 for infanticide; she was sentenced to both death and dissection.[18][19] She was the first woman to be hanged in Tasmania.
The last execution was in 1946, that of serial murderer and rapist Frederick Thompson. The death penalty was abolished in 1968.[20]
Australian Capital Territory[edit]
No executions were carried out in the Australian Capital Territory, where federal legislation abolished capital punishment in 1973.
Northern Territory[edit]
Aborigines who lived in the Northern Territory came under the European law of Australia[citation needed] even though they did not have any contact with the government[citation needed].
There were several outcries over Aborigines receiving mandatory death sentences for murder[citation needed], leading to the passage of the Crimes Ordinance 1934[citation needed] which allowed for discretionary sentences when both the accused and the victim were Aboriginal.
The last execution was a double hanging in 1952, and the death penalty was abolished 1973.[21]
Public opinion[edit]
In Australia capital punishment was banned on a state-by-state basis through the 20th century. Despite the ban, polls have indicated varying support for the reintroduction of the practice. A 2005 Bulletin poll showed that most Australians supported capital punishment. The Australian National University's 2007 Electoral Survey found that 44 per cent of people thought the death penalty should be reintroduced, while only 38 per cent disagreed. In the recent case of the Bali bombers, then prime minister John Howard stated that Australians expected their execution by Indonesia.[22][23]
On occasion the issue of capital punishment is published in the media or is subject to media and public support and scrutiny. Most occasions where capital punishment is brought up in the media, it is regarding current cases of intense media coverage regarding murder, rape and in extreme circumstances such as terrorism. On various occasions, the media and public express support for capital punishment for the most heinous of crimes including mass murder such as in the cases of the Milat Backpacker Murders and the Bryant Port Arthur massacre, in which a total of 42 people were killed stirring strong emotions as to whether or not to reintroduce the death penalty. A similar surge in public support for reintroduction occurred when Lindy Chamberlain was convicted of murdering her baby Azaria in 1982, although it was subsequently shown that she was not guilty. This miscarriage of justice has been used as a powerful example of the risks of the death penalty. However, no person of significant stature or influence has advocated the death penalty for quite some time since the last execution in 1967. The death penalty was completely abolished in Australia with the Crimes Legislation Amendment (Torture Prohibition and Death Penalty Abolition) Bill 2009 passing the Australian Senate without amendments in March 2010.[24]
In 2009 a public opinion survey was conducted by Roy Morgan Research where responders were given the question: "In your opinion, should the penalty for murder be death or imprisonment?" The surveyors conducted the poll for people from 14 and onwards in age with around 687 people completing the survey for publication.[25] The results of the poll are as follows:
Date
Death penalty
%
Imprisonment
%
Undecided
%
December 1947 67 24 9
February 1953 68 24 8
April 1962 53 37 10
November 1975 40 43 17
October 1980 43 40 17
January 1986 43 41 16
July 1986 44 40 16
July 1987 49 37 14
February 1989 52 34 14
February 1990 53 35 12
June 1990 51 35 14
May 1992 46 39 15
May. 1993 54 36 10
August 1995 53 36 11
November 2005 27 66 7
December 2005 25 69 6
August 2009 23 64 13
In 2014 another public opinion survey was conducted by Roy Morgan Research where responders were given the question: “If a person is convicted of a terrorist act in Australia which kills someone should the penalty be death?” The surveyors conducted the poll with a cross-section of 1,307 Australians. The poll showed a small majority of Australians (52.5%) favoured the death penalty for deadly terrorist acts in Australia while 47.5% didn’t. This was a significant increase from 2009 when only 23% of Australians supported the death penalty being imposed for convicted murderers.[26]
References[edit]
Notes
^ Jump up to: a b "Death penalty dead and buried". The Age. Melbourne. 11 March 2010.
Jump up ^ "AFP Governance: AFP National Guideline on international police-to-police assistance in death penalty situations" (PDF). Australian Federal Police. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Finlay, Lorraine (March 2011). "Exporting the Death Penalty? Reconciling International Police Cooperation and the Abolition of the Death Penalty in Australia" (pdf). Sydney Law Review. 33 (1): 95–117. ISSN 0082-0512. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Traditional Aboriginal Law and Punishment Archived 6 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine. – Part V – Aboriginal Customary Law and the Criminal Justice System, Law Reform Commission of Western Australia – Aboriginal Customary Laws Discussion Paper
Jump up ^ "British Justice". Museum Victoria Australia. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
Jump up ^ The Hanging of Ronald Ryan:40 Years Later Archived 28 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.. Cosmos.bcst.yahoo.com (2009-08-27). Retrieved on 2012-09-10.
Jump up ^ Biography – Jean Lee – Australian Dictionary of Biography. Adb.anu.edu.au. Retrieved on 2012-09-10.
Jump up ^ "Prisoner hanged". Sydney Morning Herald. 27 September 1932. p. 10. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ "Leonski executed". Daily Advertiser. Wagga Wagga, NSW. 10 November 1942. p. 1. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Executions in the State of Victoria ned kelly Archived 8 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. kellycountry2000.com.
Jump up ^ 'Queensland Executions' Archived 13 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine., Boggo Road Gaol Historical Society.
Jump up ^ Dawson, Christopher, "A Pit of Shame: The Executed Prisoners of Boggo Road" Archived 13 June 2015 at the Wayback Machine., Inside History, Brisbane, 2005.
Jump up ^ Sentenced at Birth. Emsah.uq.edu.au (2005-08-05). Retrieved on 2012-09-10.
Jump up ^ Australian Online Bookshop – Books for Australians, Australian Books for the World. Bookworm.com.au. Retrieved on 2012-09-10.
Jump up ^ [1] Archived 16 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
Jump up ^ Walk On – Last Person Sentenced to Death – Brenda Hodge. quicksales.com.au
Jump up ^ http://www.abc.net.au/backyard/shipwrecks/sa/mariacreek.htm
Jump up ^ Public Executions. Utas.edu.au. Retrieved on 2012-09-10.
Jump up ^ Trevor McClaughlin (1998). Irish Women in Colonial Australia. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86448-715-2.
Jump up ^ Helen MacDonald (2005). Human remains: Dissection and Its Histories. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11699-1.
Jump up ^ "Two executed". Northern Standard. Darwin, NT. 8 August 1952. p. 1. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Williams, George (2 March 2010). "No death penalty, no shades of grey". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Jump up ^ Australians expect Bali bomber executions, says PM By Sarah Smiles Canberra and Mark Forbes, 13 October 2007, Brisbane Times
Jump up ^ Death penalty dead and buried as Parliament bans it for good. Herald Sun (2010-03-12).
Jump up ^ "Australians say penalty for murder should be Imprisonment (64%) rather than the Death Penalty (23%)", Roy Morgan Research, 27 August 2009. Retrieved 24 April 2017.
Jump up ^ "Small majority of Australians favour the death penalty for deadly terrorist acts in Australia". Roy Morgan. Melbourne, Vic.: Roy Morgan Research Ltd. 19 September 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
Sources
^ Death Penalty Abolition Act 1973
Capital Punishment from the Fremantle Prison site
Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice No. 3: Capital punishment from the Australian Institute of Criminology
Dhakiyarr Wirrpanda – Appeal for Justice
"Capital Punishment" speech by The Ian Callinan, Justice of the High Court of Australia
The History of Correctional Services in South Australia
External links[edit]
"List of Executions in the State of Victoria". Archived from the original on 8 October 2011.
"The Death Penalty (Queensland)". Life & Death in the Sunshine State. Archived from the original on 11 May 2015.
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Rhine–Herne Canal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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View from the Gasometer Oberhausen
The Rhine–Herne Canal (German: Rhein-Herne-Kanal) is a 45.6-kilometre-long (28.3 mi) transportation canal in the Ruhr area of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, with five canal locks. The canal was built over a period of eight years (5 April 1906 - 14 July 1914) and connects the harbour in Duisburg on the Rhine (51°26′59″N 6°46′1″E / 51.44972°N 6.76694°E / 51.44972; 6.76694) with the Dortmund-Ems Canal near Henrichenburg (51°37′1″N 7°19′19″E / 51.61694°N 7.32194°E / 51.61694; 7.32194), following the valley of the Emscher. It was widened in the 1980s. The Rhein-Herne canal ship was designed specifically for this canal; normally of about 1300–1350 ton capacity, it has a maximum draft of 2.50 metres (8.2 ft), a length of approximately 80 metres (260 ft), and maximum beam of 9.50 metres (31.2 ft).
Originally the Rhine-Herne canal ended in Herne, where it met a branch of the Dortmund-Ems-Kanal running from Henrichenburg to Herne, the intersection situated just above the East Herne lock.
After the closure of the last part of the Henrichenburg to Herne canal,[1] the Henrichenburg-Herne section of the Dortmund-Ems was added to the Rhein-Herne Canal.
Contents
[hide]
1 Water system
2 Locks
2.1 Duisburg-Meiderich sluicegate
3 Ports
3.1 Duisburg
3.2 Oberhausen marina
3.3 City port of Essen
3.4 City port of Gelsenkirchen
3.5 Port Grimberg
3.6 Ports Wanne west and Wanne east
3.7 City port of Recklinghausen
3.8 Port of the Frederick the Great mine
3.9 Port of the King Ludwig mine
3.10 Port Victor
3.11 Port Rütgers
3.12 Port Luck
3.13 Port Marmorit
3.14 Waltrop lock park
4 Ecosystem
5 Cities
6 References and notes
Water system[edit]
The distribution of water in the canal is realised through five pump stations. Located at Duisburg-Meiderich, Oberhausen, Gelsenkirchen, Wanne-Eickel and East Herne, they pump water from the Rhine into the canal at each stage. As well as this, water from the Lippe river to the east is brought in through the Datteln-Hamm Canal.
Locks[edit]
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2009)
Duisburg-Meiderich sluicegate[edit]
In 1980 the current sluicegate was completed, including a 24-metre-high (79 ft) under-gate and control platform, which has now become a visible yellow landmark in the Ruhr landscape. The intended harbour of the old lock is today underwater and part of the foundations of the canal walls. This harbour was meant to be a possible spot for the eventual significant reconstruction of the lock, but it was never used for this purpose.
A possible reconstruction of the sluice gate was commissioned in 1914 with the canal opening. Instead of the old sluice of 165 metres (541 ft) in length and 10 metres (33 ft) in breadth a new sluice chamber with a usable length of 190 metres (620 ft) and a breadth of 12 metres (39 ft) were commissioned, so that bigger ships with lighters (barges) as specified in Euro class II can pass through the sluice gates.
Ports[edit]
Duisburg[edit]
Main article: Duisburg § Duisburg Port
The canal begins in Duisburg along with the Schifffahrtskanal; connected to land by three bays of the Kanalhafen, and to the rest of the world via the Rhine.
The Rhine-Herne Canal headquarters is in the Meiderich district of Duisburg, it serves as the water and shipping management canal and its locks from Essen to Herne. From here maintenance and repair work are organised and performed.
Oberhausen marina[edit]
The Oberhausen marina is a yacht port opened in 2004 in close proximity to the CentrO shopping centre. The port has a water depth of 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) and over 13 bridges. Also at the Oberhausen marina are the attractions Sealife Oberhausen and Oberhausen Modellbahn World.
City port of Essen[edit]
The Stadthafen Essen (City port of Essen) is the youngest port on the Rhine–Herne Canal opened in 1934 by the city of Essen, and operated since 1987 by Stadtwerke Essen.
The port consists of a doubled sided canal side quay together with a harbour port at right angles onto the canal, which together form a water area of 63,000 square metres (680,000 sq ft) with associated dock-land of 300,000 square metres (3,200,000 sq ft) The dock handles bulk goods such as solid mineral fuels, petroleum and chemical products, stone, earth and iron and steel as well as recyclable materials, and is an important transhipment point.[2]
City port of Gelsenkirchen[edit]
The port of Gelsenkirchen
The port of the city of Gelsenkirchen (Stadthafen Gelsenkirchen) was opened in July 1914 and is the oldest port on the Rhine–Herne Canal.
The port has two docks branched from the canal situated just east of the lock at Gelsenkirchen and has a water surface of 117,800 square metres (1,268,000 sq ft). The industrial port is ~900 by 60 metres (2,950 by 200 ft) and the trading port ~500 by 75 metres (1,640 by 246 ft).[3] A private railway of length 18.4 kilometres (11.4 mi) is operated which is linked to the tracks of the Deutsche Bahn
Formerly the port dealt mainly with coal and mining products, now the port is a major hub for petroleum products and second-largest inland port for cereals in North Rhine-Westphalia. It is operated by the Gelsenkirchener Logistik-, Hafen- und Servicegesellschaft (Gelsenkirchener logistics, harbour and service company.) a subsidiary of Stadtwerke Gelsenkirchen.[4]
Port Grimberg[edit]
The port at Grimberg
Hafen Grimberg (Port Grimberg) is on the south canal bank in Gelsenkirchen, near the city boundary to Herne. It was named after the nearby Castle Grimberg, of which today only the foundations remain.
Built in 1914 by the Gelsenkirchener Bergwerks AG (GBAG) to provide a link to the GBAG mines of Rheinelbe, Alma and Pluto as well as supplying the ironworks of 'Schalker group' with imported ore. Around the same time, and up to 1929 the industrial railway of Erzbahn was built, serving the Schalker and Bochum group iron and steelworks. Between 1937 and 1968 Grimberg harbour was one of the major ports on the canal. In 1968 steel production at the southern end of the Erzbahn at Bochum ended, in 1982 the Schalker works closed - with this the use of the port for transport of iron ore ended.[5] Such was the emphasis on iron ore that much of the port now stands empty, part of it nowadays is used for the processing of recycled materials for the building industry, as well as a storage facility.
Ports Wanne west and Wanne east[edit]
See also: Wanne-Herner Eisenbahn und Hafen
Like many other the port of Westhafen Wanne[6] (Wanne west harbour) was originally built for the mutual benefit of the mines and canal, with a railway connecting the two. Today the quayside still has coal traffic and associated industries.
The docks of the port at Wanner West were filled in to make room for the Güterverkehrszentrum Emscher - a logistics (road, rail and river) centre working in association with other companies. The Wanne-Herner Eisenbahn und Hafen GmbH (WHE) operates both the remaining canal side docks and the associated railway.
The Osthafen Wanne[6] (Port Wanne east) are also operated by the WHE; the ports and rail link serves a major scrap metal works.
City port of Recklinghausen[edit]
Recklinghausen port (2008) grain terminal
Originally the city of Recklinghausen had no access to the canal; through an exchange of land with the city of Herne the city gained access to the canal.[7]
In recent decades, the port was abandoned. However through the actions of the company 'United Mills' grain shipments were made using a mobile crane. Since late 2007, the port has expanded and a grain loading plant installed: new mills and silos have been installed.
Port of the Frederick the Great mine[edit]
The Hafen der Zeche Friedrich der Große (Frederick the Great mine port) is directly south of the Port of the King Ludwig mine, as of 2009 the port is the site of an industrial estate named the Industriegebeit Friedrich der Große.[8][9] The harbour which is cut parallel to the canal is still extant, but without fixed infrastructure, cranes etc.
Port of the King Ludwig mine[edit]
The Hafen der Zeche König Ludwig served the coal transported from, and deliveries to the former King Ludwig mine.
It is located at kilometer 38 of the canal, just upstream of the Herne Ost lock, on the north bank opposite the Hafen der Zeche Friedrich der Große (Frederick the Great mine port).[8][9]
The 6,900-square-metre (1.7-acre) harbor basin was built from 1897 to 1898 when the section of the canal (the then branch channel of the Dortmund-Ems Canal), was already flooded. In 1912, at the colliery port handled 360,096 tonnes of goods. In 1913 the docks expanded. Because of mining subsidence by 1954 the quaywall had to be increased by 2.50 metres (8.2 ft).
In the 1980s, it was leased to Automobil- und Motorbootsport-Club Castrop-Rauxel e. V (The car and motorboat club of Castrop-Rauxel) and is used from recreational boating, being no longer used by Ruhrkohle AG, and contains many small boats. The former mine railway, which starts at the harbour is now a walking and biking trail.
Port Victor[edit]
Looking east-northeast towards Port Victor on the Rhine-Herne Canal
The Victor Harbor (Hafen Victor) was created to serve the former colliery 'Victor' which finished all operations in 1973. The port is in the city of Castrop-Rauxel in the vicinity of Schloss Bladenhorst (Castle 'Blade Horst'), about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) upstream from the Hafen der Zeche Friedrich der Große also on the south bank. Today the port still handles coal with the help of two gantry cranes.[10]
Port Rütgers[edit]
Looking east towards Port Rütgers
Port Rütgers (Hafen Rütgers ) is the port of Rütgers Chemicals (founded by Julius Rütgers) and is about 500 metres (1,600 ft) upstream of the Port Victor on the east side of the canal after the canal makes a slight bend to the north. The main product dealt with here is pitch obtained from coal tar from the refining of coal. The port has a Pneumatic barrier.
Port Luck[edit]
Port Luck
Port Luck (Hafen Luck) belongs to the construction and building materials company Luck located on the east bank, a little more than 2 kilometres upstream of Rütgers Chemicals.
Port Marmorit[edit]
Port marmorit with its single fixed crane
Port Marmorit (Hafen Marmorit) is the port of cement and lime mortar manufacturer and distributor Marmorit Knauf GmbH located north of a disused canal side channel and just north of the bridge carrying Wartburgstraße (Wartburgstreet).[11] The actual facility consists of little more than a pier.
Waltrop lock park[edit]
Here after 45.6 kilometres (28.3 mi) ends (or begins) the Rhine–Herne Canal, which meets the Dortmund-Ems canal (at the 14.7-kilometre mark) near the old Henrichenburg boat lift (replaced in 1962 by a newer lock, and in 1989 by a new larger lock). The terminal is used as a mooring for pleasure craft. It forms part of the Waltrop lock park.[12]
Ecosystem[edit]
Fish that inhabit the canal include European eel, European carp, zander, carp bream, common roach and common rudd, as well as the less common pike and rainbow trout.
Cities[edit]
Duisburg
Oberhausen
Essen
Bottrop
Gelsenkirchen
Herne
Recklinghausen
Castrop-Rauxel
Waltrop
Datteln
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rhein-Herne-Kanal.
References and notes[edit]
Jump up ^ Route A42 of the Federal Motorways now partly follows the route of the disused canal, ie. the section from the port at the Friedrich der Große coal mine to Bahnhofstraße in Herne.
Jump up ^ Stadthafen Essen route-industriekultur.de
Jump up ^ Hafen Gelsenkirchen hafen-ge.de
Jump up ^ Stadthafen Gelsenkirchen route-industriekultur.de
Jump up ^ Hafen Grimberg und Erzbahn route-industrielkultur.de
^ Jump up to: a b Westhafen Wanne is more clearly on the north bank of the canal, with Osthafen Wanne almost directly opposite on the south bank. Both are just east of the Schleuse Wanne-Eickel (Wanne-Eickel lock)
Jump up ^ In German the port is named Stadthafen Recklinghausen
^ Jump up to: a b Aerial image of Hafen der Zeche König Ludwig, 'Hafen der Zeche Friedrich der Große and Schleuse Herne-Ost multimap.com
^ Jump up to: a b Aerial image of Hafen der Zeche König Ludwig, 'Hafen der Zeche Friedrich der Große and Schleuse Herne-Ost maps.google.co.uk
Jump up ^ Hafen Victor route-industriekultur.de
Jump up ^ Hafen Marmorit is about 1km upstream from Hafen Luck
Jump up ^ Schleusenpark Waltrop Waltrop lock park route-industriekultur.de
Coordinates: 51°31′52″N 7°3′25″E / 51.53111°N 7.05694°E / 51.53111; 7.05694
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhine–Herne_Canal&oldid=778835668"
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